Foreign Policy - 429 - Final Exam

Yalta Conference

(February 4-11, 1945), major World War II conference of the three chief Allied leaders, Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt of the United States, Prime Minister Winston Churchill of Great Britain, and Premier Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union, which met at Yalta in Crimea to plan the final defeat and occupation of Nazi Germany.

Tehran Conference

(November 28-December 1, 1943), meeting between U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin in Tehrān during World War II. The chief discussion centred on the opening of a "second front" in western Europe. Stalin agreed to an eastern offensive to coincide with the forthcoming Western Front, and he pressed the western leaders to proceed with formal preparations for their long-promised invasion of German-occupied France.

McCarthyism

1950's metaphorical witch hunt in which anyone's loyalty to the United States was questioned under the guise of being a potential Soviet spy. Numerous individuals, from Senators to Hollywood actors, were charged with being Communists. The charges themselves were enough to ruin careers and families so to deny the requests of potentially pointing out more communists, would be severely detrimental.

Iran-Contra Affair

1980s U.S. political scandal in which the National Security Council (NSC) became involved in secret weapons transactions and other activities that either were prohibited by the U.S. Congress or violated the stated public policy of the government. The background to the scandal lay in President Ronald Reagan's pre-occupation with the spread of communism, in particular in the United States' own backyard of Central America. In 1979, the Sandinista liberation movement in Nicaragua had finally overthrown the dictatorship of President Anastasio Somoza Debayle, whereupon Reagan became increasingly convinced that the presence of an actively left-wing regime in that country would spark revolution throughout the region and threaten the security of the United States. In the case of Nicaragua, the focus was on destabilizing the government and engineering the overthrow of the Marxist-oriented Sandinista regime. There was a Middle East component of this policy as well. In early 1985 the head of the NSC, Robert C. McFarlane, undertook the sale of antitank and antiaircraft missiles to Iran in the mistaken belief that such a sale would secure the release of a number of American citizens who were being held captive in Lebanon by Shīʿite terrorist groups loyal to Iran.

Containment Policy

A major policy objective of the United States during the Cold War. It was an attempt to stop Communism from spreading to other countries.

Ronald Reagan

A mercantile neoconservative president whose intensification of the Cold War is attributed with ending the Cold War.

Rhodesia/Zimbabwe peace deal

A peace treaty that was achieved by the use of sanctions imposed by the UN. These were the first UN sanctions in history. It ended the rule of the white minority in Zimbabwe and allowed for the majority of black Africans a chance to vote.

Operation Mongoose

After the failed attempt to ouster the communist regime in Cuba during the bay of pigs invasion, operation mongoose would be enacted in an attempt to bring down the regime by assassinating Fidel Castro. This operation was a complete failure, but it does have a number of colorful antidotes due to the sheer wonkiness of some the attempts on Castros life.

Marshall Plan

An attempt to counter Soviet influence in Europe by providing billions of dollars to rebuild Western Europe after the Second World War.

Vietnamization

An attempt to put more responsibility for the defense of South Vietnam in Vietnamese hands. It was put in place after the Tet offensive

Unconditional Surrender

An unconditional surrender is a surrender in which no guarantees are given to the surrendering party. In modern times, unconditional surrenders most often include guarantees provided by international law.

Anna Chennault Affair

Anna Chennault helped Nixon to get elected by lobbying the South Vietnamese government on behalf of Nixon on the lead up to his election. She played a role in delaying the talks until Nixon was elected.

Détente

Between 1969 - 1979, this multi-faceted and drawn out negotiation series, focused on decreasing arms between the Soviet Union and the United States. One of the final agreements took place between the United States President Jimmy Carter and Soviet leader Brezhnev. This discussion was the Strategic Arms Limitations Talks 2. The second discussion

"Wise Men of Foreign Affairs"

Dean Acheson, Secretary of State under President Harry Truman Charles E. Bohlen, U.S. ambassador to the Soviet Union, the Philippines, and France W. Averell Harriman, special envoy for President Franklin Roosevelt George F. Kennan, ambassador to the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia Robert A. Lovett, Truman's Secretary of Defense. These six individuals, trained in elite east coast schools, would be incredibly important in designing the foreign policy for the Cold war, as well as play a major role in designing the broad framework for many of the international institutions that came into being such as the United Nations.

"Arsenal of Democracy"

During the Second World War (1939-45), the Arsenal of Democracy was the slogan used by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, in a radio broadcast delivered on 29 December 1940. This broadcast said that the United states will offer supplies to Britain, but not troops.

2nd Front

Ever since the Soviet Union had entered the war, Stalin had been demanding that the Allies open-up a second front in Europe. Churchill and Roosevelt argued that any attempt to land troops in Western Europe would result in heavy casualties. Until the Soviet's victory at Stalingrad in January, 1943, Stalin had feared that without a second front, Germany would defeat them.

Fidel Castro

Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz was a Cuban revolutionary and politician who governed the Republic of Cuba as Prime Minister from 1959 to 1976 and then as President from 1976 to 2008.

"Domestic Containment"

Focused on the happy American home with bread-winner father, stay-at-home mother and obedient children, Gretchen Ritter describes in the "Journal of Policy History." It was part of the overall "containment" policy for fighting communism after World War II.

Franklin Roosevelt

Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945.

Tet Offensive

From an elaborate series of tunnels, North Vietnamese troops would initiate one of the most daring battles of the war in 1968. North Vietnamese troops would launch a series of savage attacks on most cities and military bases in South Vietnam. This battle may have been a military victory, but it would disillusion the American public with the war.

George Kennan's Long Telegram

George Kennan, the American charge d'affaires in Moscow, sends an 8,000-word telegram to the Department of State detailing his views on the Soviet Union, and U.S. policy toward the communist state. Kennan's analysis provided one of the most influential underpinnings for America's Cold War policy of containment.

Nixon Doctrine

Henceforth the United States will expect its Asian allies to tend to their own military defense. The Nixon Doctrine, as the president's statement came to be known, clearly indicated his determination to "Vietnamize" the Vietnam War.

Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan

Invasion of Afghanistan in late December 1979 by troops from the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union intervened in support of the Afghan communist government in its conflict with anticommunist Muslim guerrillas during the Afghan War (1978-92) and remained in Afghanistan until mid-February 1989. The Afghan War quickly settled down into a stalemate, with more than 100,000 Soviet troops controlling the cities, larger towns, and major garrisons and the mujahideen moving with relative freedom throughout the countryside. Soviet troops tried to crush the insurgency by various tactics, but the guerrillas generally eluded their attacks. The Soviets then attempted to eliminate the mujahideen's civilian support by bombing and depopulating the rural areas. These tactics sparked a massive flight from the countryside; by 1982 some 2.8 million Afghans had sought asylum in Pakistan, and another 1.5 million had fled to Iran. The mujahideen were eventually able to neutralize Soviet air power through the use of shoulder-fired antiaircraft missiles supplied by the Soviet Union's Cold War adversary, the United States.The war in Afghanistan became a quagmire for what by the late 1980s was a disintegrating Soviet Union. (The Soviets suffered some 15,000 dead and many more injured.) Despite having failed to implement a sympathetic regime in Afghanistan, in 1988 the Soviet Union signed an accord with the United States, Pakistan, and Afghanistan and agreed to withdraw its troops. The Soviet withdrawal was completed on Feb. 15, 1989, and Afghanistan returned to nonaligned status.

Carter Doctrine

Issued in 1980 and expanded by presidents from both parties, the Carter doctrine now drives American engagement in a Middle East that looks far different from the region for which it was invented. President Jimmy Carter confronted another time of great turmoil in the region. The US-supported Shah had fallen in Iran, the Soviets had invaded Afghanistan, and anti-Americanism was flaring, with US embassies attacked and burned. His new doctrine declared a fundamental shift. Because of the importance of oil, security in the Persian Gulf would henceforth be considered a fundamental American interest. The United States committed itself to using any means, including military force, to prevent other powers from establishing hegemony over the Gulf. In the same way that the Truman Doctrine and NATO bound America's security to Europe's after World War II, the Carter Doctrine elevated a crowded and contested Middle Eastern shipping lane to nearly the same status as American territory. Shorten this document

Great Depression and U.S. foreign policy

It was mainly isolationist. It can not even be considered conservative internationalism as it can be for the 1920s since the international trade and investment radically slowed down. The high tariffs associated with this time caused a series of trade wars that deepened the global depression and may have contributed to the rise of fascism.

Joseph Stalin

Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin was a Georgian-Soviet revolutionary, politician and political theorist. He governed the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953. Once in power, he collectivized farming and had potential enemies executed or sent to forced labor camps. Stalin aligned with the United States and Britain in World War II (1939-1945) but afterward engaged in an increasingly tense relationship with the West known as the Cold War (1946-1991). After his death, the Soviets initiated a de-Stalinization process.

Lyndon Johnson

Lyndon B. Johnson (1908-73) became the 36th president of the United States following the November 1963 assassination of President John F. Kennedy (1917-1963). As part of this effort, Johnson steadily escalated U.S. military involvement in the Vietnam War. This was an extremely unpopular move as he ignored all of his military advisors and continued the war. "I shall not seek, nor will I accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your president," he said in a nationally televised speech on March 31, 1968. Johnson explained that he wanted to focus on the peace process and pressing domestic issues without the distraction of a political campaign.

Reykjavik Summit

Meeting held in Reykjavík, Iceland, on October 11 and 12, 1986, between U.S. President Ronald Reagan and Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev. The Reykjavík summit almost resulted in a sweeping nuclear arms-control agreement in which the nuclear weapons of both sides would be dismantled.Despite the failure to reach an agreement on that issue, both sides felt that the meeting was a success and that it opened the way for further progress.

NSC 68

National Security Council Paper NSC-68 (entitled "United States Objectives and Programs for National Security" and frequently referred to as NSC-68). It advocated a large expansion in the military budget of the United States, the development of a hydrogen bomb, and increased military aid to allies of the United States. It made the containment of global Communist expansion a high priority. NSC-68 rejected the alternative policies of friendly détente and rollback against the Soviet Union.

NLF/VC

National liberation Front/Viet Cong, the communist rebels in South Vietnam.

Nguyen Van Thieu

Nguyễn Văn Thiệu was the last president of South Vietnam from 1965 to 1975. He was a general in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam, became head of a military junta, and then president after winning a scheduled election. Surrendered to the northern Communist government in 1975.

Nikita Khrushchev

Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971) led the Soviet Union during the height of the Cold War, serving as premier from 1958 to 1964. He instigated the Cuban Missile Crisis by placing nuclear weapons 90 miles from Florida. At home, he initiated a process of "de-Stalinization" that made Soviet society less repressive.

Triangular Diplomacy

Nixon contended that the communist world consisted of two rival powers the Soviet Union and China. Given the long history of animosity between those two nations, Nixon and his adviser HENRY KISSINGER, decided to exploit that rivalry to win advantages for the United States. That policy became known as triangular diplomacy.

Henry Kissinger

Nixon's national security advisor and secretary of state. He was an advocate of realpolitik or world order politics. He personally dominated US foreign policy during his time and would continue to be seen as important for the relationship with China.

Iranian Revolution and Hostage Crisis

On November 4, 1979, a group of Iranian students stormed the U.S. Embassy in Tehran, taking more than 60 American hostages. The immediate cause of this action was President Jimmy Carter's decision to allow Iran's deposed Shah, a pro-Western autocrat who had been expelled from his country some months before, to come to the United States for cancer treatment. However, the hostage-taking was about more than the Shah's medical care: it was a dramatic way for the student revolutionaries to declare a break with Iran's past and an end to American interference in its affairs. It was also a way to raise the intra- and international profile of the revolution's leader, the anti-American cleric Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. The students set their hostages free on January 21, 1981, 444 days after the crisis began and just hours after President Ronald Reagan delivered his inaugural address.

"National security concerns and bureaucratic politics best explain how and why the United States entered the Second World War." Attack or defend the statement. Provide specific evidence to support your view.

On one had that statement is very true. National security was a big concern considering the Axis Powers were closing in on the UK and Japan had a straight shot towards the United States. Pearl Harbor was the final motion towards war as a direct attack on U.S. soil was impossible to ignore. Bureaucratic politics isn't the best way to explain why the United States entered the war, especially with the existence of the America First Committee. Though bureaucratic politics best explains why we continued to support Great Britain and not any of the axis powers just as it played a role in WWI. Our closer diplomatic connections with Britain ensure that we would favor the brits regardless of who happened to be in office. Bureaucratic officers

Camp David Accords

One of the major policy accomplishments of Jimmy Carter. It was a two-part deal. The first part successful negotiated a peace treaty between Egypt and Jerusalem. The second part dealt with the Palestinian territories. This part was a complete failure.

Richard Nixon

One of the most controversial presidents in America's history. He had a number of policy achievements such as opening up China. Though he also expanded Vietnam even after running as an anti-war candidate, and of course, then there was watergate.

Rolling Thunder

Operation Rolling Thunder was the title of a gradual and sustained aerial bombardment campaign conducted by the U.S. 2nd Air Division, U.S. Navy, and Republic of Vietnam Air Force against the North Vietnamese forces. These bombings were intended to deal a massive blow to the ability of North Vietnam to make war, however, cold war realities greatly contrained the bombings ensuring that they would fail to meet its objectives. This operation was mainly in place durig LBJ's presidency.

Lend Lease

Proposed in late 1940 and passed in March 1941, the Lend-Lease Act was the principal means for providing U.S. military aid to foreign nations during World War II. It authorized the president to transfer arms or any other defense materials for which Congress appropriated money to "the government of any country whose defense the President deems vital to the defense of the United States." By allowing the transfer of supplies without compensation to Britain, China, the Soviet Union and other countries, the act permitted the United States to support its war interests without being overextended in battle.

INF Treaty

Signed between the Soviet Union by Gorbechev, and the United States by Ronald Reagan, to eliminate intermediate-range nuclear forces (INF). "...neither Party shall: (a) produce or flight-test any intermediate-range missiles or produce any stages of such missiles or any launchers of such missiles...."

SDI

Star Wars. This was a nuclear shield where space weapons will be used to shoot down ICBMs.

America First Committee

The America First Committee (AFC) was the foremost United States isolationist pressure group against the American entry into World War II. Started on September 4, 1940, it was dissolved on December 10, 1941, three days after the attack on Pearl Harbor had brought the war to America.

Bay of Pigs

The Bay of Pigs Invasion was a failed military invasion of Cuba in 1961. The idea was that if the citizens saw individuals fighting the government that they would rise up and overthrow the oppressive communist government. The failed invasion strengthened the position of Castro's administration, which proceeded to openly proclaim its intention to adopt socialism and pursue closer ties with the Soviet Union.

Cuban Missile Crisis

The Cuban Missile Crisis, also known as the October Crisis, the Caribbean Crisis, or the Missile Scare, was a 13-day confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union over the installation of nuclear-armed Soviet missiles on Cuba, just 90 miles from U.S. shores. In July 1962 Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev reached a secret agreement with Cuban premier Fidel Castro to place Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba to deter any future invasion attempt. It was resolved when Khruschchev and Kennedy reached an agreement to remove the missiles in Cuba and the U.S. Jupiter Missiles would be removed from Turkey.

Korean War

The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, came to the aid of South Korea. China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union gave some assistance. The result was two Koreas, one southern democratic and assisted by the U.N., the northern to be a authoritarian Communist backed government.

Smoot-Hawley Tariff

The Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act is a U.S. law enacted in June 1930 which caused an increase in import duties by as much as 50%. The Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act goal was to increase U.S. farmer protection against agricultural imports. Once other sectors caught wind of these changes, a large outcry to increase tariffs in all sectors of the economy followed.

Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombings

The United States, at the order of President Harry S. Truman, dropped nuclear weapons on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945, respectively, during the final stage of World War II.

Pearl Harbor

The attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii Territory, on the morning of December 7, 1941.

Vietnam War

The conflict between the United States and North Vietnam. The goal was to contain communism in the north while maintaining the U.S. backed government in the south. The unsteady boundaries made peace negotiations difficult and ultimately didn't succeed. Even eliminating supplies to the National Liberation Front and Ho Chi Minh's northern forces, they were still able to use routes in Loas and Cambodia to reach South Vietnam. Nixon and Henry Kissinger negotiated an unsteady peace where they withdrew from South Vietnam and let the south determine their own future with a temporary truce between the north and the south. ultimately the north invaded and unified Vietnam under Ho Chi Minh Communism.

Ho Chi Minh

The leader of Communist North Vietnam during the Vietnam war.

Paris Peace Accords, 1973

The peace treaty that ended the Vietnam war for the United States. Neither South or North Vietnam would follow the accords of the treaty, but the United States failed to interfere. Eventually, in 1975 the war would begin again. The united States would not help the government in the South other than to evacuate some South Vietnamese.

Why did the Truman administration decide to pursue a policy of containment against the Soviet Union, and how successful was Truman at implementing this policy during his time in office (1945-1952)? Provide specific evidence to support your view.

The policy of containment was implemented because nobody really wanted to go back to war so soon after the end of the second world war. The Soviet Union soon developed their own nuclear weapons that would further deter the possibility of direct US intervention in the USSR. Containment was a policy that wished to make sure that no other nation would fall to communism because after one nation fell, other surrounding nations would become increasingly vulnerable to Communism. Truman's policy of containment got mixed results. It had some incredible policy victories in the Marshall plan. This was a program that offered billions of dollars to develop Western Europe in the hope of containing communism to Eastern Europe. It was an incredible success, and one of the moments in US history that many people both on the right and left would admire. Asia was another story. The GMD [KMT] government lost all legitimacy in the eyes of the Chinese people. US military assistance militarily extended the life of the GMD but that same aid was also incredibly unpopular and contributed to Jiang Jieshi[Chiang Kai-Shek] government. The loss of China was a huge blow to Tuman. The Korean war was more ambiguous. The United States had to directly intervene to save South Korea from annihilation, but the United States got greedy and tried to take over the whole peninsula leading Chinese intervention the re-establishment of the old border between the two Koreas before the war. However, US foreign policy was able to contain Communism and save South Korea.

Orthodox, Revisionist, Post-Revisionist

These are the three major schools about the motives behind dropping nuclear bombs on Japan. The Orthodox view claims that the United States dropped the bomb to save millions of American troops because Japan would not have surrendered with-out it. The revisionist school claims that our motives behind dropping the bomb were not that pure. They claim that hatred against Japan, a desire to check Russia, and other interests played a bigger part in deciding to drop the bombs on Japan.

Magnusson Act

This act repealed the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, established quotas for Chinese immigration, and allowed Chinese nationals in the U.S. to become naturalized citizens. Furthermore, due to the establishment of the quota, an increase of Chinese immigration became allowable. Chinese were allowed to enter the United States and Hawaii in numbers calculated according to Section 11 of the Immigration Act of 1924.

World Order Politics

This is a type of political system that tries to ensure that the world is at peace by reconciling the major powers that there is no block of countries powerful enough to destroy it. It is basically a balance of power type of policy that ensures order by putting limits on how strong any opposing force can become.

What were the causes and consequences of America's War in Vietnam? Provide specific evidence to support your view.

This was a Cold War-era proxy war with the numerous anti-communist nations using Vietnam as their indirect battleground. North Vietnamese Ho Chi Minh forces were backed by the Chinese and Soviet Communist government while the South Vietnamese were backed by numerous anti-communist nations, especially the United States from 1955 to 1975. The North sought unification and saw it as another Indo-Chinese War against France and the United States as colonizers. A consequence of continuing involvement in the war in the United States perspective was the gradual distaste for the conflict as a whole. Lindon B. Johnson continued this conflict after assuming the role as President post assassination of Kennedy and saw the conflict as continuing his legacy. To back out would be to disgrace the fallen president. But as the war went on more American soldiers died and there was no clear goal. The distaste hit an all-time high when the Tet Offensive occurred via North Vietnamese attacking South Vietnamese forces with incredible strength and though it was not successful, it still removed any hope of victory. Lindon Johnson declined running for another term which allowed Richard Nixon to use removing United States troops from Vietnam and beginning a process of Vietnamization, which was essentially leaving the war in the hands of the South Vietnamese government to decide for themselves what the outcome would be. This occurred in 1973 and in 1975, the South Vietnamese army would take Saigon to rename it Ho Chi Minh City. The consequence was thousands of American lives, billions of dollars spent on killing individuals which had no direct quarrel with the United States, and ultimately creating a long meaningless standoff that ended in failure.

Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

Was an imperial concept created and promulgated for occupied Asian populations during the first third of the Shōwa era by the government and military of the Empire of Japan.

Was Franklin Roosevelt's World War II foreign policy largely successful or largely a failure? Provide specific evidence to support your view.

Well it depends on what time period you are looking at. Was his foreign policy able to prevent the war, was he able to contain Hitler for example. If that is the gauge then his foreign policy failed. If you are looking at his foreign financial aid then yes that was a failure as the Axis Powers still managed to strike the United Kingdom's capital and borderline invade the nations involved. That was a failure.

Neutrality Acts

Were laws passed in 1935, 1936, 1937, and 1939 to limit U.S. involvement in future wars. They were based on the widespread disillusionment with World War I in the early 1930s and the belief that the United States had been drawn into the war through loans and trade with the Allies.

Why did the Cold War end? Provide specific evidence to support your view.

Why did the Cold War end? There are many reasons for why the cold war ended when it did. The Cold war was bound to end eventually because of how the Soviet Union developed its economy. It built itself up as a fortress, putting many of its factories in places where it cost more money to be able to use what they produced than the worth of what they produced. This was useful during actual wars since these locations were easy to defend. However, this structural problem would eventually drain the coffers of the Soviet Union. The lack of freedom of expression and the lack of incentives in the communist state would ensure that the Soviet Union would never become as innovative as the west. being several decades behind the west at the time that it fell. As to why the Cold War ended when it did, however, is a different question. The Cold War ended when the Soviet Union collapsed under its own weight in 1991. There were several problems hounding the Soviet Union at this time. The increasing pressure from the United States at the beginning of the 1980s and Roland Reagan's SDI program. The terrible and bloody invasion of Afghanistan cost the Soviet Union an insane amount of dollars, lives, and respect. However the principle reason that it fell was because of the reforms of Gorbachev. No regime is as weak as when it is in the middle of reforming itself. Gorbachev could have intervened in Eastern Europe as it had done so in the past, but Gorbachev said no. the new fond freedoms of expression helped to inform Soviet citizens as to the problems that they faced such as the true devastation of the Afghan war. Gorbache's reforms

Truman Doctrine

With the Truman Doctrine, President Harry S. Truman established that the United States would provide political, military and economic assistance to all democratic nations under threat from external or internal authoritarian forces. The Truman Doctrine effectively reoriented U.S. foreign policy, away from its usual stance of withdrawal from regional conflicts not directly involving the United States, to one of possible intervention in far away conflicts.

WW2

World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis.

SALT

a series of conferences and treaties that put restrictions on the number of nuclear weapons the United States or the Soviet Union could have

Mikhail Gorbachev

one of the youngest and the last ruler of the Soviet Union. He introduced several reforms to the Soviet Union including more freedoms in the political and economic arenas. He would also rule out the use of military force in Eastern Europe.

Neoconservatism

variant of the political ideology of conservatism that combines features of traditional conservatism with political individualism and a qualified endorsement of free markets. Neoconservatism arose in the United States in the 1970s among intellectuals who shared a dislike of communism and a disdain for the counterculture of the 1960s, especially its political radicalism and its animus against authority, custom, and tradition.In its respect for established institutions and practices, neoconservatism resembles the traditional conservatism of the 18th-century Irish statesman Edmund Burke.