Executive

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Archaea characteristics "Lack peptidoglycan; unique lipid membrane and cell wall, antibiotics don't kill; some have introns and histones; live in extreme environments (extremophiles) (eg. Methanogens, extreme halophiles, extreme thermophiles)

"

"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 11.11.40 AM.png""><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 11.11.59 AM.png""><br>Which one is a phospholipid from Archaea and which one is a phospholipid from Bacteria and Eukarya

" "Top one is from archaea, bottom from bacteria and eukarya; Labels shown in the images below.<br><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 11.30.05 AM.png"">"

What are the four steps for a gram stain?

"1. &nbsp;Stain the bacterium with Crystal Violet<div>2. &nbsp;Add Iodide, which binds the crystal violet and traps it in the cell.</div><div>3. &nbsp;Ethanol is added to disrupt the membrane and wash the crystal violet out. &nbsp;In Gram Positive cells, the thick layer of peptidoglycan will withstand the ethanol and keep the violet in. &nbsp;In Gram Negative cells, the thin layer of peptidoglycan will be washed away, along with the violet color.</div><div>4. &nbsp;The bacterium is counterstained with Safranin (Pink).</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""gram-stain-procedure.png""></div>"

Translational regulation by riboswitch steps

"1. Aptamer region, region 1 and 2 are complementary and bind in hairpin structure<br>2. Signal metabolite binds to this region adn there is a switch where region 2 binds with RBS instead<br>3. This binding blocks translation<br><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-20 at 2.14.36 PM.png"">&nbsp;"

4 ways bacteria are different

"1. No introns&nbsp;<br>2. Transcription in cytoplasm&nbsp;<br>3. Transcription and translation go hand in hand&nbsp;<br>4. mRNA produced is not modified in prokaryotic cells (Eukaryotic cells modify mRNA by RNA splicing, 5' end capping and addition of a polyA tail)"

What are the steps of sporulations (forming Endospores)

"<br><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 6.27.59 PM.png""><br><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 6.28.42 PM.png""><br><br>"

Differences between outer membranes of gram-positive vs gram-negative

"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 1.25.23 PM.png"">"

Central Dogma

"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 10.17.30 PM.png""><br>Genetic information goes in one direction&nbsp;"

Reversible flagella

"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 7.46.32 PM.png"">"

Unidirectional flagella

"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 7.46.48 PM.png"">"

Lactose --&gt; Glucose

"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-20 at 10.54.37 AM.png"">"

Catabolite repression - lactose present, but no glucose

"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-20 at 10.58.23 AM.png"">"

Catabolite repression - Lactose present + glucose present

"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-20 at 10.59.03 AM.png"">"

Pathogenesis steps

"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-20 at 9.38.53 PM.png"">"

DNA polymerase III

"Attaches to synthesize new DNA 5' --&gt; 3'"

Conjugation

"F+ cell attaches sex pilus to F- cell and integrates some of plasmid into the genome&nbsp;<br>Can test if recipient received plasmid by whether it has new antibiotic resistance genes<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-20 at 6.35.02 PM.png"">"

Initiation

"RNA polymerase binds to Pribnow box in the promoter region along with a protein called sigma factor. This is called the holoenzyme&nbsp;<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-20 at 12.01.07 AM.png"">"

Source of carbon = organic

-heterotroph

Source of electrons = inforganic

-litho-

Source of electrons = organic

-organo-

Size range for prokaryotes

0.2 micrometers to greater than 700 micrometers in diameter<br>

Anaerobic Culture Methods

1. Reducing media: contain chemical (thioglycolate or oxyrase) that combine with adn deplete culture of O2<br>2. Anaerboic Jar&nbsp;<br>3. Anaerobic chamber&nbsp;<br>

Spontaneous metation rate

1/10^9<br>

Cytoplasmic membrane proteins

40 percent phospholipid and 60 percent protein; Outer surface can interact with proteins that bind substrates or process large molecules for transport; Inner surface of cytoplasmic membrane interacts with proteins involved in energy-yielding reactions and other important cellular functions&nbsp;

How many phyla of bacteria are there and how many are pathogens

41 phyla of bacteria; 4 are pathogenic

Steps of binary fission "1. DNA replication<br>2. Binding of DnaA to oriC initiates replication

<br>3. Blocking of oriC regions by SeqA; cell elongation<br>4. Segregation of chromosomes&nbsp;<br>5. Z-ring formation<br>6. Cell division&nbsp;<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 11.56.08 PM.png"">"

Branch "Defines the relation ship betwee the taxa in terms of descent and ancestor. The length of the branch is proportional to the number or amount of changes

<br><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-21 at 11.18.59 AM.png"">"

root "Ancestral node that gave rise to all organisms on the tree

<br><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-21 at 11.18.59 AM.png"">"

Gliding motility: Slime jet Define S and A motility S motility requires cells/cell attachment and group movement

<br>A motility is individual movement

"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-18 at 11.35.44 PM.png""><br>Identify A, B, C, D, E, and I (shape and bacteria)" A. Rod, Escherichia coli

<br>B. Sphere, Staphylococcus aureus<br>C. Ovococcoid, Streptococcus pneumoniae<br>D. Spiral, Campylobacter jejuni<br>E. Crescent, Vibrio cholerae<br>I. Stalked and crescent, Caulobacter crescentus

Advantages to small size Small cells have more surface area relative to cell volume than large cells (larger S/V) ;

<br>Support greater nutrient exchange per unit cell volume;&nbsp;<br>Ted to grow faster than larger cells&nbsp;

"Label pointed regions:

<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 1.05.17 AM.png"">" "<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 1.05.46 AM.png"">"

Transduction "Passed on by bacteriophage

<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-20 at 6.59.15 PM.png"">"

Vertical gene transfer

A parent cell divides through binary fission to make 2 daughter cells&nbsp;

Selective media

Aniline dyes in in media inhibit growth ??&nbsp;

What are the three domains?

Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya&nbsp;

Revertant

Bacterial strain that returns to original phenotype

Catabolism

Biochemical processes involved in the breakdown of organic/inorganic compounds, leading to the production of energy

How do catalytic proteins that speed up the rate of biochemical reactions

By lowering the activation energy

Transport proteins

Can move substance against their concentration gradient and concentrate them inside the cell; highly specific

2 types of metabolic reactions

Catabolic and anabolic&nbsp;

How do transposons work?

Cause mutations, increase/decrease amount of DNA in the genome; in bacteria, they carry another gene (Ab resistance) and can jump from plasmid to chromosome and back

Magnetotactic

Cell aligns itself along geomagnetic field lines

Missense mutation

Change in amino acid&nbsp;

Nonsense mutation

Change in base that results in stop codon&nbsp;

Group translocation

Chemical modification of the transported substance drives import against a gradient

Metabolism

Chemical reactions that occur within the cell to support basic life processes&nbsp;

Common prokaryotic shapes

Coccus, rod, spirillum spirochete, filamentous bacteria; budding and appendaged bacteria&nbsp;

The President usually experience a reduction in political power: The president is in the final two years of his or her second term and different parties control

Congress and the White House

Two key archaea phyla

Crenarchaeota and euryarchaeota

Ames Test for chemcial mutagens

Cultures of histidine dependent Salmonella taken and added to media lacking histidine. If the bacteria grows it means the mutagen caused many mutations some of which caused certain colonies of bacteria to revert.

Negative (indirect) selection

Detects mutant cells because they do not grow; eg. Replica plating

Positive (direct) selection

Detects mutant cells because they grow or appear different; Eg. ames test

Bacteria characteristics

Diverse metabolism; peptidoglycan cells walls; no introns, sensitive to antibiotics

All of the following are true about the relationship between regulatory agencies and the industries they regulate: Agency employees are often recruited from the regulated industry, Agencies often rely on support from regulated industries in making budget requests before Congress, An agency's relationship with a regulated industry may change when a a new president takes office, Agency employees often are employed by the regulated industry once they leave the agency

EXCEPT Agencies usually make decisions without consulting the regulated industry

Commissioning officers in the armed forces, addressing the Congress on the state of the union, receiving ambassadors, and granting pardons for federal offenses are powers granted to the President by the Constitution

EXCEPT forming new cabinet-level departments

Since 1960 the presidential election process has been affected by an increase in all of the following: proportion of independents in the electorate, influence of political consultants, number of primaries , and role of television

EXCEPT turnout of voters

Benefit of selective permeable barrier for cytoplasmic membrane

Enables concentration of specific metabolites and excretion of waste products;

R (resistance) factors

Encode antibiotic&nbsp;

Virulence factors

Encodes genes that increase pathogenic features&nbsp;

F (fertility) factor

Encodes sex pilus for conjugation

ADH catalyzes the conversion of

Ethanol to acetaldehyde (in liver)

Constitutive genes

Expressed a fixed rate

Plasmid

Extrachromosomal self-replicating piece of DNA that carries genes for a variety of functions but is not essential for cell growth

Polar flagellation

Flagella are located on the ends of the cell&nbsp;

Peritrichous flagellation

Flagella arise all over the body

Inducible genes

Genes get turned on/activated when conditions change; eg. E. coli prefers glucose but in glucose-free conditions it can metabolize lactose but first needs to make genes that can metabolize lactose

Genome

Genetic information in a cell

Stringent response

Global regulatory mechanism bacteria use to survive nutrient deprivation or stress

Crenarchaeota

Hyperthermophiles that tend to live in anoxic environments and utilize H2 as a key energy source. The marine group lives in cold oxygenated water.

The President's veto power is accurately described by which of the following statements? I. A President sometimes threatens to veto a bill that is under discussion in order to influence congressional decision-making II. A President typically vetoes about a third of the bills passed through Congress III.. Congress is usually unable to override a President's veto

I and III only

Redox reactions

Involve transfer or electrons from one reactant to another&nbsp;

2 Lifecycles of phage

Lytic and lysogenic cycles&nbsp;

Differential

Metabolizing liquifies dye and causes a color change in the colony

Obligate anaerobes

Must live in an O2 free environment&nbsp;

Clastogens

Mutagens that cause translocations, deletions/additions, inversions; leads to genomic instability; eg. acridine yellow, benzene, arsenic, ethylene oxide

Crispr/cas9 is used for

Mutating viral DNA deposited into the bacterial cell using guide RNA and Cas9 enzyme; can locate DNA of interest and direct mutations using Cas9

To be commander in chief of the armed forces, to negotiate treaties with foreign nations, to be chief executive, to Present the State of Union address

NOT to lead the political party of the President are presidential role authorized by the Constitution

Silent mutation

No amino acid change -- change still codes for the same amino acid&nbsp;

Toxic Oxygen Peroxide anion

O2 2-

Toxic oxygen hydroxyl radical

OH

Where are Nitrogen and Carbon usually obtained from

Organic compounds (ie. food sources)&nbsp;

Growth factors

Organic compounds required in small amounts by certain organisms (eg. vitamins, amino acids, purines, pyrimidines)&nbsp;

Extremophiles

Organisms that inhabit extreme environments

Cytoplasmic membrane function

Permeability barrier, protein anchor, energy conservation

Prophage

Phage (viral) genome inserted into the circular bacterial DNA chromosome or exisiting as an extrachromosomal plasmid&nbsp;

What is cytoplasmic membrane constructed of

Phospholipids and proteins that form a bilayer with hydrophilic exterior and a hydrophobic interior&nbsp;

Peptidoglycan

Polymer consisting of amino acids and sugars&nbsp;

Translesional synthesis

Polymerases insert a base if there is a lesion or lack of nucleotide<br>

American foreign policy is directed primarily by the

President

Both the War Powers Act of 1974 and the Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 represent efforts by Congress to limit the powers of the

President

The amount of access cabinet secretaries have to the president is most likely to be controlled by the

President's chief of staff

Prions

Proteinaceous infectious particles; misfolding of a protein called PrP creates plaques in brain tissue&nbsp;

Presence of Trp leads to

Rapid repression of Trp biosynthesis; Decreases the rate of Trp enzyme synthesis; Does not decrease the rate of existing enzymes&nbsp;

Catabolic

Release energy&nbsp;

Obligate intracellular microbes

Require cell culture&nbsp;

Chemotaxis

Response to chemicals

Ligase

Seals nicks between fragments

The request of recent Presidents for the line-item veto is a challenge to which of the following principles?

Separation of powers

Replication of bacterial DNA begins at

Single origin of replication

Fruiting bodies are due to

Starvation response (similar to spores)

Simple diffusion

Substances move down their concentration gradient; rate depends on the concentration of the substance inside and outside the cell

Anabolism

Synthesize molecules

Which of the following procedures results in the removal of the President from office?

The House votes for impeachment, and the Senate conducts a trial and reaches a guilty verdict

Cabinet departments differ from independent regulatory agencies in which of the following ways?

The President can dismiss cabinet officers, but not commissioners of independent regulatory agencies

Which of the following is articulated in the War Powers Resolution?

The President must bring troops home from hostilities within 60 to 90 days unless Congress extends the time

Cytoplasmic membrane properties

Thin structure that surrounds the cell; 6-8 nm thick; vital barrier that separates cytoplasm from environment; Highly selective permeable barrier&nbsp; sets up concentration gradients&nbsp;

Physical Mutagen examples

UV radiation (causes thymine dimers) and ionizing radiation (causes DNA breaks)

Characteristics of prokaryotes

Unicellular; no true nucleus, no membrane bound organelles, circular chromosomes&nbsp;

Autotrophs

Use carbon dioxide as their carbon source; Sometimes referred to as primary producers

16s rRNA Phylogenetics characteristics

Used to calculate phylogenetic diversity; 16s rRNA gene contains variable and conserved regions; computational methods have multiple trees generally created and then use methods like parsimony to find the most correct one&nbsp;&nbsp;

Most commonly required growth factor

Vitamins (most function as coenzymes)&nbsp;

In recent presidential administrations, the principal staff for the President has been made up of members of the

White House Office

Invocation of the War Powers Act of 1973 would be most important in determining the nature of the commitment of United States Marine to

a peace-keeping role in Lebanon.

A fundamental source of power for the federal bureaucracy lies in its

ability to set specific guidelines after receiving a general mandate from Congress

ALDH catalyzes conversion of

acetaldehyde to acetate

The usefulness to the President of having cabinet members as political advisers is undermined by the fact that the loyalties of cabinet members are often divided

between loyalty to the President and loyalty to their own executive departments

A president may persuade recalcitrant members of congress to vote for a particular bill

by making a direct appeal to the public through mass media

Source of energy = chemical

chemo-

The president can deploy troops without seeking the

consent of either the house or the senate

In United States v. Nixon, the Supreme Court rule that there is no

constitutional guaranteed of unqualified executive exchange

A President attempting to influence Congress to pass a legislative program might employ all of the following strategies EXCEPT

denying campaign reelection funds to legislators who oppose the President's policy stand

Anoxygenic photosynthesis

does not produce oxygen&nbsp;

The following accounts for the fact that the power and prestige of the presidency have grown since 1932: America's increased prominence in international affairs, the New Deal, and other programs that have expanded federal responsibility, the President's increased visibility

due to the development

delta G &gt; 0

endergonic; reaction requires energy

Gibbs free energy

energy in a chemical reaction that is available to do useful work

An advantage that bureaucrats in federal government have over the president in the policy making process is that bureaucrats usually

have a continuity of service in the executive branch that the president lacks

Bacteria use ___ to strengthen the cytoplasmic membrane whereas eukaryotes use ___

hopanoids, sterols

6 Kingdoms

in Eukarya&nbsp; Protists, Plants, Fungi, Animals, Chromista, Archezoa

Each vote would count equally in determining which candidate won the election

is the result from the direct election of presidential candidates

Presidents have had the most success in changing the direction of decisions of the federal judiciary by using the appointment process to select judges with

judicial philosophizes similar to those of the President.

Archaea cells walls have/lack peptidoglycan

lack

All of the following have contributed to an increase in presidential power in the post-1945 era EXCEPT

legislation granting the President the power to impound

Euryarchaeota

methanogenic (produce methane) halophiles (love salt) that live in the gut and hyperthermophiles.

In recent years, presidents have come to rely most heavily on the advice

of the White House Staff

Protophyta

plant-like (algae)

The difference between a pardon and a reprieve is a pardon grants a release from legal punishment while a reprieve

postpones it

Office of Management and Budget is responsible for the

preparation of executive spending proposals submitted to Congress

All of the following are formal or informal source of presidential power; presidential access to the media, precedents set during previous administrations, public support, and the Constitution EXCEPT

presidential authority to raise revenue

Cabinet members often do not have a dominant influence on presidential decision-making because

presidential goals often conflict with the institutional goals of individual cabinet level agencies

Nitrogen is essential for

proteins and nucleic acids&nbsp; (RNA and DNA)

Among the executive branch;s checks on the legislative branch is the president's power to call

special sessions of Congress

Line-item veto is used by many

state governors

In which of the following scenarios would a presidential veto most likely be upheld?

the President is in a second term, removed from partisan politics

In general, independent regulatory commissions are created primary for the purpose of regulating certain industries

to protect the public interest

Topoisomerase

untwists DNA

Anabolic

use energy


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