Final Exam Set 1: 1450-1914

revolution

1st definition: a drastic and far-reaching change in ways of thinking and behaving; 2nd definition: the overthrow of a government by those who are governed

non secular

A _________ society is one where religion is experienced in many everyday events of civic life, and where it is part of the government. Examples would include theocracies like the ancient state of Israel where the High Priest was also a leader of the state.

theocracy

A form of government in which a god or deity is recognized as the state's supreme civil ruler.

Taj Mahal

A great Mughal monument: a white marble mausoleum in Agra, northern India, completed in 1643 in memory of Mumtaz Mahal, the wife of Mughal. emperor Shah Jahan. It is considered the greatest example of Mughal architecture.

nation-state

A people with a shared identity and culture (a nation) who possess their own territory and state government, or a state-level political system that contains all and only members of one nation.

elite

A small group within the state or other organization which has disproportionate power over important decisions.

patriarchy

A social system in which the father or eldest male is head of the household, having authority over women and children. _____ also refers to a system of government by males, and to the dominance of men in social or cultural systems. It may also include title being traced through the male line.

Humanism

A system of thought that focuses on the nature, ideals, and achievements of human beings, rather than on the divine

single point perspective

A technique for achieving a sense of depth by establishing a single vanishing point and painting or building all objects to diminish to it.

authoritarianism

An ___________ government is one in which political power is concentrated in a leader or leaders, typically unelected, who possess exclusive, unaccountable, and arbitrary power

capitalism

An economic system in which the means of production are privately owned; supply, demand, price, distribution, and investments are determined mainly by private decisions in the free market, rather than through a planned economy; and profit is distributed to owners who invest in businesses

institution

An established pattern of human social behavior in a given society--such as marriage, family, or government.

#3 Westernization under Peter the Great

Bureaucratic reform - In order to pay for and promote his expanded army, new navy, and improved infrastructure, Peter reorganized the bureaucracy to more efficiently gather taxes and to encourage industrial production. He replaced boyars with government officials selected according to his newly established Table of Ranks, which allowed officials to attain government positions based on merit, not on aristocratic status. He eliminated many titles of nobility, and he ensured that the new bureaucrats were loyal to him as the person responsible for their newly acquired positions.

The Qing Empire

By 1750 China had reached its largest extent of land ever under the Qing Dynasty, founded by the Manchu of northeastern Asia. By 1644 they captured Beijing and much other territory around their homeland, and by the end of the 17th century they had conquered southern China.

Key Concept #4 Americas 1450-1750

By 1750, Spain and Portugal remained firmly in control in Mesoamerica and South America; North American territory was shared by several European colonial powers, but the British settlements would soon begin to press for independence from monarchical control.

St Petersburg

Capitol city of Russia built by Peter the Great. It was on the coast of the Baltic Sea and considered Russia's window to the West and is a symbol of Peter's desire to westernize.

Sea-Based Powers

During this era sea-based powers, such as those in western Europe, built their power by controlling water routes, developing technologies to cross the seas, and gaining wealth from trade and land claims across the oceans. Although Europeans were not the first to discover the importance of sea-based trade, communications, and travel, they took the lead in the new world economy that was developing, and took advantage of the opportunity to capture the world stage by 1750.

Key Concept #2 Africa 1450 to 1750

European involvement in Africa began with the Portuguese and initially included a variety of religious, economic, and political motivations. As the period continued, other European powers initiated contact with Africa as well, drawn mainly by the prospect of acquiring slaves to be put to work on New World plantations.

New Trade Routes -1450-1750

European ships loaded with manufactured goods (Leg One) stopped first in Africa, sold goods and reloaded with slaves on the Middle Passage headed for the New World (Leg Two), and finally headed home again (Leg Three) loaded with colonial products. Spanish galleons (ships designed with large hulls to hold the silver) also headed from the New World to Manila in the Philippines, where they traded silver for Asian luxury goods.

Opening of Japan

Following over 200 years of self-imposed isolation, Japan was forced to open its doors to the world following the arrival of U.S. Commodore Matthew Perry 2. The United States wanted to find new markets following industrialization, and Japan offered new economic opportunities 3. The Treaty of Kanagawa signed by two nations, opened Japan to trade 4. Japanese isolation ended; the country focused on a new domestic policy of rapid modernization

Key Concept #1 Europe 1450-1750

Following the Crusades and the Black Death, major changes began to sweep through Europe and bring about the end of the Middle Ages. Towns and cities revived, driven by a growing European interest in trade. This led to important economic changes that soon went hand in hand with an era of world exploration and colonization.

Key Concept #3 Americas 1450-1750

Following the Europeans' economic takeover of the Americas, African slaves were introduced throughout the region, with far-ranging economic, social, and political consequences.

Key Concept #2 Asia 1450 to 1750

Following the Ming Empire's collapse, the Manchu-ruled Qing Empire expanded China's borders while continuing careful regulation of outside trade and other influences.

communism

Form of socialism advocated by Karl Marx; according to Marx, class struggle was inevitable and would lead to the creation of a classless society in which all wealth and property would be owned by the community as a whole

Key Concept #1 Asia 1450 to 1750

In China, the return of indigenous rule following the Mongol conquest brought about a resurgence of traditional Chinese social, political, and economic practices. However, without the unifying Mongol presence, China retreated from contact with lands to the east and west during the Ming Empire.

Key Concept #3 Africa 1450 to 1750

In general, African interactions with European powers were fairly static, as the Europeans became preoccupied with New World colonization, and were interested in Africa primarily to maintain the slave trade. Most major conflicts that occurred-with the exception of the Portuguese destruction of the East African trading cities in 1505-were among rival groups within Africa itself, such as the Moroccan invasion of the Songhai Empire in 1591.

Social Class Structures Before and After Industrialism

Keep in mind that throughout history, the wealthy class was small and the poorest class was huge, but industrialism gave it a new twist. Because of urbanization, people were living side by side. They could see the huge differences among the classes right before their eyes. What's more, the members of the working class saw factory owners gain wealth quickly-at their expense. The owners didn't inherit their position, but instead achieved success by exploiting their workers, and the workers knew it. After industrialism, people literally saw for the first time the connection between their sacrifices and the aristocracy's luxuries.

Land-Based Powers

Land-based powers followed patterns that political organizations had used in most places for centuries. Governments controlled land by building armies, bureaucracies, roads, canals, and walls that unified people and protected them from outsiders. The focus was on land.

Safavid

Later Persian empire (1501-1722) founded by Shah Ismail and that became a center for Shiism;

Key Concept #3 Middle East 1450-1750

Like the Ottoman Empire, the Safavid Empire of Iran emerged during this period as something of a throwback, a land-based empire in an era when power and wealth came increasingly from naval might and sea trade.

Manchu

Member of the Manchu speaking people of Mongolian race of Manchuria who conquered China and founded the Qing Dynasty

Bourgeoisie

Middle class in modern industrial society.

#1 Westernization under Peter the Great

Military reform - Peter built the size of his army by drafting peasants to serve as professional soldiers and increasing pay. He encouraged the use of western technology, including the training of troops in the use of cannons and firearms. He ordered the building of roads and bridges to more easily transport troops and equipment across the countryside. He built a navy from scratch, and brought in European experts on shipbuilding, sailing, and navigation. Ports, including St. Petersburg, were built to accommodate the new ships.

Egyptian modernization

Muhammad Ali "father of modern Egypt" helped with reform -opportunity was created by Napoleon's invasion and the civil war -improved tax collection, reorganizing landholding system, backing large irrigation projects to increase farm output

Contrast Them: India, China, and Japan on European Aggression

No doubt about it, the Japanese under the Tokugawa Shogunate reacted most decisively against European colonialism. China and India both allowed trade and European occupation of port cities, although China increasingly limited it under the Manchus. India was the least suspecting of the Europeans, and it paid dearly. In the next chapter you'll see the consequences of these three attitudes toward the Europeans: India was overrun, China was partially overrun, and Japan, after briefly falling prey to outside influence, turned the tables and became a colonizing empire itself.

Key Concept #3 Europe 1450-1750

Numerous challenges to the power and influence of the Catholic Church also opened the door to new attitudes regarding science, politics, and society in general.

Key Concept #5 Asia 1450 to 1750

On the Indian subcontinent, the Mughal Empire emerged. Under its greatest ruler, Akbar, policies of religious toleration supported the empire's expansion, but his successors would fail to maintain the centralized authority necessary to withstand European involvement in India.

Key Concept #2 Middle East 1450-1750

Once established, the Ottoman Empire faced growing challenges from the emerging European powers of the period, which had far-ranging (and ultimately detrimental) effects on the empire's social structure, economic prosperity, and political stability.

Serfs

Peasants who, though not chattel slaves, were tied to the land and who owed obligation to the lords on whose land they worked

peasants

People in agrarian societies who produce food from the land, using traditional farming methods of plow and animal power. Farm workers in agrarian societies.

Ottoman empire

Powerful Turkish empire that lasted from the conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul) in 1453 until 1918 and reached its peak during the reign of Suleyman the Magnificent (r. 1520-1566).

Key Concept #1 Americas 1450-1750

Prior to European contact, civilizations throughout the Americas continued to rise and fall in relative isolation from one another. Once Columbus made Europeans aware of the existence of the "New World," explorers from Spain, Portugal, England, France, the Netherlands, and other European lands rapidly settled throughout the Western Hemisphere.

Romanov Dynasty

Ruling family of Russia, including Peter the Great and Catherine the Great, this dynasty favored the nobles, reduced military obligations, expanded the Russian empire further east, and fought several unsuccessful wars, yet they lasted from 1613 to 1917.

ideology

Shared ideas or beliefs which serve to justify and support the interests of a particular group or organizations.

#2 Westernization under Peter the Great

Social reform - Peter ordered the boyars to dress like Europeans, which meant they had to abandon their bearskin capes and beards. By tradition, boyars grew their beards without shaving, giving them a very un-western appearance, so Peter ordered them to shave. If they refused, Peter himself was known to hack their beards off with scissors, although eventually the beards could stay if their owners paid fine to the government. Until Peter's rule, Russian women followed the Byzantine custom of secluding themselves at home and wearing veils in public. Previous tsars' courts were all-male, but Peter insisted that women appear unveiled in his court, dressed as European ladies of fashion. He extended rights in less superficial ways as well, such as a decree that young people, rather than their parents, should determine for themselves who they would marry

Young Turks

Society founded in 1889 in the Ottoman Empire; its goal was to restore the constitution of 1876 and to reform the empire; Young rebellious people in the Ottoman Empire who forced the Sultan to reform.

Ming dynasty

Succeeded Mongol Yuan dynasty in China in 1368; lasted until 1644; initially mounted huge trade expeditions to southern Asia and elsewhere, but later concentrated efforts on internal development within China.

ethnocentrism

Tendency to view one's own culture and group as superior to all other cultures and groups

Key Concept #3 Asia 1450 to 1750

The Tokugawa Shogunate, which emerged after a long period of civil war in Japan, centralized authority over the entire archipelago; like China's emperors, Japan's shoguns maintained strict control over contact with European merchants and missionaries to minimize destabilizing influences in their society.

middle class

The _____ ______ also called the bourgeoisie, became the most powerful social class within industrialized societies. They were the wealthy but non-aristocratic class of property owners and the biggest beneficiaries of industrial prosperity. Meanwhile the Marxists saw them as exploiters of the working class.

Family Life and Industrialization

The biggest social changes associated with industrialization were to the family. Both women and children became part of the work force, albeit at lower wages, and in more dangerous conditions than their male counterparts. Factory-run boardinghouses housed workers dependent on the company for housing, food, and personal items. These new living arrangements removed workers from families and traditional structures. The emergence of a middle class also brought changes to the family. Home and work were no longer centered in the same space. Middle- and upper-class women were expected to master the domestic sphere and to remain private and separate from the realities of the working world.

Key Concept #1 Middle East 1450-1750

The central event marking the Ottoman Empire's dominance of the Middle East during this period was its capture of Constantinople from the vanishing Byzantine Empire in 1453.

Trans-Siberian railroad

The construction of this railroad was among the Russian government's efforts to encourage rapid industrialization during the late 19th century.

Duma

The elected Russian parliament. Though through establishing this is seemed like the Czar was giving his people power, in reality he could easily get rid of this if they made any laws or such that he didn't like.

Atlantic Slave Trade

The forced migration of Africans across the Atlantic for slave labor on plantations and in other industries; the trade reached its peak in the eighteenth century and ultimately involved more than twelve million Africans.

Key Concept #4 Middle East 1450-1750

The global inflation caused by the sudden glut of New World silver in the world economy brought crisis to both the Ottomans and the Safavids by the 1700s. The Ottoman Empire would continue struggling to survive-until the early twentieth century-while the Safavid Empire had crumbled completely by 1750.

Renaissance

The great period of rebirth in art, literature, and learning in the 14th-16th centuries, which marked the transition into the modern periods of European history.

Key Concept #2 Europe 1450-1750

The humanist world-view of the Renaissance continued to spread throughout Europe. The perfection of the printing press allowed for increasing literacy and a rapid exchange of ideas and technologies; the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment emerged as two major results.

Industrial Revolution in Europe and Japan

The industrialization of Europe and Japan followed very similar paths, but Japan's was on fast forward. It managed to accomplish in a few decades what had taken Europe more than a century, in large part because it didn't have to invent everything itself-it just needed to implement the advances of Western industrialization. The difference is that industrialization in Japan was government-directed, not a slowly evolving process like in Great Britain.

industrialization

The process by which production in the industrial sector becomes increasingly important compared with agricultural production; more fundamentally, a general change towards the use of advanced technology and a complex division of labor in production with associated changes in social structure and organization.

African Diaspora

The separation of Africans from their homeland through centuries of forced removal to serve as slaves in the Americas and elsewhere.

Key Concept #4 Africa 1450 to 1750

The slave trade led to the depopulation of certain areas of sub-Saharan Africa, and forced millions of Africans into lives of grueling labor in other parts of the world. However, the economic, political, and social structures of the continent remained largely intact during this period; not until the nineteenth century would European involvement in Africa widen from a focus on the slave trade to true imperialist domination.

demography

The study of patterns and rates of population change, including birth and death rates, migration trends, and evolving population distribution patterns.

geopolitical

The study of the relationship among politics and geography, demography, and economics, especially with respect to the foreign policy of a nation.

Secularism

The view that the present well-being of mankind should predominate over religious considerations in civil or public affairs.

Tokugawa Shogunate

This Japanese dynasty was established by Tokugawa leyasu in 1603 and lasted until 1867. Under the shogunate, Japan's contact with the rest of the world was strictly limited; Japanese citizens were forbidden to travel outside the country, and only a few foreign merchants were allowed to trade in Japanese ports. Nevertheless, the Japanese economy, agriculture, and population grew, and the country enjoyed peace

Russo-Japanese War

This conflict from 1904 to 1905 between the Russian and Japanese empires happened after Russia attempted to expand into Japanese territory in East Asia. Japan soundly defeated Russia, ending Russian expansionist efforts in that region. Japan emerged with increased prestige for having defeated a perceived Western power Russo-Japanese War

Crimean War

This conflict took place from 1853 to 1856 as Russia battled combined British, French, and Ottoman Turk forces on the Crimean Peninsula. At stake were Russian efforts to protect Orthodox citizens living in the Ottoman Empire and conflicting claims to holy Christian sites. Russia's relatively weak military and technology led to its defeat, which encouraged the empire to begin efforts to modernize.

laissez-faire

This economic and political theory, promoted by Adam Smith and John Stuart Mill and strongly associated with capitalism, holds that government should have minimal involvement in economic affairs. The popularity of this doctrine during the 19th century contributed to the growth of financial instruments such as the stock market and increasing transnational businesses.

proletariat

This economic and social class emerged during this period as a result of increased industrialization. Karl Marx defined the ____ as those who sell their labor power for use in industrial production. Marx called for a revolution in which the _____ class would overthrow the bourgeoisie, or the owners of capital and business.

Janissaries

This elite corps of the Ottoman army is one of the reasons for its great military decline. They had served as the backbone of the army but they repeatedly masterminded coups and had become a political force in the Ottoman state. They also neglected military training and lacked in the advancements of weaponry.

Russian Empire

This empire came into existence in the 15th century, when the Russian people established independence from the Mongols. The Russian Empire relied on a strong centralized government headed by an absolute monarch called a tsar (czar). The Russian Empire lasted until 1917, when the Bolshevik Revolution ended the Romanov line and this form of absolutism

abolition of slavery

This end of slave labor spread through Europe and the Americas during the 19th century Enlightenment ideas of freedom and liberty combined with increased costs, slave revolts, and other economic influences made slavery an unsupportable system. The formal freeing of enslaved people is called emancipation.

emancipation of serfdom

This happened in Russia in 1861, thereby marking the end of Russian feudalism and the spread of industrialization. The end of serfdom reflected the influence of Enlightenment ideas of freedom and liberty.

Meiji Restoration

This period of significant reform to Japan's government and economy began in 1868 due to increasing American and European influences. Japan underwent rapid, government-supported industrialization and quickly emerged as an economic, political, and military force. Through several wars, it proved its dominance of the region and showed the West it had become a world power

urbanization

This phenomenon describes the movement of people from rural areas to cities, often in search of economic opportunities. Increased ______ was closely linked to the Industrial Revolution

Marxism

This political and economic system, developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, opposes private property, views capitalism as exploitive, and views class struggle as the dominant force behind social and historical change. _______ is considered the primary ideology behind communism

socialism

This political philosophy and form of government sets up a situation in which the government runs industries rather than privately owned and operated corporations. Many countries throughout the world have governments with some ________ characteristics.

private property

This term describes land or goods held exclusively by individuals or groups rather than owned by the government or society at large. Increased legal protection of private property contributed to the rise of industrial production during the Industrial Revolution.

Key Concept #2 Americas 1450-1750

Via the Columbian Exchange, European settlement in the Americas drastically reduced Amerindian populations and significantly altered-or even destroyed-indigenous cultures.

Contrast Them: Expansion in the Americas versus Empire-Building Elsewhere

We've talked about a lot of empires that expanded into far-reaching territories: the Romans, the Mongols, the Muslims, and the Macedonians, for example. In each of these cases, the empires either allowed existing cultural traditions to remain intact, or converted the existing population to their way of doing things, forcibly or not. By contrast, in the case of the Americas, the existing populations were largely wiped out. In addition, huge numbers of people moved in, far outnumbering the number of natives that survived. Never before had an empire moved into such a vast territory that was so depopulated.

Key Concept #1 Africa 1450 to 1750

While Africa had long been linked to the Islamic world through trade (and the Muslims' conquest of North Africa), this period saw the first significant European contact with the continent.

Key Concept #4 Asia 1450 to 1750

While Islam continued to spread around the Indian Ocean, the age of Muslim-dominated trade in the region gave way to European control, with Portuguese, Dutch, British, and French commercial ventures laying the foundation for a coming era of colonial domination.

Contrast Them: Russia and Western Europe

While western Europe basked in the glow of the Renaissance, explored and expanded its influence across oceans, and debated about religion, science, and government in a series of movements, Russia remained isolated from the west and pushed eastward instead. Its growth was territorial, but not intellectual or artistic. During the fifteenth, sixteenth, and most of the seventeenth centuries, it had nothing that could be labeled a Renaissance or Enlightenment. It wasn't part of the Renaissance because it was under the control of the Mongols at the time. It wasn't part of the Reformation because it wasn't part of the Catholic Church in the first place. So even though today we often see Russia as a European power, its history progressed along a very different path. It wasn't until the late 17th century that Russia turned its eyes westward.

Problems with Mercantilism

_______ assumes the wealth of a nation depends primarily on the possession of precious metals such as gold and silver. This type of system cannot be maintained forever, because the global economy would become stagnant if every country wanted to export and no one wanted to import. After a period of time, many people began to revolt against the idea of _________ and stressed the need for free trade. The continued pressure resulted in the implementation of laissez faire economics in the nineteenth century.

kowtow

a former Chinese custom of touching the ground with the forehead as a sign of respect or submission

consumerism

a social and economic order that is based on the systematic creation and fostering of a desire to purchase goods or services in ever greater amounts.

forbidden city

a walled enclosure of central Beijing, China, containing the palaces of 24 emperors in the Ming and Qing dynasties, here the emperors and rulers of China lived during 1121-1924 AD.

class struggle

conflict between social or economic classes (especially between the capitalist and proletariat classes)

migrations

permanent moves to new locations that have occurred on local, regional, and global levels.

Akbar

real architect of the Mughal Empire; grandson of Babur; reigned 1556-1605; brilliant and charismatic ruler; created a centralized, absolutist government; expanded Mughal empire into Gujarat, Bengal, and southwestern India; develops a syncretic faith known as the Divine Faith; encourages religious toleration of Hindus and Muslims

demographic transition

the pattern of falling death rates, followed by falling birthrates, that generally accompanies industrialization and economic development

Bloody Sunday

• In 1905 a peaceful demonstration at the Russian czar's winter palace in St. Petersburg turned violent when the czar's guards opened fire on the unarmed crowd • The protesters, led by a priest, wanted to present a petition to Czar Nicholas II asking for a representative assembly; instead many of the protesters were killed • Led to the establishment of the Russian legislative body, The Duma to serve as a voice of the people.

Origins of Absolute Monarchy

• Rule by divine right • Absolute power was the only way of guaranteeing order among the masses • Restored order after the chaos of the Black Death and religious wars • Wealth of the New World allowed kings to buy the forces they needed in order to rule • Growing middle class wanted protection of their property and wealth; some saw this as achievable under a strong leader • Centralized power made a state stronger when it competed against others; survival of the fittest

Karl Marx

• a nineteenth century philosopher, he developed a socialist theory with Friedrich Engel's in response to the changing nature of the workplace that resulted from the Industrial Revolution