Final exam cognitive process

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Dialects

- A regional variety of a language distinguished by features such as vocabulary, syntax, and pronunciation - Have been used as a signal of social status - With people speaks standards forms feelings superior to those who speak non standard forms - Can result in interpersonal issues and discrimination as judgments are made about the persons intelligence, competence and mortality

Expertise

- Not a general ability. - Experts have extensive knowledge that is used to organize, represent, and interpret information. - Thus affecting their abilities to remember, reason, and solve problems

Problems with early research for bilingualism

- Socioeconomic factors not controlled for - Testing would occur in the monolingual's language

Effect of bilingualism depends on a 3 factors

1. Additive versus subtractive bilingualism 2. Simultaneous versus sequential bilingualism 3. Proficiency in both languages

Insight

A distinctive and sometimes sudden understanding of a problem or of a strategy that aids in problem solving. Ex: A women who lived in a small town married 20 different men in that same town. All of them are still living, she never divorced any of them

Monitoring

Am I on track to solve the problem?

Availability heuristic

Based conclusions on information that is most readily available

Not realizing the nature of the next legal move

Being Stuck on what to do

Analysis

Breaking the problem down to manageable parts

Plausible deniability

Bribes, polite requests, solicitations and threats so often veiled

Relationship negotiation

Commonality, dominance, reciprocity, sexuality

Means-ends analysis

Compare your current state with the goal and choose an action to bring you closer to the goal Ex: Win at Monopoly

Indirect speech acts

Could you open the window? It sure is hot in here

Perceptional universals

Different languages can be used to express the same thought

Speech Acts

Different ways to get someone to do something Ex: you want someone to open a window

Cultural universals

Each language has taboos & slang. Features to distinguish family & relatives (by seniority, biological bond or sex)

In early research does bilingualism benefit learning or hinder it

Early research argued that learning two languages was harmful

Problem Identification

Ex: Do we have a problem?

Indirect evasive question

Ex: Don't you think we should have our board meeting on some other day than Monday?

Strategy Formulation

Ex: How do we solve the problem?

Direct and true

Ex: I really didn't think your presentation was very good

Direct and false

Ex: I really thought your presentation was very good

Problem Definition

Ex: What exactly is the problem?

Working backward

Figure out the last step needed to reach your goal, then the next-to-the-last step, and so on Ex: Lost Keys

Sequential bilingual

First learn one language and then another

Divergent Thinking

Generation of many diverse possible solutions

Learning a second language increases the________________ in the ________________________________________

Gray matter Left inferior parietal cortex

______________ develop to exhibit a _____________________ towards one thing (respect for elderly, objects of fear, concept of blasphemy).

Language shared attitude

Additive bilingualism

Learn a second language without loss to the native language

Simultaneous bilingual

Learn two languages from birth

Novice problem solvers

More local planning

Synthesis

Putting elements together until useful

Positive transfer

Solving earlier problem helps to solve later problem ex: How you swing in cricket Would be useful in golf

Negative transfer

Solving prior problem makes it more difficult to solve later problem ex: Badminton need a flexible wrist tennis you need a firm wrist

Irrelevant assertion

The latest stock market rally was sure a surprise

Single-system hypothesis

Two languages are represented in one system

Heuristics

Useful rules of thumb based on experience

Evaluation

Was the problem solved correctly?

Indirect irrelevant question

Wasn't that latest stock market rally sure a surprise?

Global

impairment in both understanding & production

Modus ponens

(affirming the antecedent) If P, then Q All fruit grows on trees P is true An apple is a fruit Q is true Therefore, apples grow on trees

Modus tollens

(denying the consequent) If P, then Q All fruit grows on trees Not Q Tomatoes do not grow on trees Not P Therefore, tomatoes are not a fruit

Fallacies

- A failure in reasoning that renders an argument invalid - Faulty reasoning; misleading or unsound argument

Groupthink

- A phenomenon characterized by premature decision making that is generally the result of group members attempting to avoid conflict - Tends to result in sub-optimal decision making

Ill-structured problems are

- Ambiguous and unclear - Not all relevant information is provided - Have multiple ways to be solved - Are complex. Ex: City planning, Environmental preservation, Creating a budget.

Functional Fixedness

- An inability to assign new functions and roles to elements of a problem. Inability to use old tools in novel ways - We can only use something the way it's suppose to be used Ex: don' t have a hammer, use a book instead

Pidgins

- Are "on the spot" languages that develop when people with no common language come into contact with each other - Communication between two language groups - Often used between immigrants and locals or missionaries and natives in order to be understood by each other without having to learn the language of the other group - Nobody speaks a pidgin as their 1st language - Have smaller vocabularies, a simpler structure and more limited functions than natural languages

Syllogisms

- Are deductive arguments that involve drawing a conclusion from two premises - A series of three statements: two premises followed by a conclusion - Can not always reach a logical conclusion Ex: Premise 1: All birds are animals. Premise 2: All animals eat food. Conclusion: All birds eat food.

Pragmatic Reasoning Schemas

- Are general organizing principles or rules related to particular kinds of goals, such as permissions, obligations, or causations Ex: Prior belief matters in reasoning Young person driving When logic questions are framed as permission questions people perform better

Enhancing Deductive Reasoning

- Avoid heuristics and biases that distort our reasoning - Consider more alternatives - Training and practice - Be in a sad mood

Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic

- Begin by guessing a first approximation (an anchor) - Make adjustments to that number on the basis of additional information - Often leads to a reasonable answer - Can lead to errors in some cases

Elimination by Aspects

- Begin with a large number of options - Determine the most important attribute and then select a cutoff value for that attribute - All alternatives with values below that cutoff are eliminated - The process continues with the most important remaining attribute(s) until only one alternative remains Ex: Engagement ring example from class

Experts Differ from Novices

- Better schemas - Well-organized knowledge in specific domain. - Representation of problems. - Select more appropriate strategies. - Faster at solving problems. - Are more accurate.

Two type reasoning

- Deductive reasoning - Inductive reasoning

Advantages to bilingualism

- Enhanced executive functions - Delayed onset of dementia - More expertise in their own language - Sensitive to subtle aspects of language - Perform better on tests of nonverbal intelligence that require recognition of verbal patterns

Alternative uses tests divergent thinking across 4 sub categories

- Fluency - Originality - Flexibility - Elaboration

The Model of Economic Man & Woman assumptions

- Fully understand all of the options available - Understood pros and cons of each option, all the subtle differences among the options - Rationally made their final choice means their choice is always that which maximize something of value

Disadvantages of bilingualism

- Have smaller vocabularies - Access to lexical items in memory is slower

Incubation

- Have to solve it, but you take a break so you relax - Time away from a problem provides new insights or otherwise facilitates the problem-solving process - Recovery from fatigue. - Reduces negative transfer. - Sleep has positive effects.

How People Make Causal Inferences

- How people make judgments about whether something causes something else. -Errors occur from: - Confirmation bias. - Relying solely on correlational evidence. - Failure to recognize that many phenomena have multiple causes Ex: It may be that factor A causes Factor B It may be that factor B causes Factor A Some higher order, Factor C may cause both Factors A and B to occur together

Dominant Bilingualism

- I know one language well - Know both languages

Biases Influencing Decision-Making

- Illusory correlation - Overconfidence - Hindsight bias

Three main errors in Well-Structured Problems

- Inadvertently moving backward - Making illegal moves - Not realizing the nature of the next legal move

Amabile (1996)- The Process Approach

- Intrinsic motivation is important - Mastery comes first the creativity

Illusory Correlations

- Is a perceived relationship that does not exist. - Are formed by the pairing of two distinctive events Ex: (Friends) Phoebe believe every time she goes to the dentist someone dies

Density

- Is positively correlated with proficiency - Is negatively correlated with age of acquisition

Inductive Reasoning

- Is the process of reasoning from specific facts or observations to reach a likely conclusion that may explain the facts - Involves reasoning from specific cases to more general, but uncertain, conclusions - Probable conclusions to attempt to predict future specific instances - Does not allow you to reach a logically certain conclusion. - Can reach a highly probable outcome.

Representativeness Heuristic

- Judge probability of an event based on how it matches a stereotype - Can be accurate - Can also lead to errors - Most will overuse representativeness

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: Supported

- Language does exert great influence on patterns of thinking and therefore on culture - Language may reinforce certain ideas and push them into attention - Linguistic structure does not constrain what people think but only influence what they routinely think - Language reflects cultural preoccupations

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

- Language of the society predispose us to certain choices of interpretation about how we view the world - We categorize/name objects based on our native language and are limited by our language in what we can categorize or communicate - If our language has no words for colors we could not conceptualize those colors

Subtractive bilingualism

- Learn a second language that interferes with the native language - Don't continue using native language

Torrance test on creative thinking

- Measures diversity, quantity and appropriates pf responses to open-ended questions - Incomplete figures

Actual frequency influences how easily evidence comes to mind but so do other factors such as

- Media - Vividness

Gambler's fallacy

- Mistaken belief that a random event is affected by previous random events. - Believe that "your turn to win" has come - In reality, probability of winning is still the same.

Two Valid Deductive Inferences

- Modus ponens - Modus tollens

Weisberg (1988)- The Process Approach

- Nothing innately special about people - Hard work and dedication leads to creativity

Anchoring and Adjustment

- People are influenced by an initial anchor value - Anchor value may be unreliable or irrelevant, and adjustment is often insufficient

Creoles

- Pidgin develops over time in such a way that it becomes this - Are complete languages, Pidgins are not - Has developed through expansion form and grammar - Is stable and autonomous in its norms Ex: Manglish; ENGLISH BASED SPOKEN IN MALAYSIA

Creativity

- Process of creating something that is original and worthwhile - Is seen in a wide range of fields Ex: Art, engineering, medicine, house work, etc

Neural activity associated with insight. fMRI studies found

- Right hippocampus is active during problem-solving - Spike in right anterior temporal lobe just before insight

Heuristics Influencing Decision-Making

- Satisficing - Elimination by aspects - Representativeness heuristic - Availability heuristic - Anchoring - Framing

Mental Set

- Seeing a problem in a particular way instead of other plausible ways due to experience or context entrenchment - May cause you to adopt an ineffective strategy and prevents problem-solving - May make assumptions without realizing it - May find it hard to approach the problem in a new way

Factors Affecting Use of Analogies

- Similarity - Explicitly need to seek them: Does that question help me out - Multiple analogies are more effective: More group convergence problem the faster you will think - Timing: If given close together - Context

Effective of Groups on decision making can enhance the effectiveness of problem solving when the group is

- Small - Has open communication - Share a common mind-set - Members identify as a group - Agreed upon acceptable behavior

2 types of Judgement & Decision Theory

- The Model of Economic Man & Woman - The Subjective Expected Utility Theory

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

- The decision to continue to invest in something simply because one has invested in it before and one hopes to recover one's investment Example: Bought a car Ends up being a lemon You sink more and more money into the car hoping to make it worth the money and time, instead of cutting your loses

The Subjective Expected Utility Theory

- The main goal of decision making is to seek pleasure (positive utility) and avoid pain (negative utility) - Design to help with errors in model of economics - Consider all possible alternatives - Use all information currently known - Weigh potential costs and benefits - Subjective weighing of various outcomes - Sound reasoning considers above factors

Reasoning

- The process of drawing conclusions from principles and from evidence - Moving from what is already known to infer new information

Deductive reasoning

- The process of reasoning from one or more general statements regarding known information to a specific application of the general statement - Formal procedure that ensures accuracy if rules of logic are followed. - Given some premises that are true, one can reach a conclusion that must also be true

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: Criticisms

- There are certain thoughts of an individual in one language that cannot be understood by those who are native to another language - Asserts that each language has a unique system and cross-cultural understanding is impossible. - BUT we have universals things that are constant cross-culturally

Satisficing

- To obtain an outcome that is good enough - Humans do not make ideal decisions and we work with limited resources and time - We accept the first option presented that is good enough to meet our minimum requirements - Does not have to be the most effective strategy

Generate and test

- Trial-and-error strategy - Create possibilities, test them, and discard the ones that are incorrect Ex:. car will not start

Dual-system hypothesis

- Two languages are represented by separate systems - Depends on if a person is a balanced bilingual or dominant bilinguals.

Deductive Validity

- Typically deductive arguments have three statements - If P, then Q (conditional if-then statement) - Statement about whether P or Q is true or not true - A conclusion about P or Q

There are two types of Problems

- Well-Structured - Ill-Structured

Well-Structured Problems

- With a clear path to the solution - Does not mean easy for Ex: Math difficult to do but clear path by using a formula

Groupthink occurs in 3 kinds of situations

1. An isolated cohesive & homogeneous group is empowered to make decisions. 2. Objective & impartial leadership is absent within the group or outside of it. 3. High levels of stress impinge on the group decision making process.

There are 4 basic ways of making indirect requests

1. Asking or making statements about abilities 2. Stating a desire 3. Stating a future action; and 4. Citing reasons

6 symptoms of groupthink

1. Closed mindedness- Not letting new info, in 2. Rationalization 3. Squelching of dissent- No one is letting you speak 4. Formation of a 'mindguard' for the group- Restricted thought process 5. Feeling Invulnerable 6. Feeling unanimous

2 types of mental sets

1. Functional fixedness 2. Stereotypes

4 Fallacies Influencing Decision-Making

1. Gambler's fallacy and the hot hand 2. Conjunction fallacy 3. Inclusion fallacy 4. Sunk-cost fallacy

4 Antidotes for Groupthink

1. Leader should give constructive criticism, be impartial 2. Ensure members seek information from sources outside of the group. 3. Leader actively prevents spurious conformity to the group norm. 4. Group should form subgroups

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis consists of two associated principle

1. Linguistic Determinism 2. Linguistic Relativity

Pinker's Theory of indirect speech can serve 3 purposes

1. Plausible deniability 2. Relationship negotiation 3. Language as a digital medium of indirect as well as direct communication

2 types of transfer

1. Positive transfer 2. Negative transfer

7 problem Solving Cycle

1. Problem Identification 2. Problem Definition 3. Strategy Formulation 4. Organization of Information 5. Allocation of Resources 6. Monitoring 7. Evaluation

Five basic categories of speech acts that reflect the intention of the utterance.

1. Representative conveys info: I like polar bears. 2. Directive is order or request that causes behavior: Turn on the air conditioner 3. Commissive is a promise/agreement to do something: I will make the cookies 4. Expressive conveys information about inner state: I enjoy spending time with you 5. Declaration is a statement that brings about new situation: I am now a vegetarian

Subjective Expected Utility Theory can involve two types of calculations

1. Subjective utility 2. Subjective probability

What are the 3 intellect abilities that are important

1. Synthetic ability 2. Analytic ability 3. Practical-contextual

4 types of aphasia

1. Wernicke's 2. Broca's 3. Global 4. Anomic

Linguist Universals

All languages have nouns & verbs, all spoken language has vowels and consonants

Proposition

An assertion that can be either true or false

Kohler

Animal model of insight. Sultan stacked boxes to get banana

Direct speech acts

Are often considered rude because of their directness and tend to be avoided in formal situations/conversations Ex:Open the window

Premises

Are propositions that about which arguments are made

The conjunction fallacy

Assigning a higher probability to one event and another occurring than to the probability of just one of the two events occurring

Opposite Hot hand

Belief that a certain course of events will continue Ex: When you keep winning so you believe it will keep happening but then lose

Subjective utility

Calculation based individuals judgement of value Ex: Value of money Adults believe $100 is not much to spend Teens believe $100 is a lot to spend

Subjective probability

Calculation based on an individuals estimates of likelihood Ex: Car crash Some people believe it is not likely the crash will happen and they don't need a seat belt

Framing Effect

Decisions can depend on how choices are presented

_________________________________ can improve problem solving ability

Emotional Intelligence

Expert problem solvers

Engage in more global planning

Naturalistic decision-making

Ex. Astronaut training Part of training they go under water Need to so things quickly Risks are real to what could happen in outer space

The model of economic

Have to be true

The use of ________________ to make decisions can lead to ___________ in thinking

Heuristics Fallacies

__________________ are _____________________ we take that lighten our cognitive load

Heuristics Mental shortcuts

Organization of Information

How does the information fit together. - Symbols - Matrixes - Diagrams

Flexibility

How many areas your answers cover

Fluency

How many uses can come up with

Allocation of Resources

How mush time, money, effort should be put into solving the problem?

Originality

How uncommon those uses are

Evasive assertion

I think we should have our board meeting on some day other than Monday

Aphasia

Impaired language function due to brain damage

Wernicke's

Impairment in understanding

Broca's

Impairment of production

Elaboration

Level of detail in responses

Availability Heuristic

Making judgments about the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easily instances come to mind

Inadvertently moving backward

Moving a step away from the end goal

Anomic

Naming issues

Convergent thinking

Narrow options down to best solution

Making illegal moves

Not permitted by the terms of the problem

How common in real life does the model of economic happen

Not very common

Stereotypes

Overgeneralizing from limited observations, limits our thinking

Neural correlates measured before an individual sees a problem can predict if insight will occur

Participants who had activation in the frontal lobes would later generate an insightful solution

Overconfidence

People tend to have unrealistic optimism about their abilities, judgments, and skills

Actual judgment of _______________and ______________is made by each __________________________

Pleasure Pain Decision-maker

Opportunity costs

Prices paid for availing oneself of certain opportunities Ex : Dream job but it's in the states, you now have to move

Wertheimer

Productive (insightful) thinking goes beyond previously learned associations. Must break away from the known and see the problem in an entirely new light

Bounded Rationality

Rational within limits

How do we make choices and judgments

Some models believe we select from among choices and evaluate opportunities

Working forward

Start at initial state and work to goal state, sequential Ex: Math problems

Algorithms

Systematic procedure guaranteed to find a solution

Confirmation bias

Tendency to search for and interpret evidence in a way that confirms our theories and avoid evidence that contradicts prior beliefs

Linguistic Determinism Linguistic/strong determinism

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: There are certain thoughts of an individual in one language that cannot be understood by those who are native to another language.Thoughts and behavior are determined by language

Age

The earlier in life a second language is learned, the more fluent the speaker will become

Divergent Production

The generation of a diverse assortment pf appropriate response

Inclusion fallacy

The individual judges a greater likelihood that every member of an inclusive category has a particular characteristic than that every member of a subset of the inclusive category has that characteristic

Linguistic Relativity

The less similar the languages the more diverse their conceptualization of the world; different languages view the world differently

Hindsight Bias

The memory of how we acted previously changes when we learn the outcome of an event

Practical-contextual

To be able to convey and sell the importance of the ideas to others

Analytic ability

To recognize the importance of ideas and focus energy on those worth pursuing

Synthetic ability

To see problems using novel perspectives and not be bound by conventional thinking

Stereotyped threat

When people adhere to stereotypes about themselves and it negatively effects performance ex: University student not smart enough to get a B average, parents never did better then that

Intrinsic motivation

You love something, and you find it rewarding

Guilford alternative uses test

Your creativity by giving you 2 minutes to think of as many uses possible for a everyday object

Research shows that ___________________and ___________________ correlate with high creativity and intelligence

bipolar disorder schizophrenia

Prefrontal cortex active in ______________

planning - When your thinking about it

Frontal lobe active in ____________________________

problem-solving


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