Executive
Archaea characteristics "Lack peptidoglycan; unique lipid membrane and cell wall, antibiotics don't kill; some have introns and histones; live in extreme environments (extremophiles) (eg. Methanogens, extreme halophiles, extreme thermophiles)
"
"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 11.11.40 AM.png""><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 11.11.59 AM.png""><br>Which one is a phospholipid from Archaea and which one is a phospholipid from Bacteria and Eukarya
" "Top one is from archaea, bottom from bacteria and eukarya; Labels shown in the images below.<br><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 11.30.05 AM.png"">"
What are the four steps for a gram stain?
"1. Stain the bacterium with Crystal Violet<div>2. Add Iodide, which binds the crystal violet and traps it in the cell.</div><div>3. Ethanol is added to disrupt the membrane and wash the crystal violet out. In Gram Positive cells, the thick layer of peptidoglycan will withstand the ethanol and keep the violet in. In Gram Negative cells, the thin layer of peptidoglycan will be washed away, along with the violet color.</div><div>4. The bacterium is counterstained with Safranin (Pink).</div><div><br></div><div><img src=""gram-stain-procedure.png""></div>"
Translational regulation by riboswitch steps
"1. Aptamer region, region 1 and 2 are complementary and bind in hairpin structure<br>2. Signal metabolite binds to this region adn there is a switch where region 2 binds with RBS instead<br>3. This binding blocks translation<br><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-20 at 2.14.36 PM.png""> "
4 ways bacteria are different
"1. No introns <br>2. Transcription in cytoplasm <br>3. Transcription and translation go hand in hand <br>4. mRNA produced is not modified in prokaryotic cells (Eukaryotic cells modify mRNA by RNA splicing, 5' end capping and addition of a polyA tail)"
What are the steps of sporulations (forming Endospores)
"<br><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 6.27.59 PM.png""><br><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 6.28.42 PM.png""><br><br>"
Differences between outer membranes of gram-positive vs gram-negative
"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 1.25.23 PM.png"">"
Central Dogma
"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 10.17.30 PM.png""><br>Genetic information goes in one direction "
Reversible flagella
"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 7.46.32 PM.png"">"
Unidirectional flagella
"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 7.46.48 PM.png"">"
Lactose --> Glucose
"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-20 at 10.54.37 AM.png"">"
Catabolite repression - lactose present, but no glucose
"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-20 at 10.58.23 AM.png"">"
Catabolite repression - Lactose present + glucose present
"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-20 at 10.59.03 AM.png"">"
Pathogenesis steps
"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-20 at 9.38.53 PM.png"">"
DNA polymerase III
"Attaches to synthesize new DNA 5' --> 3'"
Conjugation
"F+ cell attaches sex pilus to F- cell and integrates some of plasmid into the genome <br>Can test if recipient received plasmid by whether it has new antibiotic resistance genes<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-20 at 6.35.02 PM.png"">"
Initiation
"RNA polymerase binds to Pribnow box in the promoter region along with a protein called sigma factor. This is called the holoenzyme <img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-20 at 12.01.07 AM.png"">"
Source of carbon = organic
-heterotroph
Source of electrons = inforganic
-litho-
Source of electrons = organic
-organo-
Size range for prokaryotes
0.2 micrometers to greater than 700 micrometers in diameter<br>
Anaerobic Culture Methods
1. Reducing media: contain chemical (thioglycolate or oxyrase) that combine with adn deplete culture of O2<br>2. Anaerboic Jar <br>3. Anaerobic chamber <br>
Spontaneous metation rate
1/10^9<br>
Cytoplasmic membrane proteins
40 percent phospholipid and 60 percent protein; Outer surface can interact with proteins that bind substrates or process large molecules for transport; Inner surface of cytoplasmic membrane interacts with proteins involved in energy-yielding reactions and other important cellular functions
How many phyla of bacteria are there and how many are pathogens
41 phyla of bacteria; 4 are pathogenic
Steps of binary fission "1. DNA replication<br>2. Binding of DnaA to oriC initiates replication
<br>3. Blocking of oriC regions by SeqA; cell elongation<br>4. Segregation of chromosomes <br>5. Z-ring formation<br>6. Cell division <img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 11.56.08 PM.png"">"
Branch "Defines the relation ship betwee the taxa in terms of descent and ancestor. The length of the branch is proportional to the number or amount of changes
<br><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-21 at 11.18.59 AM.png"">"
root "Ancestral node that gave rise to all organisms on the tree
<br><img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-21 at 11.18.59 AM.png"">"
Gliding motility: Slime jet Define S and A motility S motility requires cells/cell attachment and group movement
<br>A motility is individual movement
"<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-18 at 11.35.44 PM.png""><br>Identify A, B, C, D, E, and I (shape and bacteria)" A. Rod, Escherichia coli
<br>B. Sphere, Staphylococcus aureus<br>C. Ovococcoid, Streptococcus pneumoniae<br>D. Spiral, Campylobacter jejuni<br>E. Crescent, Vibrio cholerae<br>I. Stalked and crescent, Caulobacter crescentus
Advantages to small size Small cells have more surface area relative to cell volume than large cells (larger S/V) ;
<br>Support greater nutrient exchange per unit cell volume; <br>Ted to grow faster than larger cells
"Label pointed regions:
<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 1.05.17 AM.png"">" "<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-19 at 1.05.46 AM.png"">"
Transduction "Passed on by bacteriophage
<img src=""Screen Shot 2022-02-20 at 6.59.15 PM.png"">"
Vertical gene transfer
A parent cell divides through binary fission to make 2 daughter cells
Selective media
Aniline dyes in in media inhibit growth ??
What are the three domains?
Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
Revertant
Bacterial strain that returns to original phenotype
Catabolism
Biochemical processes involved in the breakdown of organic/inorganic compounds, leading to the production of energy
How do catalytic proteins that speed up the rate of biochemical reactions
By lowering the activation energy
Transport proteins
Can move substance against their concentration gradient and concentrate them inside the cell; highly specific
2 types of metabolic reactions
Catabolic and anabolic
How do transposons work?
Cause mutations, increase/decrease amount of DNA in the genome; in bacteria, they carry another gene (Ab resistance) and can jump from plasmid to chromosome and back
Magnetotactic
Cell aligns itself along geomagnetic field lines
Missense mutation
Change in amino acid
Nonsense mutation
Change in base that results in stop codon
Group translocation
Chemical modification of the transported substance drives import against a gradient
Metabolism
Chemical reactions that occur within the cell to support basic life processes
Common prokaryotic shapes
Coccus, rod, spirillum spirochete, filamentous bacteria; budding and appendaged bacteria
The President usually experience a reduction in political power: The president is in the final two years of his or her second term and different parties control
Congress and the White House
Two key archaea phyla
Crenarchaeota and euryarchaeota
Ames Test for chemcial mutagens
Cultures of histidine dependent Salmonella taken and added to media lacking histidine. If the bacteria grows it means the mutagen caused many mutations some of which caused certain colonies of bacteria to revert.
Negative (indirect) selection
Detects mutant cells because they do not grow; eg. Replica plating
Positive (direct) selection
Detects mutant cells because they grow or appear different; Eg. ames test
Bacteria characteristics
Diverse metabolism; peptidoglycan cells walls; no introns, sensitive to antibiotics
All of the following are true about the relationship between regulatory agencies and the industries they regulate: Agency employees are often recruited from the regulated industry, Agencies often rely on support from regulated industries in making budget requests before Congress, An agency's relationship with a regulated industry may change when a a new president takes office, Agency employees often are employed by the regulated industry once they leave the agency
EXCEPT Agencies usually make decisions without consulting the regulated industry
Commissioning officers in the armed forces, addressing the Congress on the state of the union, receiving ambassadors, and granting pardons for federal offenses are powers granted to the President by the Constitution
EXCEPT forming new cabinet-level departments
Since 1960 the presidential election process has been affected by an increase in all of the following: proportion of independents in the electorate, influence of political consultants, number of primaries , and role of television
EXCEPT turnout of voters
Benefit of selective permeable barrier for cytoplasmic membrane
Enables concentration of specific metabolites and excretion of waste products;
R (resistance) factors
Encode antibiotic
Virulence factors
Encodes genes that increase pathogenic features
F (fertility) factor
Encodes sex pilus for conjugation
ADH catalyzes the conversion of
Ethanol to acetaldehyde (in liver)
Constitutive genes
Expressed a fixed rate
Plasmid
Extrachromosomal self-replicating piece of DNA that carries genes for a variety of functions but is not essential for cell growth
Polar flagellation
Flagella are located on the ends of the cell
Peritrichous flagellation
Flagella arise all over the body
Inducible genes
Genes get turned on/activated when conditions change; eg. E. coli prefers glucose but in glucose-free conditions it can metabolize lactose but first needs to make genes that can metabolize lactose
Genome
Genetic information in a cell
Stringent response
Global regulatory mechanism bacteria use to survive nutrient deprivation or stress
Crenarchaeota
Hyperthermophiles that tend to live in anoxic environments and utilize H2 as a key energy source. The marine group lives in cold oxygenated water.
The President's veto power is accurately described by which of the following statements? I. A President sometimes threatens to veto a bill that is under discussion in order to influence congressional decision-making II. A President typically vetoes about a third of the bills passed through Congress III.. Congress is usually unable to override a President's veto
I and III only
Redox reactions
Involve transfer or electrons from one reactant to another
2 Lifecycles of phage
Lytic and lysogenic cycles
Differential
Metabolizing liquifies dye and causes a color change in the colony
Obligate anaerobes
Must live in an O2 free environment
Clastogens
Mutagens that cause translocations, deletions/additions, inversions; leads to genomic instability; eg. acridine yellow, benzene, arsenic, ethylene oxide
Crispr/cas9 is used for
Mutating viral DNA deposited into the bacterial cell using guide RNA and Cas9 enzyme; can locate DNA of interest and direct mutations using Cas9
To be commander in chief of the armed forces, to negotiate treaties with foreign nations, to be chief executive, to Present the State of Union address
NOT to lead the political party of the President are presidential role authorized by the Constitution
Silent mutation
No amino acid change -- change still codes for the same amino acid
Toxic Oxygen Peroxide anion
O2 2-
Toxic oxygen hydroxyl radical
OH
Where are Nitrogen and Carbon usually obtained from
Organic compounds (ie. food sources)
Growth factors
Organic compounds required in small amounts by certain organisms (eg. vitamins, amino acids, purines, pyrimidines)
Extremophiles
Organisms that inhabit extreme environments
Cytoplasmic membrane function
Permeability barrier, protein anchor, energy conservation
Prophage
Phage (viral) genome inserted into the circular bacterial DNA chromosome or exisiting as an extrachromosomal plasmid
What is cytoplasmic membrane constructed of
Phospholipids and proteins that form a bilayer with hydrophilic exterior and a hydrophobic interior
Peptidoglycan
Polymer consisting of amino acids and sugars
Translesional synthesis
Polymerases insert a base if there is a lesion or lack of nucleotide<br>
American foreign policy is directed primarily by the
President
Both the War Powers Act of 1974 and the Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 represent efforts by Congress to limit the powers of the
President
The amount of access cabinet secretaries have to the president is most likely to be controlled by the
President's chief of staff
Prions
Proteinaceous infectious particles; misfolding of a protein called PrP creates plaques in brain tissue
Presence of Trp leads to
Rapid repression of Trp biosynthesis; Decreases the rate of Trp enzyme synthesis; Does not decrease the rate of existing enzymes
Catabolic
Release energy
Obligate intracellular microbes
Require cell culture
Chemotaxis
Response to chemicals
Ligase
Seals nicks between fragments
The request of recent Presidents for the line-item veto is a challenge to which of the following principles?
Separation of powers
Replication of bacterial DNA begins at
Single origin of replication
Fruiting bodies are due to
Starvation response (similar to spores)
Simple diffusion
Substances move down their concentration gradient; rate depends on the concentration of the substance inside and outside the cell
Anabolism
Synthesize molecules
Which of the following procedures results in the removal of the President from office?
The House votes for impeachment, and the Senate conducts a trial and reaches a guilty verdict
Cabinet departments differ from independent regulatory agencies in which of the following ways?
The President can dismiss cabinet officers, but not commissioners of independent regulatory agencies
Which of the following is articulated in the War Powers Resolution?
The President must bring troops home from hostilities within 60 to 90 days unless Congress extends the time
Cytoplasmic membrane properties
Thin structure that surrounds the cell; 6-8 nm thick; vital barrier that separates cytoplasm from environment; Highly selective permeable barrier sets up concentration gradients
Physical Mutagen examples
UV radiation (causes thymine dimers) and ionizing radiation (causes DNA breaks)
Characteristics of prokaryotes
Unicellular; no true nucleus, no membrane bound organelles, circular chromosomes
Autotrophs
Use carbon dioxide as their carbon source; Sometimes referred to as primary producers
16s rRNA Phylogenetics characteristics
Used to calculate phylogenetic diversity; 16s rRNA gene contains variable and conserved regions; computational methods have multiple trees generally created and then use methods like parsimony to find the most correct one
Most commonly required growth factor
Vitamins (most function as coenzymes)
In recent presidential administrations, the principal staff for the President has been made up of members of the
White House Office
Invocation of the War Powers Act of 1973 would be most important in determining the nature of the commitment of United States Marine to
a peace-keeping role in Lebanon.
A fundamental source of power for the federal bureaucracy lies in its
ability to set specific guidelines after receiving a general mandate from Congress
ALDH catalyzes conversion of
acetaldehyde to acetate
The usefulness to the President of having cabinet members as political advisers is undermined by the fact that the loyalties of cabinet members are often divided
between loyalty to the President and loyalty to their own executive departments
A president may persuade recalcitrant members of congress to vote for a particular bill
by making a direct appeal to the public through mass media
Source of energy = chemical
chemo-
The president can deploy troops without seeking the
consent of either the house or the senate
In United States v. Nixon, the Supreme Court rule that there is no
constitutional guaranteed of unqualified executive exchange
A President attempting to influence Congress to pass a legislative program might employ all of the following strategies EXCEPT
denying campaign reelection funds to legislators who oppose the President's policy stand
Anoxygenic photosynthesis
does not produce oxygen
The following accounts for the fact that the power and prestige of the presidency have grown since 1932: America's increased prominence in international affairs, the New Deal, and other programs that have expanded federal responsibility, the President's increased visibility
due to the development
delta G > 0
endergonic; reaction requires energy
Gibbs free energy
energy in a chemical reaction that is available to do useful work
An advantage that bureaucrats in federal government have over the president in the policy making process is that bureaucrats usually
have a continuity of service in the executive branch that the president lacks
Bacteria use ___ to strengthen the cytoplasmic membrane whereas eukaryotes use ___
hopanoids, sterols
6 Kingdoms
in Eukarya Protists, Plants, Fungi, Animals, Chromista, Archezoa
Each vote would count equally in determining which candidate won the election
is the result from the direct election of presidential candidates
Presidents have had the most success in changing the direction of decisions of the federal judiciary by using the appointment process to select judges with
judicial philosophizes similar to those of the President.
Archaea cells walls have/lack peptidoglycan
lack
All of the following have contributed to an increase in presidential power in the post-1945 era EXCEPT
legislation granting the President the power to impound
Euryarchaeota
methanogenic (produce methane) halophiles (love salt) that live in the gut and hyperthermophiles.
In recent years, presidents have come to rely most heavily on the advice
of the White House Staff
Protophyta
plant-like (algae)
The difference between a pardon and a reprieve is a pardon grants a release from legal punishment while a reprieve
postpones it
Office of Management and Budget is responsible for the
preparation of executive spending proposals submitted to Congress
All of the following are formal or informal source of presidential power; presidential access to the media, precedents set during previous administrations, public support, and the Constitution EXCEPT
presidential authority to raise revenue
Cabinet members often do not have a dominant influence on presidential decision-making because
presidential goals often conflict with the institutional goals of individual cabinet level agencies
Nitrogen is essential for
proteins and nucleic acids (RNA and DNA)
Among the executive branch;s checks on the legislative branch is the president's power to call
special sessions of Congress
Line-item veto is used by many
state governors
In which of the following scenarios would a presidential veto most likely be upheld?
the President is in a second term, removed from partisan politics
In general, independent regulatory commissions are created primary for the purpose of regulating certain industries
to protect the public interest
Topoisomerase
untwists DNA
Anabolic
use energy