final info cog psych

availability heuristic

Making judgments about the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easily instances come to mind

falsification principle

To test a rule, it is necessary to find situations that would falsify it

inducing structure problems

a problem requires finding a pattern among a fixed set of relations

belief bias

accepting a conclusion as valid if it is consistent with personal beliefs

experts solve problems ______ and at higher rates of ______ than beginners

faster; success

according to the psychological accounting principle, people make different decisions based on how they _______

feel about each outcome

anagrams

forming a word from a string of letters

subgoal

goal that solves part of the problem

shortcuts in inductive reasoning are called

heuristics

experts

individuals who are extremely knowledgeable or skilled in a particular field

illicit conversion

misinterpretation of a premise

what influences how likely a conclusion in inductive reasoning is to be true?

strength of argument

when we look at quality of evidence, _______ evidence, supported with ___________, leads to stronger arguments

stronger; objective measurement

myside bias

tendency to be swayed by our personal opinions

fixedness

tendency to focus on specific characteristic that keeps one from reaching solution

expected utility theory

when faced with uncertain choice we make decisions based on two factors: -expected utility of the outcome -probability of the outcomes

3 types of problems

-arrangement -inducing structure -transformation

representativeness heuristic

-judgments of category membership Typical events of a category are seen as more probable

ways to determine the strength of an argument

-representativeness of observations -number of observations -quality of evidence

representativeness of observations pertains to

How well observations about a particular category represent all members of the category

the problem with using analogies is that people are not always good at making connections between two problems unless they are given ______

a hint to use the analogous problem

in reasoning, we move from what we _______ to ____ a new ______

already know; infer; conclusion

experts spend more time ______ than beginners

analyzing problems

propositions

assertions that can be either true or false

-all A are B -all C are B -Therefore, all A are C. This is an example of what reasoning hypothesis

atmosphere

stress can lead to increased reliance on ______ thinking processes

automatic (System 1)

in the framing effect, people are risk _____ when presented with possible gains and risk _____ when presented with possible losses

averse; prone

people often wrongly assume that conditional statements are _______

biconditional (if p, then q--> if q, then p)

People have difficulty with syllogisms because there are many ______________ on syllogistic reasoning

cognitive constraints

reasoning

cognitive process by which people start with information and come to conclusions that go beyond that information

valid arguments can result in false ______ because the premises are not _____

conclusions; true

"if p, then q" is an example of _______

conditional reasoning

well defined problems have a _____ and there are certain procedures that lead to a ______

correct answer; solution

ill defined problems have no _______ and the path to the solution is ______

correct answer; unclear

prospect theory

decisions are not valued based on absolute value of end result, but rather the gain or loss from what we have right now

expertise and reasoning: a task that has abstract or unfamiliar content can be very _____ compared with the same task with familiar content (four card selection problem)

difficult

with the availability heuristic, which types of events can tend to be overestimated?

distinctive or emotionally salient events

experts possess ________ knowledge

domain-specific

framing

effects on decision making based on how scenario is presented

how can being an expert create a disadvantage?

experts solve problems in a specific way and are not always open to new ways of looking at problems in their area of expertise; problems that require flexible thinking

deductive reasoning goes from ____ to _____

general; specific

reasoning involves evaluating conclusions based solely on _______

given information

with the representativeness heuristic, the probability that A comes from B can be determined by

how well A resembles properties of B

Gestalt psychologists argue that reconstructing problems leads to _____

insight

an argument can be ______ even if the premises are true

invalid

truth is assessed by whether

it is consistent with facts or not

probability of outcome

likelihood of achieving what you want

deductive reasoning can also be thought of as _____ reasoning

logical

Gestalt psychologists are interested in representing the problem in the ______ and ________ the problem, or changing its representation

mind; reconstructing

with respect to number of observations, the ______ observations, the stronger the argument

more

what is a problem?

obstacle that exists between present state and a goal where it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle

conditional reasoning

one thing depends on something else ("if p, then q")

decisions are _______ of the reasoning process

outcomes

inadvertent plagiarism

participants shown drawings of unique creatures and told to make their own without copying any aspect of them. if asked a day after seeing them, they still copied the images they had seen (not conscious or on purpose)

inductive reasoning is a mechanism for using ________ to guide _________

past experience; present behavior

confirmation bias

people's tendency to seek information that confirms their beliefs

decision making involves evaluating given information, making a judgment, and choosing among several _______ based on this ______

possible alternatives; analysis

deductive reasoning involves determining whether a conclusion is valid based on _____

premises

syllogistic reasoning involves deciding whether two _____ necessitate a ______

premises; conclusion

syllogistic reasoning is composed of two _______ and one _______

premises; conclusion

according to the expected utility theory, decisions should not vary with how the choices are _________, because the choice is based on the utility and probability of the outcome, which doesn't change. However, _________ suggest that they do.

presented; preference reversals

conclusions can come from _____ or ______

principles; evidence

transformation problem

problem that requires changing initial state through sequence of operations until it matches goal state

algorithm

procedure of steps that will solve a problem if followed correctly

deductive reasoning is based on logical _______

propositions

the atmosphere effect occurs when ______ combine to form an _____, resulting in inaccurate assessments of argument _______

quantifiers; atmosphere; validity

judgments involve the application of ___________ to given information and the use of this information to arrive at a _______

reasoning processes; conclusion

utility of outcome

refers to whatever it is that someone wants to achieve

expertise in a particular subject increases ability to perceive how problems are ____, even when they have different _____

related; content

experimental evidence for insight: subjects given insight problems or non-insight problems (steady progress toward solution). asked how close they thought they were to solution at various time points

results: insight problems rated progress much lower until the insight occurred; non-insight problems rated gradual progress

success with use of analogies requires recognizing _______ and recalling the _______ of the analogous problem

similarity; solution

creativity can help someone come up with

solutions that are not only correct, but novel and useful

analogies

solving a problem by using a solution to a related problem

heuristics are often helpful in ________

solving problems

arrangement problems

some objects are presented and problem solver must rearrange them in a way that satisfies some criterion

in inductive reasoning, Premises are based on observation of one or more _________

specific cases

inductive reasoning goes from ____ to _____

specific; general

________ can be an efficient means of reaching a solution

subgoals

insight

sudden realization of a problem's solution

in inductive reasoning, conclusions are ______ but not _____

suggestions; definite

preference reversal

switching preference of one outcome over another based solely on how the outcomes are presented

functional fixedness

tendency to use object in its most familiar/ common use (ex: candle task and matchbox with matches in it)

validity is assessed by whether

the conclusion follows from the two premises

sunk-cost effect

the costs of the decision have already been paid (ski trips in Michigan vs. Wisconsin), but people choose to go on the trip they invested the most money in even though it won't be as fun. bigger investment--> feeling of obligation to make it worth it by going

impediments to creativity

the effect of examples can cause you to be less creative

study: participants shown different shapes and told to put them together in a way that yields something useful. conditions: selected parts but assigned a category, given parts but could choose a category, told parts and what category. which lead to the most creativity?

the last category; no freedom to choose so they had to be more creative with the constraints they're given

dual-process view

thinking operates in two modes: System 1 (automatic low-demand heuristic mode) and System 2 (controlled, high-cognitive-demand analytic mode)

arrangement problems are typically solved using _____ and ______ in which partial _________ are formed and evaluated

trial and error; solutions

true or false: it is hard to judge whether reasoning is logical

true

conditional reasoning involves evaluating whether a particular conclusion is ______ given that certain _____ hold

valid; conditions

________ depends on the form of the syllogism, while the ______ depends on the content of the premises

validity; truth

people make mistakes in the four card problem because they seek information to ____ the rule rather than to _____ it

verify; contradict

problems can be ____ defined or _____ defined

well; ill

the 4th category of the object combination task was that they received their objects, put them together, and then ______

were told what category it was for and had to explain the objects

in deductive reasoning, one takes one or more general statements regarding __________ to reach a ________ conclusion

what is known; logically certain

descriptive decision making model

what people actually do

normative decision making model

what you should do

belief bias occurs when our _______ interferes with judgments of _____

world knowledge; validity