Final exam cognitive process
Dialects
- A regional variety of a language distinguished by features such as vocabulary, syntax, and pronunciation - Have been used as a signal of social status - With people speaks standards forms feelings superior to those who speak non standard forms - Can result in interpersonal issues and discrimination as judgments are made about the persons intelligence, competence and mortality
Expertise
- Not a general ability. - Experts have extensive knowledge that is used to organize, represent, and interpret information. - Thus affecting their abilities to remember, reason, and solve problems
Problems with early research for bilingualism
- Socioeconomic factors not controlled for - Testing would occur in the monolingual's language
Effect of bilingualism depends on a 3 factors
1. Additive versus subtractive bilingualism 2. Simultaneous versus sequential bilingualism 3. Proficiency in both languages
Insight
A distinctive and sometimes sudden understanding of a problem or of a strategy that aids in problem solving. Ex: A women who lived in a small town married 20 different men in that same town. All of them are still living, she never divorced any of them
Monitoring
Am I on track to solve the problem?
Availability heuristic
Based conclusions on information that is most readily available
Not realizing the nature of the next legal move
Being Stuck on what to do
Analysis
Breaking the problem down to manageable parts
Plausible deniability
Bribes, polite requests, solicitations and threats so often veiled
Relationship negotiation
Commonality, dominance, reciprocity, sexuality
Means-ends analysis
Compare your current state with the goal and choose an action to bring you closer to the goal Ex: Win at Monopoly
Indirect speech acts
Could you open the window? It sure is hot in here
Perceptional universals
Different languages can be used to express the same thought
Speech Acts
Different ways to get someone to do something Ex: you want someone to open a window
Cultural universals
Each language has taboos & slang. Features to distinguish family & relatives (by seniority, biological bond or sex)
In early research does bilingualism benefit learning or hinder it
Early research argued that learning two languages was harmful
Problem Identification
Ex: Do we have a problem?
Indirect evasive question
Ex: Don't you think we should have our board meeting on some other day than Monday?
Strategy Formulation
Ex: How do we solve the problem?
Direct and true
Ex: I really didn't think your presentation was very good
Direct and false
Ex: I really thought your presentation was very good
Problem Definition
Ex: What exactly is the problem?
Working backward
Figure out the last step needed to reach your goal, then the next-to-the-last step, and so on Ex: Lost Keys
Sequential bilingual
First learn one language and then another
Divergent Thinking
Generation of many diverse possible solutions
Learning a second language increases the________________ in the ________________________________________
Gray matter Left inferior parietal cortex
______________ develop to exhibit a _____________________ towards one thing (respect for elderly, objects of fear, concept of blasphemy).
Language shared attitude
Additive bilingualism
Learn a second language without loss to the native language
Simultaneous bilingual
Learn two languages from birth
Novice problem solvers
More local planning
Synthesis
Putting elements together until useful
Positive transfer
Solving earlier problem helps to solve later problem ex: How you swing in cricket Would be useful in golf
Negative transfer
Solving prior problem makes it more difficult to solve later problem ex: Badminton need a flexible wrist tennis you need a firm wrist
Irrelevant assertion
The latest stock market rally was sure a surprise
Single-system hypothesis
Two languages are represented in one system
Heuristics
Useful rules of thumb based on experience
Evaluation
Was the problem solved correctly?
Indirect irrelevant question
Wasn't that latest stock market rally sure a surprise?
Global
impairment in both understanding & production
Modus ponens
(affirming the antecedent) If P, then Q All fruit grows on trees P is true An apple is a fruit Q is true Therefore, apples grow on trees
Modus tollens
(denying the consequent) If P, then Q All fruit grows on trees Not Q Tomatoes do not grow on trees Not P Therefore, tomatoes are not a fruit
Fallacies
- A failure in reasoning that renders an argument invalid - Faulty reasoning; misleading or unsound argument
Groupthink
- A phenomenon characterized by premature decision making that is generally the result of group members attempting to avoid conflict - Tends to result in sub-optimal decision making
Ill-structured problems are
- Ambiguous and unclear - Not all relevant information is provided - Have multiple ways to be solved - Are complex. Ex: City planning, Environmental preservation, Creating a budget.
Functional Fixedness
- An inability to assign new functions and roles to elements of a problem. Inability to use old tools in novel ways - We can only use something the way it's suppose to be used Ex: don' t have a hammer, use a book instead
Pidgins
- Are "on the spot" languages that develop when people with no common language come into contact with each other - Communication between two language groups - Often used between immigrants and locals or missionaries and natives in order to be understood by each other without having to learn the language of the other group - Nobody speaks a pidgin as their 1st language - Have smaller vocabularies, a simpler structure and more limited functions than natural languages
Syllogisms
- Are deductive arguments that involve drawing a conclusion from two premises - A series of three statements: two premises followed by a conclusion - Can not always reach a logical conclusion Ex: Premise 1: All birds are animals. Premise 2: All animals eat food. Conclusion: All birds eat food.
Pragmatic Reasoning Schemas
- Are general organizing principles or rules related to particular kinds of goals, such as permissions, obligations, or causations Ex: Prior belief matters in reasoning Young person driving When logic questions are framed as permission questions people perform better
Enhancing Deductive Reasoning
- Avoid heuristics and biases that distort our reasoning - Consider more alternatives - Training and practice - Be in a sad mood
Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic
- Begin by guessing a first approximation (an anchor) - Make adjustments to that number on the basis of additional information - Often leads to a reasonable answer - Can lead to errors in some cases
Elimination by Aspects
- Begin with a large number of options - Determine the most important attribute and then select a cutoff value for that attribute - All alternatives with values below that cutoff are eliminated - The process continues with the most important remaining attribute(s) until only one alternative remains Ex: Engagement ring example from class
Experts Differ from Novices
- Better schemas - Well-organized knowledge in specific domain. - Representation of problems. - Select more appropriate strategies. - Faster at solving problems. - Are more accurate.
Two type reasoning
- Deductive reasoning - Inductive reasoning
Advantages to bilingualism
- Enhanced executive functions - Delayed onset of dementia - More expertise in their own language - Sensitive to subtle aspects of language - Perform better on tests of nonverbal intelligence that require recognition of verbal patterns
Alternative uses tests divergent thinking across 4 sub categories
- Fluency - Originality - Flexibility - Elaboration
The Model of Economic Man & Woman assumptions
- Fully understand all of the options available - Understood pros and cons of each option, all the subtle differences among the options - Rationally made their final choice means their choice is always that which maximize something of value
Disadvantages of bilingualism
- Have smaller vocabularies - Access to lexical items in memory is slower
Incubation
- Have to solve it, but you take a break so you relax - Time away from a problem provides new insights or otherwise facilitates the problem-solving process - Recovery from fatigue. - Reduces negative transfer. - Sleep has positive effects.
How People Make Causal Inferences
- How people make judgments about whether something causes something else. -Errors occur from: - Confirmation bias. - Relying solely on correlational evidence. - Failure to recognize that many phenomena have multiple causes Ex: It may be that factor A causes Factor B It may be that factor B causes Factor A Some higher order, Factor C may cause both Factors A and B to occur together
Dominant Bilingualism
- I know one language well - Know both languages
Biases Influencing Decision-Making
- Illusory correlation - Overconfidence - Hindsight bias
Three main errors in Well-Structured Problems
- Inadvertently moving backward - Making illegal moves - Not realizing the nature of the next legal move
Amabile (1996)- The Process Approach
- Intrinsic motivation is important - Mastery comes first the creativity
Illusory Correlations
- Is a perceived relationship that does not exist. - Are formed by the pairing of two distinctive events Ex: (Friends) Phoebe believe every time she goes to the dentist someone dies
Density
- Is positively correlated with proficiency - Is negatively correlated with age of acquisition
Inductive Reasoning
- Is the process of reasoning from specific facts or observations to reach a likely conclusion that may explain the facts - Involves reasoning from specific cases to more general, but uncertain, conclusions - Probable conclusions to attempt to predict future specific instances - Does not allow you to reach a logically certain conclusion. - Can reach a highly probable outcome.
Representativeness Heuristic
- Judge probability of an event based on how it matches a stereotype - Can be accurate - Can also lead to errors - Most will overuse representativeness
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: Supported
- Language does exert great influence on patterns of thinking and therefore on culture - Language may reinforce certain ideas and push them into attention - Linguistic structure does not constrain what people think but only influence what they routinely think - Language reflects cultural preoccupations
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
- Language of the society predispose us to certain choices of interpretation about how we view the world - We categorize/name objects based on our native language and are limited by our language in what we can categorize or communicate - If our language has no words for colors we could not conceptualize those colors
Subtractive bilingualism
- Learn a second language that interferes with the native language - Don't continue using native language
Torrance test on creative thinking
- Measures diversity, quantity and appropriates pf responses to open-ended questions - Incomplete figures
Actual frequency influences how easily evidence comes to mind but so do other factors such as
- Media - Vividness
Gambler's fallacy
- Mistaken belief that a random event is affected by previous random events. - Believe that "your turn to win" has come - In reality, probability of winning is still the same.
Two Valid Deductive Inferences
- Modus ponens - Modus tollens
Weisberg (1988)- The Process Approach
- Nothing innately special about people - Hard work and dedication leads to creativity
Anchoring and Adjustment
- People are influenced by an initial anchor value - Anchor value may be unreliable or irrelevant, and adjustment is often insufficient
Creoles
- Pidgin develops over time in such a way that it becomes this - Are complete languages, Pidgins are not - Has developed through expansion form and grammar - Is stable and autonomous in its norms Ex: Manglish; ENGLISH BASED SPOKEN IN MALAYSIA
Creativity
- Process of creating something that is original and worthwhile - Is seen in a wide range of fields Ex: Art, engineering, medicine, house work, etc
Neural activity associated with insight. fMRI studies found
- Right hippocampus is active during problem-solving - Spike in right anterior temporal lobe just before insight
Heuristics Influencing Decision-Making
- Satisficing - Elimination by aspects - Representativeness heuristic - Availability heuristic - Anchoring - Framing
Mental Set
- Seeing a problem in a particular way instead of other plausible ways due to experience or context entrenchment - May cause you to adopt an ineffective strategy and prevents problem-solving - May make assumptions without realizing it - May find it hard to approach the problem in a new way
Factors Affecting Use of Analogies
- Similarity - Explicitly need to seek them: Does that question help me out - Multiple analogies are more effective: More group convergence problem the faster you will think - Timing: If given close together - Context
Effective of Groups on decision making can enhance the effectiveness of problem solving when the group is
- Small - Has open communication - Share a common mind-set - Members identify as a group - Agreed upon acceptable behavior
2 types of Judgement & Decision Theory
- The Model of Economic Man & Woman - The Subjective Expected Utility Theory
Sunk-Cost Fallacy
- The decision to continue to invest in something simply because one has invested in it before and one hopes to recover one's investment Example: Bought a car Ends up being a lemon You sink more and more money into the car hoping to make it worth the money and time, instead of cutting your loses
The Subjective Expected Utility Theory
- The main goal of decision making is to seek pleasure (positive utility) and avoid pain (negative utility) - Design to help with errors in model of economics - Consider all possible alternatives - Use all information currently known - Weigh potential costs and benefits - Subjective weighing of various outcomes - Sound reasoning considers above factors
Reasoning
- The process of drawing conclusions from principles and from evidence - Moving from what is already known to infer new information
Deductive reasoning
- The process of reasoning from one or more general statements regarding known information to a specific application of the general statement - Formal procedure that ensures accuracy if rules of logic are followed. - Given some premises that are true, one can reach a conclusion that must also be true
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: Criticisms
- There are certain thoughts of an individual in one language that cannot be understood by those who are native to another language - Asserts that each language has a unique system and cross-cultural understanding is impossible. - BUT we have universals things that are constant cross-culturally
Satisficing
- To obtain an outcome that is good enough - Humans do not make ideal decisions and we work with limited resources and time - We accept the first option presented that is good enough to meet our minimum requirements - Does not have to be the most effective strategy
Generate and test
- Trial-and-error strategy - Create possibilities, test them, and discard the ones that are incorrect Ex:. car will not start
Dual-system hypothesis
- Two languages are represented by separate systems - Depends on if a person is a balanced bilingual or dominant bilinguals.
Deductive Validity
- Typically deductive arguments have three statements - If P, then Q (conditional if-then statement) - Statement about whether P or Q is true or not true - A conclusion about P or Q
There are two types of Problems
- Well-Structured - Ill-Structured
Well-Structured Problems
- With a clear path to the solution - Does not mean easy for Ex: Math difficult to do but clear path by using a formula
Groupthink occurs in 3 kinds of situations
1. An isolated cohesive & homogeneous group is empowered to make decisions. 2. Objective & impartial leadership is absent within the group or outside of it. 3. High levels of stress impinge on the group decision making process.
There are 4 basic ways of making indirect requests
1. Asking or making statements about abilities 2. Stating a desire 3. Stating a future action; and 4. Citing reasons
6 symptoms of groupthink
1. Closed mindedness- Not letting new info, in 2. Rationalization 3. Squelching of dissent- No one is letting you speak 4. Formation of a 'mindguard' for the group- Restricted thought process 5. Feeling Invulnerable 6. Feeling unanimous
2 types of mental sets
1. Functional fixedness 2. Stereotypes
4 Fallacies Influencing Decision-Making
1. Gambler's fallacy and the hot hand 2. Conjunction fallacy 3. Inclusion fallacy 4. Sunk-cost fallacy
4 Antidotes for Groupthink
1. Leader should give constructive criticism, be impartial 2. Ensure members seek information from sources outside of the group. 3. Leader actively prevents spurious conformity to the group norm. 4. Group should form subgroups
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis consists of two associated principle
1. Linguistic Determinism 2. Linguistic Relativity
Pinker's Theory of indirect speech can serve 3 purposes
1. Plausible deniability 2. Relationship negotiation 3. Language as a digital medium of indirect as well as direct communication
2 types of transfer
1. Positive transfer 2. Negative transfer
7 problem Solving Cycle
1. Problem Identification 2. Problem Definition 3. Strategy Formulation 4. Organization of Information 5. Allocation of Resources 6. Monitoring 7. Evaluation
Five basic categories of speech acts that reflect the intention of the utterance.
1. Representative conveys info: I like polar bears. 2. Directive is order or request that causes behavior: Turn on the air conditioner 3. Commissive is a promise/agreement to do something: I will make the cookies 4. Expressive conveys information about inner state: I enjoy spending time with you 5. Declaration is a statement that brings about new situation: I am now a vegetarian
Subjective Expected Utility Theory can involve two types of calculations
1. Subjective utility 2. Subjective probability
What are the 3 intellect abilities that are important
1. Synthetic ability 2. Analytic ability 3. Practical-contextual
4 types of aphasia
1. Wernicke's 2. Broca's 3. Global 4. Anomic
Linguist Universals
All languages have nouns & verbs, all spoken language has vowels and consonants
Proposition
An assertion that can be either true or false
Kohler
Animal model of insight. Sultan stacked boxes to get banana
Direct speech acts
Are often considered rude because of their directness and tend to be avoided in formal situations/conversations Ex:Open the window
Premises
Are propositions that about which arguments are made
The conjunction fallacy
Assigning a higher probability to one event and another occurring than to the probability of just one of the two events occurring
Opposite Hot hand
Belief that a certain course of events will continue Ex: When you keep winning so you believe it will keep happening but then lose
Subjective utility
Calculation based individuals judgement of value Ex: Value of money Adults believe $100 is not much to spend Teens believe $100 is a lot to spend
Subjective probability
Calculation based on an individuals estimates of likelihood Ex: Car crash Some people believe it is not likely the crash will happen and they don't need a seat belt
Framing Effect
Decisions can depend on how choices are presented
_________________________________ can improve problem solving ability
Emotional Intelligence
Expert problem solvers
Engage in more global planning
Naturalistic decision-making
Ex. Astronaut training Part of training they go under water Need to so things quickly Risks are real to what could happen in outer space
The model of economic
Have to be true
The use of ________________ to make decisions can lead to ___________ in thinking
Heuristics Fallacies
__________________ are _____________________ we take that lighten our cognitive load
Heuristics Mental shortcuts
Organization of Information
How does the information fit together. - Symbols - Matrixes - Diagrams
Flexibility
How many areas your answers cover
Fluency
How many uses can come up with
Allocation of Resources
How mush time, money, effort should be put into solving the problem?
Originality
How uncommon those uses are
Evasive assertion
I think we should have our board meeting on some day other than Monday
Aphasia
Impaired language function due to brain damage
Wernicke's
Impairment in understanding
Broca's
Impairment of production
Elaboration
Level of detail in responses
Availability Heuristic
Making judgments about the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easily instances come to mind
Inadvertently moving backward
Moving a step away from the end goal
Anomic
Naming issues
Convergent thinking
Narrow options down to best solution
Making illegal moves
Not permitted by the terms of the problem
How common in real life does the model of economic happen
Not very common
Stereotypes
Overgeneralizing from limited observations, limits our thinking
Neural correlates measured before an individual sees a problem can predict if insight will occur
Participants who had activation in the frontal lobes would later generate an insightful solution
Overconfidence
People tend to have unrealistic optimism about their abilities, judgments, and skills
Actual judgment of _______________and ______________is made by each __________________________
Pleasure Pain Decision-maker
Opportunity costs
Prices paid for availing oneself of certain opportunities Ex : Dream job but it's in the states, you now have to move
Wertheimer
Productive (insightful) thinking goes beyond previously learned associations. Must break away from the known and see the problem in an entirely new light
Bounded Rationality
Rational within limits
How do we make choices and judgments
Some models believe we select from among choices and evaluate opportunities
Working forward
Start at initial state and work to goal state, sequential Ex: Math problems
Algorithms
Systematic procedure guaranteed to find a solution
Confirmation bias
Tendency to search for and interpret evidence in a way that confirms our theories and avoid evidence that contradicts prior beliefs
Linguistic Determinism Linguistic/strong determinism
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: There are certain thoughts of an individual in one language that cannot be understood by those who are native to another language.Thoughts and behavior are determined by language
Age
The earlier in life a second language is learned, the more fluent the speaker will become
Divergent Production
The generation of a diverse assortment pf appropriate response
Inclusion fallacy
The individual judges a greater likelihood that every member of an inclusive category has a particular characteristic than that every member of a subset of the inclusive category has that characteristic
Linguistic Relativity
The less similar the languages the more diverse their conceptualization of the world; different languages view the world differently
Hindsight Bias
The memory of how we acted previously changes when we learn the outcome of an event
Practical-contextual
To be able to convey and sell the importance of the ideas to others
Analytic ability
To recognize the importance of ideas and focus energy on those worth pursuing
Synthetic ability
To see problems using novel perspectives and not be bound by conventional thinking
Stereotyped threat
When people adhere to stereotypes about themselves and it negatively effects performance ex: University student not smart enough to get a B average, parents never did better then that
Intrinsic motivation
You love something, and you find it rewarding
Guilford alternative uses test
Your creativity by giving you 2 minutes to think of as many uses possible for a everyday object
Research shows that ___________________and ___________________ correlate with high creativity and intelligence
bipolar disorder schizophrenia
Prefrontal cortex active in ______________
planning - When your thinking about it
Frontal lobe active in ____________________________
problem-solving