EXP3604 Exam Two

What does George Miller's "Magical Number Seven" suggest?

***Short term memory: Capacity Miller--Made observations of everyday practice and noticed that things come in 7s. The Magic number 7 (plus or minus two) provides evidence for the capacity of short term memory. He said this is because it only had a certain number of "slots" in which items could be stored. +/- 2 is statistical way of accounting error Miller didn't specify the amount of info that can be held in each slot. Indeed, if we can "chunk" information together we can store a lot more info in our short term memory. Miller--conceived of short-term memory as a passive store capable of holding 7±2 items or chunks. -emphasizes Theme 1 bc we actively rearrange these numbers to remember the info

Brown/Peterson and Peterson technique

***Short term memory: Duration -used blocking of rehearsal to measure the duration of short-term memory. -These experiments suggested that duration of information in short-term memory stays for about 18 seconds and then decays, unless rehearsed. -showed that the longer the delay, the less information is recalled. The rapid loss of info from memory when rehearsal is prevented is taken as an indication of short term memory having a limited duration. Told participants to look at 3 words; show a number, count backwards by 3's, then recall words Rehearsal- -Short-term memory has a limited duration when rehearsal is prevented. It is thought that this information is lost from short-term memory from trace decay -counting backwards prevents rehearsal -we show is the curve which is average across many trials.. on the first few trials she did pretty good but on the 4/5 trial she started not doing so well bc the words from before interfere (proactive interference) -Proactive interference— refers to the trouble people have when learning new material due to how previously learned material interfering with their new learning-- old interferes with the new -Retrograde interference— phenomenon that occurs when newly learned information interferes with and impedes the recall of previously learned information-- new replaces old Started w Fruits saw recall going down Then switched to Occupations—3 words that were occupations then recalled at a vary high rate (release from PI) Letters to numbers - Release from PI Changing similarity after buildup causes the release -Do well in the beginning but eventually add more words, PI occurs, then switch topic to occupations—release from Proactive interference -Release from proactive interference-- when a category is shifted and memory is improved (almost as high as first, previous category) PI affects participant performance- The first time the students participate in the task, they show little loss of information.[4] However, after multiple trials, the task becomes increasingly challenging when letters from the early trials are confused with letters in the current trial. Fortunately, proactive interference can be hindered if the information to be remembered is changed to a different type of information. •For example, in the Brown-Peterson task there appeared to be little proactive interference when the participants switched from recalling letters to recalling numbers. • -pi only occurs w semanticly similar items • -if u do words, then show pics—release • -more similar- interference—switch category—release Semantic Semantic in term of working memory- how similar the items are with proactive interferance -_______ sits in pond... duck- process at semantic level-meaning -study of linguistic meaning/ expressions. -Cognitive semantics holds that language is part of a more general human cognitive ability, and can therefore only describe the world as people conceive it

Central Executive Characteristics of the Central Executive: Central Executive & Daydreaming:

-Drives the whole system (CEO of process-- the boss of working memory) -allocates data to the subsystems (phonological loop & the visuo-spatial sketch pad) -It also deals with cognitive tasks such as mental arithmetic and problem solving. -integrates info from the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, the episodic buffer and from long-term memory Characteristics of the Central Executive: -plans and coordinates, but does not store info -executive supervisor -decides which issues deserve attention -Suppresses irrelevant info -selects a strategy -limited capacity to perform simultaneous tasks Central Executive & Daydreaming: Teasdale and colleagues (1995): Random-number generation task This study is where participants engaged in 2 simultaneous tasks. They were told to create a random string of #'s every second (ex: 3729364 ) the #s should be random Told to write down what they were thinking about: Ppl that said they were only thinking about the task- they were only doing one central executive task so the #'s looked random -Random generation coordinates a lot-- u have to coordinate how many times and what order is the numbers appearing (visuospatial) & repeating numbers over in ur head (phonological loop) -U have to organize that when u report that--central executive Ppl who said im daydreaming - that's another central executive task so the # looked less random -day dreaming- bringing out memories long term, thinking about visual info, thinking about long term info and ur combining that so its central executive as well.... the # wasnt really random suggesting that the central executive ability to do simultaneous tasks is compromised.

• State Dependent Memory

-Identical experimentally to encoding specificity, but refers to mood states or drug-induced states and learning. o Anything of substance caffeine, weed, nicotine, etc. -For example, Eich had participants study words either after receiving nicotine or cannabis. ♣ Then tested under the same or the other drug-induced state

Sperling's experiment

-Interested if we indeed have sensory memory and wanted to show it existed He wanted to study how long info lasts in sensory memory --> the rate of forgetting from ur sensory registers. Participants were shown a matrix of 12 letters in a 4 X 3 grid for a brief period of time (50 msec--so u don't use ur short term memory). (Whole Report vs. Partial Report) -Whole—flash pic of letters and immediately as many letters as u can recall (he found that by the time u list 1, 2, 3,etc it takes too long and the rest is already faded from the sensory registers so he ran it again but differently) -Partial— he flashed the pic and then he sounds the tone right after and it depends on which tone u hear of which line u letters u report... high tone is just the top letters, middle tone is middle line, low tone is last line.. play tone immediately after showing letters, random tone -partial showed that u store the exact replication in sensory memory -telling u where to look in ur mind is only helpful if u store exact image somewhere in ur mind -There was a larger estimate of the total number of items in sensory memory when partial report (3 from the suggested line; about 9 total then) was used instead of whole report (5 letters recalled) -the idea of iconic memory came about bc of this experiment -he found that sensory memory can capture a lot of info but it fades really really quickly -either way ur pulling from short term memory but cue provides support for sensory

• Pollyanna Principle 3. Over time, unpleasant memories fade faster

-Positivity Effect-- people tend to rate past events more positively with the passage of time -positive events were a little less positive but negative events were much less negative -we dont forget the memories -had ppl come in and write down their daily activity for a journal and rate the pleasantness of each journal and 6 months later they show them the journal and tell them to rerate the pleasantness. -we change and misremember it to not be as bad -depressive ppls negative memory stay negative. they dont exhibit the positivity effect. releaving a negative memory

Differentiate between sensory memory and short-term memory.

-The term Sensory refers to the initial process of storing info that is perceived thru our senses. It lasts for a subtle period and it is regularly replaced by new data, as our senses work continuously. -An ultra-short-term memory and decays or degrades very quickly, typically in the region of 200 - 500 milliseconds (1/5 - 1/2 second) after the perception of an item, and certainly less than a second -very brief -nonconscious level -holds literal info -large capacity -only a fraction of a second -Short term memory includes the manipulation of the temporary stored info -has limited capacity -essential when we are thinking -general characteristic is that u will misremember after a short period -says thats important and pulls it out of sensory -can argue its consciousness -We can hold info in the working memory by repetition. EX: when you need to remember a phone number until you find a piece of paper to write it down; you are repeating it to yourself. If something distracts you, then you can easily forget the number. EX:As you look at the magazine, something may get your attention (sensory). While you stay on the page more time to read it, the Short-term/Working memory is activated.

How can adding more trials to your experiment affect proactive interference?

-adding more trials causes more interference

Short term memory

-brief, immediate memory for material that you are currently processing; a portion of working memory also actively coordinates your ongoing mental activities. It lets you keep information active and accessible. -between 15 and 30 seconds for short term memory to be lost when it's not repeated -says that's important and we pull that out of sensory -u can argue that consciousness is short term memory.

• Expertise -The Context-Specific Nature of Expertise (3) How Do Experts and Novices Differ? (7)

-consistently exceptional performance in a particular area -practice more important than inborn skill -The Context-Specific Nature of Expertise 1) strong positive correlation between knowledge about an area and memory performance in that area 2) more accurate than nonexperts in both recognition and recall 3) no difference in general memory skills or intelligence How Do Experts and Novices Differ? 1) Experts possess a well-organized, carefully learned knowledge structure, which assists them during both encoding and retrieval. 2) Experts are more likely to reorganize the new material they must recall, forming meaningful chunks in which related material is grouped together. 3) Experts typically have more vivid visual images for the items they must recall. 4) Experts work hard to emphasize the distinctiveness of each stimulus during encoding. 5) Experts rehearse in a different, more strategic, fashion. Actors rehearse lines by focusing on words that likely trigger recall. 6) Experts are better at reconstructing missing portions of information from material that they partially remember. 7) Experts are more skilled at predicting the difficulty of a task and at monitoring their progress on this task.

Chunk

-one strategy that can be used to improve a person's short-term memory by increasing their memory capacity. . -It involves reducing long strings of information that can be difficult to remember down into shorter, more manageable chunks. -it is the function of grouping information together related by perceptual features. -chunk as memory unit -proposed that people engage in internal mental processes in order to convert stimuli into a manageable number of chunks -Miller's article emphasizes Theme 1 bc we actively rearrange these numbers to remember the info --units of information (352 392 0601) only need to remember 6 units, 352 .... 392... 0..6..0..1 -we naturally learn this as we age -Chunking allows the brain to increase the channel capacity of the short term memory; however, each chunk must be meaningful to the individual.

Working Memory Approach

-our immediate memory is a multipart system that temporarily holds and manipulates info as we perform cognitive tasks -central executive controls subsystems -Subsets maintain phonological loop (auditory) & visuospatial sketchpad (visual/spatial info) & episodic buffer -emphasis on active manipulation of info in working memory -Illustrates Theme 1 that are cognitive processes are active, not passive Short term memory is considered a Lake Alice and each component of working memory is it's own Lake Alice and when u use a certain component, u drain that lake but that doesn't affect the other lake Alice's Overall, each component is hypothesized to be independent from each other

• Pollyanna Principle 1. More accurate recall for pleasant items -Martlin & Stang (1978), Balch (2006)

-participants were given a list of words to learn (pleasant, neutral, unpleasant) ex: puppy, chair, disease) -recall after delay -pleasant items recalled significantly more accurate than unpleasant items -neutral items recalled least accurately -memory for events--in life, you remember more positive events than negative ones.. unless the event is traumatic -memory for near-accidents-- you cant really think of all the times you 'almost' got into an accident -depressed ppl typically wont show this

• Pollyanna Principle (3)

-pleasant items are processed more efficiently and accurately than less pleasant items. -illustrates theme 3 1. More accurate recall for pleasant items 2. More accurate recall for neutral stimuli associated with pleasant stimuli 3. Over time, unpleasant memories fade faster

Why is the self-reference effect so powerful? (3)

-ppl love themselves more than anything in the world, boosts self esteem, which is a barrier that protects u and keeps urself going.... Bc of that any chance u get to make urself feel good u take EX: wearing gator shirt after game day when they won "we won".... If they lost, not wearing gator shirt and saying "they lost" -the self produces a rich set of cues-- which triggers memory -self reference instructions encourage ppl to consider how their personal traits are related to one another -u rehearse material more frequently if it is associated with urself

• Encoding-specificity principle

-recall is better if the retrieval context is similar to the encoding context -Context-dependent memory, transfer-appropriate processing, and reinstatement of context ex: in bedroom and say oh I need to go get that from living room and getting to living room but u forgot to when u go back to room u remember—this is encoding specific principle- they didn't match

• Mood Dependent Memory

-refers to the match between our state at learning and our state at remembering -occurs where the congruence of current mood with the mood at the time of memory storage helps to recall the memory. Thus, the likelihood of remembering an event is higher when encoding and recall moods match up. -if ur a nervous test taking (retrieval), u should try to make urself nervous during studying (encoding) -if ur happy while studying u should try to be happy while taking test

Differentiate between levels-of-processing approach and encoding specificity principle.

-similarity between encoding and retrieval conditions -levels of processing- deeper u process, better u encode, better u recall o if u encode shallowly then it wont help recall encoding specificity- not saying to encode at a deep level, saying whats important is the match -if u encode shallowly then u retrieve shallowly -demonstrates now that memory works diff for diff type of habits (Study differently for multiple choice questions than how you study for open response) -encoding specificity can override levels of processing -to a certain extent encoding specify is more important than levels of processing -Encoding specificity illustrates Theme 4(cognitive process are interrelated not isolated) --we're learning how to combine decision making and memory -To determine how to store some information, you'll need to figure out the characteristics of the retrieval task

• Implicit Memory Task

-task does not directly ask for either recall or recognition; shows the effects of previous experience when we are not making a conscious effort to remember -automatic response -experimental or functional cannot be consiously recalled -word completion -reading reversed text -singing part of a familiar song Repetition Priming Task -recent exposure to a word increases the likelihood that you'll think of this particular word, when you are given a cue that could evoke many different words f_o_e -the even group who read the list of words, one of them being flower, are more likely to write flower than the odd group who didnt see any word Implicit memory occurs under the surface all the time. As you explore the environment, you absorb info about it continuously without trying. If somebody asks you where a certain missing object is located, you may reply, "Oh, I saw that in such-and-such a place." You did not make a conscious effort to memorize its location when you saw it, nor did you have to make much of a conscious effort to retrieve this information when the person asked you about it.

• Orienting Tasks

-tasks such as judging rhyme or synonymity (meaning)—are the scientist's effort to gain tight control over the processing that a participant applies to a stimulus to evaluate the impact that different processes have on memory. -Objective: induce subjects to focus on different perceptual and conceptual info associated w/stimuli -tasks that orientated the person to encode information in a certain way -its another fancy word for Independent variable Ex: o CANOE ♣ Does the word have an 'e'? - Orthographic orienting task (shallow) ♣ Does the word rhyme with taboo? - Phonological orienting task (shallow) ♣ Is it a vehicle? - Semantic orienting task (deep) o Craik & Tulving gave to participants to manipulate levels of processing. o Professor gave us 2 diff orientating tasks (shallow processing & deep processing) with 3 diff orientating task in the demonstration just like their experiment (rhyming, physical characteristic) shallow & (meaning) deep Does a ___ sit in a pond??? thats a meaning-- deep was there a word that rhymed with luck?- recall is shallow so u wont do well bc u encoded it deeply TEXTBOOK- was there a word written in all caps on the test? now u will recall those words better thats how encoding specificity principle overrides levels of processing. bc for certain tasks u must encode it the same way as retrieval to recall better... -tasks that orientated the person to encode information in a certain way shallow task-- shallow encode- shallow retrieval-- good deep task- deep encode- deep retrieval-- good

What is the duration of short-term memory?

-u can only hold something for 18 seconds according to Brown peterson/peterson -most researchers say 15-30 seconds -15-30 secs according to Atkinson-Shiffrin. -its debatable

• Mood Congruence

-you recall material more accurately if it is congruent with your current mood -consistent w current mood -a psychological phenomenon in which a person tends to remember information that is consistent with their particular mood. People also tend to recall memories that coincide with the mood they are experiencing at a certain time. ex:being mad at boyfriend & remembering all of the terrible things he's done... but when u are in a good mood then u remember all the good/nice memories of him Murray & colleagues- tendency towards depression and recall of positive/negative trait words -ppl who have a depressive tendency-- they remember more negative events better -ppl who dont have a depressive tendency-- they remember more positive events better

Retrograde or anterograde amnesia? 1. A woman who gets into an accident and cannot remember anything that occurred before her accident. 2. A man who endures a brain injury and cannot form new memories after his injury.

1. A woman who gets into an accident and cannot remember anything that occurred before her accident. --> Retrograde amnesia 2. A man who endures a brain injury and cannot form new memories after his injury. --> Anterograde amnesia

The Effects of Context: Encoding Specificity (2)

1. Different kind of memory tasks: --Recall Task tell me the definition of this word- ur lacking a cue (ex: open response question) --Recognition Task of the options whats the correct answer- given cue and have to pick it out (ex: multiple choice question) -cues are the single most important thing we need to help improve memory -encoding specificity effect is most likely to occur in memory tasks that: ♣ assess your recall ♣ use real-life incidents ♣ examine events that happened long ago ex: driving by old school and memories fly in head and u remember u got ur first kiss right there 2.Physical versus mental context -feel may be more important than look -its much more important of whats going in ur mind, not the environment (lab they manipulate the environment)

3 general stages:

1. encoding 2. stored/representation 3. retrieval

• Explicit Memory Task

A declarative memory ("knowing what") is memory of facts and events, and refers to those memories that can be consciously recalled explicit- stated clearly and in detail, leaving no room for confusion or doubt. - task where I tell u what im doing... anytime u know ur memory is being tested -involves intentional, conscious recollection -requires executive control 2 types: 1. episodic memory 2. semantic memory o Recall- no cues o Recognition - cues -recalling last year -paired associate learning -identifying the head of state -writing a term paper Illustrates Theme 1 bc our retrieval processes are active to search for it

Differentiate between the Atkinson-Shiffrin model and Baddeley's model. What is the main limitation of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model?

According to the Multi-Store Model, STM holds limited amounts of information for short periods of time with relatively little processing. It is a unitary system. This means it is a single system (or store) without any subsystems. Baddeley claims Working Memory is not a unitary store and that there are different types of information. -working memory allows u to accomplish so u can work on cognitive processes at one time. Paying attention, listening, writing notes, thinking, coordinating all these languages, hearing, problem solving with working memory -atkinson doesn't describe why we have short term memory main limitation is ability to recognize everything working memory does for us. It's a store house to them but really does much more than that

Individuals with Amnesia

Amnesia- severe deficits in their episodic memory. it's the inability to recall past events Retrograde Amnesia- loss of memory for events, or info that was learned, that occurred prior to brain damage Anterograde Amnesia- loss of memory for events that have occurred after brain damage. inability to form form new memories following the accident.

Explain chunking in your own words and provide an example of how it is used. How might this help when studying for an exam or memorizing a phone number?

As we get older, we learn that naturally it's easier to remember information when we chunk it into units. Chunking allows us to increase our stored capacity of our short term memory. Remembering a 10 digit phone number can be easier when chunking them into units such as 352 .... 392... 0..6..0..1 Studying for an exam can be easier if we chunk information that goes together

• Evidence for components with Independent Capacities

Baddeley and Hitch argue that the picture of short-term memory (STM) provided by the Multi-Store Model is far too simple. According to the Multi-Store Model, STM holds limited amounts of information for short periods of time with relatively little processing. It is a unitary system. This means it is a single system (or store) without any subsystems. Working Memory is not a unitary store. Aim: to investigate if participants can use different parts of working memory at the same time. Method: Random numbers with spatial reasoning task Conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform two tasks at the same time (dual task technique) - a digit span task which required them to repeat a list of numbers, and a verbal reasoning task which required them to answer true or false to various questions (e.g. B is followed by A?). --gave participants random numbers 0-8 digits long to rehearse in order, and also gave them spatial reasoning task to perform. Showed BA, and then a statement A follows B. Answer yes. AB (spatial task) A follows B yes no Results: As the number of digits increased in the digit span tasks, participants took longer to answer the reasoning questions, but not much longer - only fractions of a second. And, they didn't make any more errors in the verbal reasoning tasks as the number of digits increased. Conclusion: The verbal reasoning task made use of the central executive and the digit span task made use of the phonological loop. Simultaneously doing reasoning task did not increase errors on recall of random numbers. Suggesting that working memory had multiple parts, with overall larger capacity as envisioned by Miller. Why did they have them rehearse numbers in length from 0-8? 0-8 maxing out short term capacity What do these results/findings contradict? Contradicts Miller's 7+/- 2 Why is this finding so revolutionary? Changing belief about working memory

What caused the transition from the term "short-term" to working memory? How might a classical researcher define short-term memory compared to Baddeley?

Before people only looked at duration & capacity... ppl asked descriptive questions Baddely asked what does short term memory serve? swhy do we have it? Why evolutionary do we have this process? To allows us to accomplish all the other cognitive processes that we do

What factors affect working memory's capacity?

Chunking--which would increase our memory capacity Recency effect can also determine the capacity of short-term memory Capacity of working memory may be affected by: - the length of the items on the list. If each item on the list was short (single syllable) it would take less time to pronounce it. -Memory capacity improved with shorter pronunciation time than when it was longer. -Meaningfulness of words can have important affect on capacity of working memory. -Wickens and colleagues (1976) used proactive interference and release from it to show how capacity of memory can increase.

How did Baddeley and Hitch's research both expand and contradict Miller's? What might be the external validity of Baddeley and Hitch's research?

Contradicts Millers 7+/- 2 because the model of working memory shows that we can hold more than just 7 because of al the chunking. However, the ecological validity of this study is not good. Recalling lists of words is quite artificial but you sometimes have to do it (a shopping list, for example). Recalling the order of words is completely artificial and doesn't resemble anything you would use memory to do in the real world. Baddeley did improve this. For example, he made the 5th "forgetting" trial a surprise that the participants weren't expecting. This is similar to real life, where you are not usually expecting it when you are asked to recall important information.

How can manipulating a specific part of a serial-position curve prove a dissociation between working memory and long-term memory?

Dissociation: a neurological disorder resulting in the impairment in one domain, but no impairment in another Serial position curve is the "U" curve It provides support for 2 diff types of memory (long term & short term) We look at this thru dissociation- give some ppl the variable and some ppl not- to see if we do have diff memory systems Long term memory/primacy— errors come based upon meaning-we get the gist of meanings— ex: medal/award Short term memory/recency—sensory error- confuse words that sound similar— ex: boulder/houlder This is consistent w our findings Manipulate something to find a difference: EX 1) DELAY -short term memories don't last a long time so if u give 1 group a list for 5 mins and say to recall immediately and then give another group a list for 5 mins but make them wait 20 mins to recall the list... it's a lot harder That delay affects short term memory so the recency part of the curve will go down but that delay will not affect long term memory. - They're not both affected so that's proof there's 2 diff memory systems -*primacy stays same, recency curve will go down EX2) PREVENT REHEARSAL Elaborative Rehearsing helps encoding in long term memory/primacy so that will Preventing rehearsal- that will reduce primacy but recency will stay the same. Control group- heres a list of words for 5 mins all at once-- Other group- only show the list one word at a time.. that one second at a time prevents u from thinking deeply about that word but that doesnt prevent u from keeping the last words u saw in ur short term memory... -*primacy effect goes down but recency effect stays same EX3) DIFF WAYS OF REPORT the way u ask them to report it Control group- 5 mins, list of words, recall immeditely in any order u want Other group- 5 mins, list of words, recall but start from beginning of the list so recall the word from 1- 20... by the time they get to 20 they wont remember the words because those words are in the working memory so its basically a delay. by the time u retrieve the older words theyre replacing the words in working memory so by the time u get to it u forget them -*primacy stays same but recency goes down EX 4) AMNESIA Most amnesia only affects long term memory bc u cant form new long term memories and u cant remember things from the past.. but their short term memory looks fine -*primacy goes down, recency stays same

• Emotion • Mood

Emotion- Specific reaction to a stimulus Mood-More general stable characteristic

1. Differentiate between episodic, semantic and procedural memory.

Episodic o episode o "I remember" what ur saying is ur going back and mentally time traveling in ur mind like a video clip where ur replaying it Semantic o understanding of words, encyclopedia type of knowledge, all the facts u have in ur head o "I know" more typical ur drawing from this type of memory Procedural o unconsciously know how to go about doing something -knowing how to ride a bike -singing part of a familiar song -reading reversed text

1. Differentiate between implicit and explicit memory. Provide examples of both.

Explicit Memory: -Intentionally trying to remember something-->info is stored in ur explicit memory. -We use these memories every day -aka declarative memory, since you can consciously recall and explain the info. 2 major types of explicit memory: 1. episodic memory 2. semantic memory examples: -recalling the date/time of a doctor's appt. -remembering what you learned in your psych class -recalling your phone # -identifying who the current president is -writing a research paper -remembering what time you are meeting a friend to go to a movie. Implicit memory: -info we don't purposely try to remember--> stored in implicit memory. -both unconscious and unintentional. -aka nondeclarative memory since you are not able to consciously bring it into awareness. Procedural memories, such as how to perform a specific task are one type of implicit memory since you don't have to consciously recall how to perform these tasks. While implicit memories are not consciously recalled, they still influence how you behave as well as your knowledge of different tasks. Examples: -swinging a baseball bat -making toast -singing a familiar song -typing on your computer keyboard -daily habits -driving a car. -Riding a bicycle is another great example. Even after going years without riding one, most people are able to hop on a bike and ride it effortlessly. Sometimes u can recall implicitly (not trying to) that u cant recall explicity (trying to) -explicitly- sometimes we think we cant find it but it could show up on an implicit task -u should be good at explicit (recall/recognition) -implicit- word fragments wouldn't do as well bc u encode deeply/ cant retrieve shallowly

1. Encoding or retrieval? - Going to class and listening to Dr. Cahill lecture - Taking exam 2

Going to class and listening to Dr. Cahill lecture o Encoding Taking exam 2 o Retrieval

Incidental learning Intentional learning

Incidental Learning -Learning without the intention of learning. Occurs in day to day situations -ex incidental learning: when ur on first date and listening and natural interaction encoding she likes pasta and candle lit dinner Intentional Learning -described as the having the intention to learn the material and to commit it to ones memory. -Better for long term recall than incidental learning -Ex: school classes/studying

• Hippocampus

It's a small, curved formation in the brain that plays an important role in the limbic system. involved in the formation of new memories and is also associated with learning and emotions. w out this part of the brain we cant form new memories H.M. had epilepsy.. surgery and he remember prior to surgery but nothing after. Could form some new memories but at a very very basic way. -had both antergrade amnesia (heavily) and also had retrograde amnesia

What role does mood and emotion play in long term memory? (use key words and examples in your answer).

Memory for items differing in emotion have different effects. According to the Pollyanna Principle, people tend to remember pleasant items more accurately and accurately than less pleasant ones. oMore accurate recall for pleasant items. oMore accurate recall for neutral stimuli associated with pleasant stimuli oOver time, unpleasant memories fade faster ♣ This is known as the Positivity Effect which is defined as peoples tendency to rate past events more positively with the passage of time. Overall, positive events were a little less positive but negative events were much less negative Mood congruence Mood dependence

Differentiate between mood congruence and mood dependence.

Mood congruence refers to the kind of information we retrieve-positive or negative- whereas mood dependence refers to the match between our state at learning and our state at remembering mood congruence: whereby we remember events that match our current mood (thus, when we're depressed, we tend to remember negative events) mood dependence: which refers to the fact that remembering is easier when your mood at retrieval matches your mood at encoding (thus, your chances of remembering an event or fact are greater if you evoke the emotional state you were in at the time of experiencing the event or learning the fact). ¥ mood dependence—just an extension of encoding sprcify principle.. nothing to do with the emotional content of the memory itself. ¥ -if u were happy when u encoded, u will recall it better if ur happy ¥ -happy or sad or neutral no matter what the word is doesn't matter u will recall better if mood is matched ¥ mood congruence—take the account of the emotional. Mood needs to be congruent w memory ¥ -mood congruence overrides but they're deff different ¥ -nothing to do with how u were during encoding, it's the emotional mood at the time of recall

How can manipulating the semantics in an experiment affect the results? Discuss release from proactive interference in your response.

PI affects participant performance- The first time the students participate in the task, they show little loss of info. After multiple trials, the task becomes increasingly challenging when letters from the early trials are confused with letters in the current trial. PI can be hindered if the info to be remembered is changed to a different type of info. For example, in the Brown-Peterson task there appeared to be little PI when the participants switched from recalling letters to recalling numbers. Semantic in working memory--> how similar the items are EX: -____ sits in pond... duck- -process it at semantic level of meaning PI only occurs w semantically similar items if u do words, then show pics-- release occurs -more similar- interference—switch category—release

Visuospatial Sketchpad Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad: Other Uses for the Visuospatial Sketchpad:

Processes both visual & spatial info in working memory -Used for navigation -Store appearance to relative position -Store visual info encoded from verbal stimuli -has limited capacity -Sketchpad retains images thus we can interact with environment using our imagination. • ex: playing a card game F study: imagine the letter F • visualizing an "F," pointing out inside and outside corners • it's hard to point to "out" and "in" columns when visually tracing an F in ur mind bc these are both visual tasks, and pointing to different columns is interfering with storing the F on ur visuospatial sketchpad • It's easy to SAY "out" and "in" when visually tracing an F bc this is a phonological task so there is not visual task interfering with storing the F on ur visuospatial sketchpad Research on the Visuospatial Sketchpad: -performing two visuospatial tasks simultaneously -no standardized set of visual stimuli -tendency to provide names for visual stimuli, thus using phonological loop instead -Brandimonte and colleagues (1992)—say "la la la" while looking at complex visual stimulus Other Uses for the Visuospatial Sketchpad: ♣ engineering ♣ art ♣ architecture ♣ retaining image of a scene ♣ finding ur way from one location to another ♣ videogames, jigsaw puzzles, mazes ♣ television

How can counting backwards prevent rehearsal? What affect does this have on short-term memory?

Rehearsal is the concept of directing attention to material that was just learned. This way, it can lengthen the duration of one's short-term memory capacity. In order to accurately calculate the duration of short-term memory using the Brown-Peterson task, such a method must be blocked so as not to falsely increase an unaltered duration. Prevention of rehearsal affects short term memory bc it replaces the memory

• Pollyanna Principle 2. More accurate recall for neutral stimuli associated with pleasant stimuli -Bushman (1998)- media violence & commericals

Shows participants clips of violence and embedded into this are two 30 second advertisement (one pos, one neg) and asked them to recall the name of the brand in advertisement -dont advertise in between violent media -negative clip- less likely to recall

Why would it be more beneficial for you to practice recall instead of recognition when studying for this exam?

Since there is open response questions, it's better to be able to recall info by knowing it and not having to rely on cues to remember it

o Serial-position Effect Primacy effects: Recency effects: this supports?

Support we have 2 distinctive memory systems Serial-position Effect: is the tendency of a person to recall the first and last items in a series best, and the middle items worst Primacy effects: good memory for words early in the list; based on long-term memory -Elaborative encoding (preventing only affects primacy) -a mnemonic that relates to-be-remembered info to pre-existing memories and knowledge. One can make such connections visually, spatially, semantically or acoustically. -Mistakes usually based on meaning Recency effects: good memory for words at the end of the list; based on working memory -Mistakes based on sensory errors (visual or auditory)

Differentiate between the recency effect and the primacy effect. Think about which type of memory each one measures and common errors associated with them.

The Primacy effects: -good memory for words early in the list -based on long-term memory -Elaborative encoding (preventing only affects primacy) -Mistakes usually based on meaning Recency effects: -good memory for words at the end of the list -based on working memory -Mistakes based on sensory errors (visual or auditory)

Phonological loop 2 components? In depth:? other uses for phonological loop?

The part of working memory that contains and manipulates auditory info... this includes written & sound info 2 components of phonological loop: ♣ phonological store—limited capacity, holds info for a few secs ♣ articulary rehearsal process—"inner voice" can repeat verbal elements to keep them active. Responsible for rehearsal that can keep items in phonological store from decaying In depth: -subvocalization & acoustic confusions It processes a limited number of sounds for a short period of time -Many studies proposed that phonological loop was acoustical in nature. -And involved rehearsing verbal material in this acoustical form. If verbal material is acoustical in form then many errors in working memory can be based on acoustical confusions. Other Uses for the Phonological Loop ♣ counting ♣ reading ♣ acquiring new vocab ♣ learning foreign language ♣ math calculations ♣ problem-solving tasks

• Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

This multistore model of memory is an information processing approach Info passes from store to store in a linear way, and has been described as an info processing model (like a computer) with an input, process and output. Info is detected by the sense organs --> sensory-- (attended to)--> short term memory--(repeated/rehearsed)-->long term memory Overall, analogy helps push ideas bc have to theorize about the topic The info process approach, opened whole new areas of research and findings behind We abandon Atkinson-Shiffrin Info processing model for working memory model ♣ Atkinson approach states it happens in a certain order but from research now shows there are different orders

How would you use the self-reference effect in studying for an exam?

Try to relate the information to self to make it easier to recall

Relate phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad to your daily activities.

Uses for the Phonological Loop ◦ counting ◦ reading ◦ acquiring new vocabulary ◦ learning foreign language ◦ mathematical calculations ◦ problem-solving tasks ◦ complex task instructions Uses for the Visuospatial Sketchpad ◦ engineering ◦ art ◦ architecture ◦ retaining image of a scene ◦ finding your way from one location to another- navigation ◦ videogames, jigsaw puzzles, mazes ◦ television

Subvocalization

Using Phonological loop component from the model Subvocalize- pronouncing the words silently silent speech - internal speech typically made when reading; it provides the sound of the word as it is read. This is a natural process when reading and it helps the mind to access meanings to comprehend and remember what is read, potentially reducing cognitive load.

• Control Processes

When attention is required for a task, we are consciously aware and in control. Controlled processes require us to think about situations, evaluate and make decisions. These are mental processes (intentional strategies) that people may use to improve/maintain their memory ex: rehearsal ex: chunking

1. Name the type of memory for each (episodic, procedural, or semantic): - Who your first boyfriend/girlfriend was - The capitol of California - What you did for your 18th birthday - The 24th president of the U.S. - How to drive a car

Who your first boyfriend/girlfriend was o Episodic memory The capitol of California o Semantic memory What you did for your 18th birthday o Episodic memory The 24th president of the U.S. o Semantic memory How to drive a car o Procedural memory

What is the purpose of having a short-term/working memory?

Why evolutionary do we have this process? To allows us to accomplish all the other cognitive processes that we do It keeps some items active, so that we can use these items when we are working on a relevant task

Working-memory

a system for temporarily storing and managing the information required to carry out complex cognitive tasks such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension. This allows u to accomplish so u can work on cognitive processes at one time. -Paying attention, listening, writing notes, thinking, coordinating all these languages, hearing, problem solving all processed within working memory

Give an example of the Pollyanna Principle.

doing something embarassing and thinking its the end of the world and then 10 years later u laugh and think that wasnt that bad

encoding

initial acquisition of information

Why might sensory memory be hard to prove?

its so abstract and hard to study because it's taken in by the senses.

Retrieval

locating information in storage and accessing that information

• Retrieval

locating information in storage and accessing that information

Individual differences: major depression and working memory o Christopher and macdonald (2005) o Phonological loop o Visuospatial sketchpad o Central executive

o Difficulty concentrating o Unwanted negative thoughts o Working memory allows u to do multiple cognitive processes but someone who is depressed is thinking about bad thoughts and by doing that ur using part of ur working memory and ur phonological loop o by using part of phonological loop this interferes w ur ability to do other working memory task o ex: do bad on test "im not smart" so now im depressed and when im trying to study it interferes w my ability to encode and when u take test it affects u o clinical psychologists are aware and try to reduce that interference w working memory

• Long-Term Memory declaritive- nondeclaritive-

o Large/unlimited capacity; memory for experiences and information accumulated over a lifetime Declaritive: ♣ Episodic Memory • episodes • your memories for events that happened to you ♣ Semantic Memory • organized knowledge about the world -most stable type of memory Nondeclaritive: ♣ Procedural Memory • knowledge about how to do something -is the unconscious memory of skills and how to do things -composed of automatic sensorimotor behaviours that are so deeply embedded that we are no longer aware of them

• Self-reference Effect

o One way we can foster a deeper level of processing o Referring it to self helps you recall it better o finding that judgments about selfrelevance lead to better recall than other common encoding tasks

When you subvocalize, which component of Baddeley's model are you using?

o Phonological Loop

Scenario #1: you are a participant in an experiment testing short-term memory and recall. The word that you are asked to recall is couch, but you say sofa instead. Which effect error does this demonstrate? Scenario #2: you are a participant in the same study as above. Instead of saying couch, you say the word slouch. Which effect error does this demonstrate?

o Primacy effects o Recency effects

Episodic Buffer

o The original model was updated by Baddeley (2000) after the model failed to explain the results of various experiments. An additional component was added called the episodic buffer. -fourth component of the working memory and holds information about episodes that take place in our personal life. The episodic buffer acts as a 'backup' store which communicates with both long term memory and the components of working memory. o temporary storehouse where we can gather and combine info from the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory o integrates info from different modalities o limited o temporary -tool bench/storage space for working memory Purpose is to link together every piece of info from all other elements of working memory with further info relating to time and order. This process enables memories to be prepared for episodic Long term memory storage.

Retrieval in Long term memory • Dissociation

o a mental process of disconnecting from one's thoughts, feelings, memories or sense of identity. o A dissociation occurs when a variable has large effects on Test A, but little or none on Test B. Or can occur when a variable has one kind of effect if measured by test A but a completely different if measured by Test B. TASK A : Explicit task (recall question)-- normal ppl will do better than ppl with amnesia TASK B : Implicit task (word completion)-- normal ppl and ppl with amnesia both did same. ^dissociation- find diff/greater effects when u do task A vs task B -normal people dont do as well in word fragments because u encode it deeply & cant retrieve shallowly

Acoustic confusions

o acoustic confusions: sound error in phonological loop component -Erroneous perception or memory resulting from the substitution of an incorrect but similar-sounding word, as when someone mishears or misremembers. o Conrad & Hull (1964) Processes acoustic info (sounds) in ur phonological loop -Given a list of letters, presented visually (CTDGVB or CWQKRX) -Participants must have translated them into sounds by rehearsing string of letters that were either different and the last set of letters were similar and sounded the same when rehearsed Mistakes occurred o Jones and colleagues (2004)—rehearsal explanation rather than phonological loop ♣ First explanation (phonological loop)-- there's a storage issue—they store it incorrectly bc they sound so similar so they made mistakes ♣ Better explanation (rehearsal explanation)-- rehearsal over and over to keep them alive but u mess up the order

Self-instruction

o anything u do to tell urself to use a technique to remember it better

• Levels-of-processing/ Depth-of-processing approach

o argues that deep, meaningful kinds of information processing lead to more permanent retention than shallow, sensory kinds of processing o Illustrates theme 1- we actively process that info and how we can relate it to other material • Levels of processing and Memory for General Material: Craik & Tulving- meaning vs physical appearance -gave to participants to manipulate levels of processing. --Professor gave us diff orientating tasks (shallow processing & deep processing) with 3 diff orientating tasks in the demonstration just like their experiment (rhyming, physical characteristic)-shallow & (meaning)-deep Distinctiveness ♣ Helps u remember better and separate memories from other memories bc it's distinctive Elaboration ♣ the more u elaborate/process it more deeply & connect it to more, so it helps u remember more ♣ overall, the more u think about it, the more u reference it o deep processing also enhances memory for faces

Working memory performance is related to: (3)

o overall intelligence and grades in school o verbal fluency, reading comprehension, reason ability, note-taking skills o attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

• Information-processing Approach

our memory system is compared to a computer (input process/ output process)

Sensory Memory

refers to a very brief memory system that holds literal information for a fraction of a second to allow cognitive processing -entry points for raw info brought in by the senses -The effects are extremely short term with this info forgotten within a few seconds. -known as the first level of memory. -Nonconscious level (occurs prior to consciousness) -Storing a literal image - decays within 1/5- 1/2 second -lots of lots of info the exact form it was encoded, large capacity, but loses quickly... if u need it it gets pulled out into short term, 2 types: o Iconic Memory: visual sensory memory o Echoic Memory: auditory sensory memory

Discuss the criticism regarding the levels-of-processing approach.

the theory is circular: anything that produces good memory is thought to be deep processing. deep processing is not defined separately from good memory performance. how do I know u engage in deeper processing, bc u remember it better, why did u remember it better, bc u engaged in deeper processing, etc. just give diff label, no predictor/cause how can we fix this?? By showing deep processing doesn't always lead to better memory -sometimes shallow processing leads to better recalling if memory task is also shallow (encoding specitiy overrides) -encode at a deep level, retrieve at a deep level.. better -encode at a deep level, retrieve at a shallow level—do worse -encode at a shallow level, retrieve at a shallow level-- better

self reference effect -- Representative research

♣ Rogers & Coauthors—visual, acoustic, semantic, self reference Structural appearance - Are there any capital letters in it? Phonemic Properties - Rhymes with X? Semantic -Means the same as X? o -semantic- how similar the items are o -___ sits in pond... duck- process at semantic level-meaning Self-Relevance— Does this adjective describe you? Is this word relevant to you or not? That affect was even greater compared to the semantic condition Positive vs negative instances: had ppl think of how a word does fit you (positive) vs how a word doesn't fit you (negative). They found that ppl recall better when its positive—Theme 3 Meta-Analysis: -ways for us to take lots of studies in an area and to see if the studies we find are an affect -It's a way to say is this a true effect or not? -each study is a data point. End up with a sample of thousands of ppl. IV is the manipulation that those studies did and look to see how those manipulation change over entire