FSHN 350 Carbohydrates
in step 1 of TCAC, citrate synthase is inhibited by _____.
ATP
What is the formula for glycemic index?
AUC for test food/AUC for glucose x 100
_% of fructose is taken up by the liver in the first pass. Then it is converted to _____, then _____ and _____ which are converted to _____ which enters glycolysis. Fructose bypasses ____, which causes a build up of _____ and _____. This replaces ____ as fuel leading to _____ liver.
90; fructose-1-phosphate, DHAP and glyceraldehye, G-3-P
ETC step 4: the movement of _____ through the channel causes the enzyme _____ to catalyze the reaction that adds ______ to ______, forming _______.
H+, ATP synthase, phosphate, ADP, ATP
ETC, step 3: the accumulation of ____ in the _______ creates a force. This force enables the _____ to reenter the ______ by passing through a _____.
H+, inner membrane space, H+ mitochondrial matrix, channel
What caused a dramatic increase in sugar consumption in the past two hundred years? What caused brief decreases in sugar consumption? What has also increased over the past one hundred years, in association with sugar intake?
Importation of sugar and industrial revolution. Learning how to process it and distribute it efficiently. World Wars. Obesity.
when the rate of pyruvate formation exceeds the rate of its oxidative decarboxylation to acetyl CoA, ______ (enzyme) oxidizes/reduces pyruvate to _____ using _____ (coenzyme)
LDH, reduces, lactate, NADH
if oxygen is insufficient for the ETC, _____ is returned to the cytosol for step 6 of glycolysis.
NAD+
why is lactate formation beneficial? replaces _______, allows _____ to continue (removing product of), and reduces concentration of _____.
NAD+, glycolysis, H+
in the sixth step of glycolysis, G-3-P is converted to 1,3-BPG using the coenzyme _____, which is oxidized/reduced to ______
NAD+, reduced, NADH + H+
the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate to acetyl-coA produces 2 molecules of _____
NADH
in the malate aspartate shuttle, electrons are transferred from NADH to _____ forming _____ and _____. Malate cross the mitochondrial membrane then pass eltrons to ______, forming _____ and _____. OAA is converted to _____ which can cross the membrane. enzyme: ______
OAA, NAD+, malate. NAD+, OAA, NADH. aspartate. malate dehydrogenase
what absorbs glucose and galactose on the apical side?
SGLT1
where are the major sites of expression of GLUT5?
adipose, brain, intestine, kidney, skeletal muscle
which bond can humans digest?
alpha-1-4 bonds between glucose molecules
in step 3 of TCAC, isocitrate is oxidatively decarboxylated to ______ by the enzyme_____, which is inhibited by high ratio ______. This step produces the coenzyme _____.
alpha-ketoglutarate, isocitrate dehydrogenase, NADH:NAD+, NADH
amylopectin
amylopectin
what is the most branched starch?
amylopectin
amylose
amylose
what are the starches found in plants?
amylose and amylopectin
what is the problem with foods that have a high glycemic index?
blood glucose levels rise very quickly and then fall very quickly below the baseline - rise and crash
what are the major sites of expression of GLUT1
blood-brain barrier, CNS, enterocytes, fetal tissue, placenta
where are the major sites of expression of GLUT3?
brain, embryos, placenta, spermatozoa
where is most of the fiber in wheat?
bran
What is the path of carbohydrates once they reach the capilary?
capillary -> portal vein -> liver
is glycogenolysis catabolic or anabolic?
catabolic
what is fiber?
cellulose and other non-starch polysaccharides and many other plant components
when does gluconeogenesis occur?
low carb intake, fasting, endurance exercise
where does glycogenesis occur?
mainly in muscle and liver
what happens to amylose in the brush border?
maltose is hydrolyzed by maltase, forming free glucose
what happens to amylopectin in the brush border?
maltose is hydrolyzed by maltase, limit dextrins are hydrolyzed by a-dextrinase, forming glucose
what is amylopectin broken down to in the small intestine?
dextrin-->maltose and limit dextrin; can't digest a-1-6 bonds
enzymes hydrolyze polysaccharides into _____
dextrins
what are dextrins
di and some monosaccharides
what is the structural difference between glucose and galactose?
direction of C4 hydroxyl group
insoluble fiber ______ dissolve in water
does not
ETC step 2: energy released from the movement of _____ is used to pump _____ from the _____ to the _____-.
electrons, H+ mitochondrial matrix, inter membrane space
ETC step 1: as NADH and FADH2 are passed along the protein complex of the ETC, enzymes remove ____ and ____ regenerating ____ and _____
electrons, H+, NAD+, FAD
what part of wheat is mostly starch?
endosperm
what is the term for normal blood glucose?
euglycemia
is the conversion of glucose to G-6-P exergonic for endergonic?
exergonic - net -4 kcal
is the conversion of glucose to G-6-P exergonic or endergonic
exergonic - requires ATP but transfer releases more energy so overall exergonic
how do glucose and galactose enter the capillary
facilitated diffusion
how does fructose enter the enterocyte?
facilitated transport
how does fructose leave the enterocyte and enter the capilary?
facilitated transport
what happens to fiber in the colon?
fermented by bacteria
______ is related to cholesterol, CVD, colorectal cancer, obesity, T2D, digestive health
fiber
fructose
fructose
what are the substrates of GLUT5?
fructose, but not glucose
what are the susbstrates for GLUT2
fructose, glucose, galactose, glucosamine, mannose
what is the sweetest carbohydrate? Where is it found?
fructose, honey, fruit
how is phosphofructokinase bypassed in gluconeogenesis?
fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase
in the third step of glycolysis, F-6-P is converted to _____
fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
in step 6 of TCAC, succinate is oxidized to _____ by the enzyme _____, which is inhibited by a high ratio of _____, and produces the coenzyme _____.
fumarate, succinate dehydrogenase, FADH2:FAD, FADH2
Which of the following is a simple carbohydrate? A. galactose B. amylose C. raffinose D. glycogen
galactose
galactose
galactose
what constitutes raffinose?
galactose, glucose, fructose
what is the goal of TCA cycle?
generate reduced coenzymes
where are most of the vitamins and minerals in wheat?
germ
processing of grains removes what two parts
germ and bran
what are the parts of a kernel of wheat?
germ, endosperm, bran
in response to low blood glucose levels, the pancreas increases its release of the hormone_____
glucagon
skeletal muscle has no ____ receptors
glucagon
what are positive regulators of glycogen phosphorylase?
glucagon, epinephrine, AMP
glucagon promotes _________ in the liver
gluconeogenesis
What is the preferred source of energy for the CNS?
glucose
What is the source of energy to cells?
glucose
what can be used to synthesize amino acids and fatty acids?
glucose
what is the most abundant monosaccharide?
glucose
what is the most important monosaccharide?
glucose
what is the sole source of energy for red blood cells?
glucose
what monosaccharides make up sucrose?
glucose and fructose
what is lactose composed of?
glucose and galactose
what monosaccharides are in maltose?
glucose and glucose
what is the first step in glucose metabolism?
glucose is converted to G-6-P
how does glucose enter the enterocyte?
glucose transporter proteins, GLUT
What are the monosaccharides?
glucose, fructose, galactose
what are the substrates for GLUT1
glucose, galactose, manose, glucosamine
how is hexokinase bypassed in gluconeogenesis?
glucose-6-phosphatase
in the first step of glycolysis, glucose is converted to _____
glucose-6-phosphate
What is the term for an increase in blood glucose levels after a meal?
glycemic response
what is the homopolysaccharide in humans?
glycogen
what is glycogenolysis?
glycogen breakdown of individual glucose residues are systematically cleaved one at a time and routed through energy-releasing pathway
what enzyme is used in glycogenolysis
glycogen phosphorylase
what enzyme incorporates UDP-glucose in to glycogen?
glycogen synthase
What are the polysaccharides
glycogen, starch, fiber
insulin promotes _____ in liver and skeletal muscle cells
glycogenesis
insulin stimulates _____ in liver and muscle in the absorptive state
glycogenesis
what are the precursors for gluconeogenesis?
glycogenic amino acids, lactate, glycerol
what enzyme forms the glycogen primer?
glycogenin
epinephrine promotes ______ in liver and muscle
glycogenolysis
glucagon promotes _____ in the liver
glycogenolysis
glucagon stimulates ______ in liver when blood glucose levels decline
glycogenolysis
the ETC is a set of protein complexes containing redox center with progressively _______ affinities for electrons
greater
what is a high glycemic index? examples?
greater than 70; baked potato, waffles
what causes diverticulosis?
hard dry feces characteristic of a low-fiber diet
what enzymes catalyze the conversion of glucose to G-6-P?
hexokinase is muscle and glucokinase in liver
What are the three enzymes in glycolysis that must be bypassed in gluconeogenesis?
hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, pyruvate kinase
what is the signal for the pancreas to release insulin?
high blood glucose levels
phosphorylation ______ glycogen synthase
inactivates
fiber increases/decrease satiety
increases
in blood vessels, insulin _____ vasodilation and _____ cell proliferation
increases
in muscle, insulin ____ glucose uptake, _____ glycolysis, _____ glycogeneis, and _____ protein synthesis
increases all
Insulin _____ translocation of GLUT2
inhibits
lignin's, cellulose, hemicelluloses are examples of
insoluble fiber
in response to elevated blood glucose levels, the pancreas increases its release of the hormone_____
insulin
what induces glucokinase?
insulin
describe cellular insulin action.
insulin receptor is located on the membrane. insulin binds and starts signal transduction pathway. glucose transporter is translocated to the membrane
what is the problem with type 2 diabetes?
insulin receptors have difficulty binding insulin. few glucose transporters relocate to cell membrane making it difficult for glucose to be absorbed. hyperglycemia results.
what influences disappearance of glucose from the blood?
insulin secretion and action in target tissues
what hormone stimulates glycogen synthase? what hormones inhibit it?
insulin stimulates. glucagon and epinephrine inhibit
the negative regulators of glycogen phosphorylase are _____, _____, and _____.
insulin, ATP, G-6-P
the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA is reversible/irreversible
irreversible
the third step of glycolysis is reversible/irreversible?
irreversible
in step 2 of TCAC, citrate is isomerize to _____ by the enzyme _____.
isocitrate, aconitase
what is the glycemic load?
rating system used to calculate glycemic response that takes into account amount of carbohydrate in a single serving
is the isomerization of G-6-P to G-1-P reversible or irreversible
reversible
ribitol
ribitol
what pentose is a constituent of coenzymes FAD and FMN
ribitol
ribose
ribose
which pentose is a constituent of key nucleotides
ribose
what enzyme is released in the mouth for starch digestion? what does it do?
salivary a-amylase; hydrolyzes a-1-4 bonds in amylose and amylopectin in dextrins
what happens with carbohydrate digestion in the stomach?
salivary-a-amylase is destroyed by acid. no digestion in the stomach
sodium and glucose/galactose travel in the _____ direction. This is known as apical______
same; symport
how is lactate used?
shuttled to other tissues (Cori cycle) or converted to pyruvate for TCA cycle
Carbohydrates are classified as _____ carbohydrates and _____ carbohydrates.
simple, complex
soluble fiber helps ___ gastric emptying which _____ satiety and ____ blood glucose
slows, promotes, lowers
what is diverticulosis?
small, protruding pouches that form along the all of the large intestines
what substance is used to transport glucose and galactose via SGLT1
sodium
nearly 50% of added sugars in the diet come from what?
soft drinks
pectin, gum, mucilage, b-glucan are examples of ____
soluble dietary fiber
where can maltose be found?
starch digestion - beer
What stimulates gluconeogenesis? What inhibits it?
stimulated by glucagon and epinephrine. inhibited by insulin.
Pyruvate dehydrogenase is stimulate by _____ and _____. It is inhibited by increasing ratios of _____, _____, and _____.
stimulated by pyruvate and ADP inhibited by increasing ratio of ATP:ADP, NADH:NAD+, acetyl-CoA:CoASH
Glycemic index is influenced by:
structure of food, composition of carbs, macronutrients, processing, other foods in the meal
in step 5 of TCAC, succinyl-CoA is converted to _____ by the enzyme ______. Hydrolysis releases sufficient energy to drive phosphorylation of ____ to produce ____ which is converted to ____.
succinate, succinyl-CoA synthetase. GDP, GTP, ATP
in step 4 of TCAC, alpha-ketoglutarate is oxidized and decarboxylated forming ____ by the enzyme _____ and producing the coenzyme _____. The enzyme is inhibited by high ratio of _____.
succinyl-CoA, alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, NADH. NADH:NAD+
what are the brush border enzymes that digest disaccharides?
sucrase, lactase, maltase
where is sucrose found?
sugar
What is the number one source of added sugars in the U.S. diet?
sugar-sweetened beverages
insulin promotes fat ______ in adipose tissue
synthesis
insulin promotes protein _______ in muscle cells
synthesis
what is gluconeogenesis?
synthesis of glucose from precursor molecules when insufficient glycogen to maintain euglycemia
what happens to lactose in a person with lactose intolerance?
lactose enters the large intestine undigested; bacteria ferment lactose causing gas flatulence and diarrhea
What are the disaccharides?
lactose, sucrose, maltose
where is stachyose found?
legumes
what is normal fasting plasma glucose levels?
less than 100 mg/dL
what is diabetes fasting plasma glucose concentration?
less than 126 mg/dL
what is normal two-hour oral glucose-tolerance test levels?
less than 140 mg/dL
what is the acceptable range of blood glucose after a meal in a nondiabetic person?
less than 140 mg/dl
what is diabetes two-hour oral glucose tolerance test concentration?
less than 200 mg/dL
what is a low glycemic index? examples?
less than 55; banana, cherries
glucagon promotes _____ in adipose tissue and ______ in the liver
lipolysis, ketogenesis
What is the main site of glucose deposition after a meal?
liver
what organ is responsible for maintaining blood glucose levels?
liver
which glycogen supplies glucose to the blood?
liver
which has a higher concentration of glycogen?
liver
where does gluconeogenesis occur?
liver, kidney, intestine
20% of glycogen in the body is in _____. It is depleted for____
liver; maintaining blood glucose levels
how are glucose molecules connected in glycogen? how are the brances connected?
a-1-4, a-1-6
what are the branch points in amylopectin?
a-1-6
glucagon is released from _____ in the pancreas
a-cells
what glycosidic linkage is in maltose?
a1-4
what glycosidic linkage is sucrose?
a1-b2
soluble fiber helps with digestion by _____ water to _____ fecal matter
absorbing, soften
phosphorylation _____ glycogen phosphorylase
activates
how to glucose and galactose enter the enterocyte?
active transport
white sugar, raw sugar, corn syrup, maple syrup, honey, and molasses are all names for what?
added sugar
what does insoluble fiber due to fecal matter?
adds weight and volume
where and the major sites of expression of GLUT4?
adipocytes, heart, muscle
deoxyribose
deoxyribose
what is amylose broken down to in the small intestine?
dextrin --> maltose
how many NADH are produced in glucose metabolism and where? how many ATP does this make?
10 NADH. 2 from glycolysis, 2 from pyruvate oxidative decarboxylation to acetyl-CoA, and 6 from TCAC. makes 25-30 ATP.
what bonds are in amylose?
a-1-4
what are the regulated steps in glycolysis and the enzymes?
1 - glucokinase or hexokinase 3 - phosphofructokinase 10 - pyruvate kinase
in the sixth step of glycolysis, G-3-P is converted to ______
1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
how is the substrate level phosphorylation in step seven glycolysis able to occur?
1,3-bisphosphoglycerate has higher phosphate transfer potential that ATP
what are the three fates of G-6-P?
1. converted to G-1-P which is used to build glycogen (phosphoglucomutase'= 2. glycolysis 3. in liver converted back to glucose to maintain euglycemia (G-6-Phosphatase)
how does NADH cross the mitochondrial membrane?
1. malate-aspartate shuttle 2. glycerol-phosphate shuttle 3. lactate shuttle
what are the fates of pyruvate?
1. reduction, forming lactate 2. oxidative decarboxylation, forming acetyl-CoA 3. carboxylation - forming oxaloacetate - gluconeogenesis
how many GLUT do humans have?
14
how many ATP are invested in the first 5 steps of glycolysis?
2 ATP
how many FADH2 are produced from glucose metabolism? when? how many ATP does this make?
2 FADH2. 2 from TCAC. makes 3-4 ATP.
what constitutes stachyose?
2 galactose, glucose, fructose
in step eight of glycolysis, 3-p glycerate is converted to _____
2-p glycerate
good sources of fiber have how much?
2.5-3.9 g/serving
_% of glucose and galactose and _% of fructose cleared on the first pass through the liver
25, 90
NADH produces _____ ATP, and FADH2 produces _______. This is because FADH2 enters the ETC ______.
3, 2, later
how many monosaccharides are in oligosaccharides?
3-10
in step seven of glycolysis, 1,3-BPG is converted to _____ by transferring _____ to ____ forming _____
3-p glycerate, phosphate, ADP, ATP
how many total ATP are produced from the metabolism of one glucose molecule?
32-38 ATP
what are the products of glycolysis?
4 ATP (2 net), 2 NADH, 2 pyruvate
how many ATP are produce in glucose metabolism and when?
4 ATP. 2 from glycolysis and 2 from TCAC
What is the acceptable macronutrient distribution range for carbohydrates?
45-60%
What percent of people with diabetes have type 1?
5-10%
what is a medium glycemic index? examples?
56-69, raisins, whit rice
how many carbons are in fructose?
6
What is the acceptable range of blood glucose before a meal in a nondiabetic person?
60-100 mg/dl
What is the general formula for carbohydrates?
Cn(H2O)n
in the glycerol-phosphate shuttle NADH passes its electrons to _____ forming _____ and _____. Glycerol-phsophate enters the mitochondrion and passes its electrons to ____ forming _____ and _____. enzyme: _____
DHAP, NAD+, glycerol-phosphate. FAD, DHAP, FADH2. glycerol phosphate dehydrogenase
in the second step of glycolysis, g-6-p is converted to ______
F-6-P
Carbohydrates are essential nutrients. True or False
False
True of False: GLUT2 is constitutive.
False: translocated to apical membrane when needed
in the fifth step of glycolysis, DHAP is converted to ____
G-3-P
in the fourth step of glycolysis, F-1,6-BP is split into _____ and _____
G-3-P and DHAP
what inhibits hexokinase?
G-6-P - product
what is the formula for glycemic load?
GI/100 x grams in a typical serving
When lumen concentrations are high, what transporter is used to absorb glucose, galactose and fructose?
GLUT2
what transports fructose on the basolateral side?
GLUT2
what transports glucose and galactose on the basolateral side?
GLUT2
Which GLUT is insulin dependent?
GLUT4
what glucose transporter responds to insulin in the adipose and muscel cells?
GLUT4
what absorbs fructose on the apical side?
GLUT5
What is the ultimate source of carbohydrates? Explain.
The sun. Plants use carbon dioxide and water, powered by energy from the sun to produce glucose and oxygen. The energy from the sun is captured in the bonds of carbohydrates.
how is glucose activated in glycogenesis?
UTP hydrolysis powers the coupling of UMP to G-1-P forming UDP-glucose
Describe how carbohydrate intake (type, % of kcal) has changed in the US over the past century.
Wider variety of carbs due to ability to import sugar and process foods inductrially. Greater intake.
What does soluble fiber form?
a gel that dissolves or swells in water
is glycogenesis anabolic or catabolic?
anabolic
what is the side of the enterocyte facing the lumen?
apical
which bond can we digest? b-1-4 between glucose and galactose or b-1-4 between glucose and glucose?
b-1-4 between glucose and galactose
insulin is released by ____ in the pancrease
b-cells
what is the problem in diabetes type 1?
b-cells in pancreas have been destroyed by antibodies and are no longer able to produce insulin
where are the major sites of expression for GLUT2?
b-cells, kidney, liver, SI
what linkage is lactose?
b1-4
what is the side of the enterocyte facing the capillary?
basolateral membrance
how does soluble fiber relate to cholesterol?
binds cholesterol in gut, decreasing absorption which may help lower blood cholesterol levels
what is glucose from glycogen used for in muscles? in liver?
biological work, regulate blood glucose
what influences appearance of glucose in the blood?
rates of intestinal absorption and hepatic clearance
in step 1 of TCAC oxaloacetate reacts with acetyl-CoA to produce _____. This requires ____ and the enzyme ______and produces _____.
citrate. H2O, citrate synthase. CoASH
in the ETC, electrons move from complexes I and II to complex III by _____ and from complex III to complex IV by _____.
coenzyme Q, cytochrome C
how is a glycosidic bond formed?
condensation reaction between C1 OH group of one sugar and C4 H of another sugar
why can't humans digest dietary fiber?
contains b-1-4 bonds that we don't have enzymes for
consumption of dietary fibers from cereals and fruits is inversely associated with risk of _____
coronary heart disease
what are symptoms of diverticulosis?
cramping, diarrhea, fever, rectal bleedin
where is lactose found?
dairy
insoluble fiber increases/decreases constipation
decreases
in the liver, insulin _____ gluconeogenesis, _____ glycogenolysis, and _____ glycogen synthesis
decreases, decreases, increases
In the adipose tissue, insulin _____ lipolysis, _____ fat uptake, ____TG synthesis and _____ adipogenesis
decreases, increases, increases, increases
what causes lactose intolerance
deficiency of lactase - can't digest b-1-4 linkage in lactose
what are the substrates for GLUT3
dehydroabscorbic acid, glucose, galactose, mannose, xylose
what are the substrates of GLUT4?
dehydroascorbic acid, galactose, glucose
what is the glycemic index of food?
measure of how fast and how much blood glucose levels rise after eating that food
what is diabetes?
metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemia, glycosuria, honey-sweet urine
what is the Cori cycle?
metabolic pathway in which lactate produced by anaerobic glycolysis in the muscles moves to the liver and is converted to glucose, which then returns to the muscles and is metabolized back to lactate
where does TCA cycle occur?
mitochondrial matrix
Simple carbohydrates are classified as _____ and _____.
monosaccharides, disaccharides
excellent sources of fiber have how much?
more than 20% of RDA or more than 5 g/serving
in ______ cells, G-6-P cannot be converted to glucose
muscle
which has more glycogen, muscle or liver?
muscle
where does glycogenolysis occur?
muscle and liver during periods of energy need
80% of glycogen in the body is in____. It is depleted for _____
muscle, exercise
what nutrients are required for oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate?
niacin, thiamin, riboflavin, panothenic acid
what happens to insoluble fiber in the colon?
not fermentable by bacteria; passes through GI tract
what are limitations of glycemic index?
not typical amount consumed, some foods have low GI but other health risks, GI is influenced by other factors
Complex carbohydrates are classified as _____ and _____
oligosaccharides, polysaccharides
how are beta glycosidic bonds arranged?
on opposite sides
how are alpha glycosidic bonds arranged?
on the same side
what is the starting and finishing product of TCA cycle?
oxaloacetate
in step 8 of TCAC, malate is oxidized to _____ by the enzyme _____, producing ______. The enzyme is inhibite dby high ratio of _____.
oxaloacetate, malate dehydrogenase, NADH, NADH:NAD+
how is acetyl CoA formed from pyruvate?
oxidative decarboxylation
in the sixth step of glycolysis, G-3-P is oxidized/reduced to 1,3-BPG
oxidized
what happens with carbohydrate digestion in the small intestine?
pancreatic a-amylase hydrolyzes a-1-4 glycosidic bonds
What monosaccharides are used as the body other than as a fuel source?
pentoses
in step nine of glycolysis, 2-P glycerate is converted to ____
phosphoenolpyruvate
in the third step of glycolysis, the enzyme that converts F-6-P to F-1,6-BP is _______
phosphofructokinase
what enzyme isomerize G-6-P to G-1-P
phosphoglucomutase
1% of glycogen in the body is in____. It's concentration is _____
plasma; highly regulated
in the third step of glycolysis, phosphofructokinase is positively regulated by ____ and negatively regulated by ____ and _____
positively: AMP; negatively: ATP and citrate
how is pyruvate kinase bypassed in gluconeogenesis?
pyruvate carboxylase and phosphoenol carboxykinase
what enzyme converts pyruvate to acetyl CoA
pyruvate dehydrogenase
in the lactate shuttle, NADH passes its electrons to _____ forming _____ and _____. lactate enters the mitochondrion then passes its electrons to _____ forming ____ annd _____. enzyme: _____
pyruvate, NAD+, lactate. NAD+, NADH, pyruvate. lactate dehydrogenase
if oxygen is insufficient, NAD+ must be formed by converting _____ to _____. Produces ATP rapidly but cannot be maintained.
pyruvate, lactate.
in step ten of glycolysis, PEP is converted to _____ by transferring a ______ to ____ forming _____
pyruvate, phosphate group, ADP, ATP
What are the oligosaccharides?
raffinose and stachyose
insulin promotes glucose ____ in muscle and fat cells
uptake
what is glycogenesis?
uses energy to convert glucose to glycogen during periods of energy excess
ETC, step 5: after the completion of the ETC, cytochromes combine electrons, hydrogen ions, and oxygen to form ______. because oxygen is needed this is an ______ process.
water, aerobic
in step 7 of TCAC, ____ is added to convert fumarate to _____ by the enzyme _____.
water, malate, fumarase
why do legumes cause gas?
we don't have the enzymes to digest, we have to rely on colon bacteria
how is glycogen branched?
when 6-7 glucose molecules are added to the glycogen chain, a branching enzyme transfers them to form a new branch with a alpha-1,6 glycosidic bond
what are sources of insoluble fiber?
whole grains, seeds, legumes, fruits, vegetables
