FSHN 350 Carbohydrates

in step 1 of TCAC, citrate synthase is inhibited by _____.

ATP

What is the formula for glycemic index?

AUC for test food/AUC for glucose x 100

_% of fructose is taken up by the liver in the first pass. Then it is converted to _____, then _____ and _____ which are converted to _____ which enters glycolysis. Fructose bypasses ____, which causes a build up of _____ and _____. This replaces ____ as fuel leading to _____ liver.

90; fructose-1-phosphate, DHAP and glyceraldehye, G-3-P

ETC step 4: the movement of _____ through the channel causes the enzyme _____ to catalyze the reaction that adds ______ to ______, forming _______.

H+, ATP synthase, phosphate, ADP, ATP

ETC, step 3: the accumulation of ____ in the _______ creates a force. This force enables the _____ to reenter the ______ by passing through a _____.

H+, inner membrane space, H+ mitochondrial matrix, channel

What caused a dramatic increase in sugar consumption in the past two hundred years? What caused brief decreases in sugar consumption? What has also increased over the past one hundred years, in association with sugar intake?

Importation of sugar and industrial revolution. Learning how to process it and distribute it efficiently. World Wars. Obesity.

when the rate of pyruvate formation exceeds the rate of its oxidative decarboxylation to acetyl CoA, ______ (enzyme) oxidizes/reduces pyruvate to _____ using _____ (coenzyme)

LDH, reduces, lactate, NADH

if oxygen is insufficient for the ETC, _____ is returned to the cytosol for step 6 of glycolysis.

NAD+

why is lactate formation beneficial? replaces _______, allows _____ to continue (removing product of), and reduces concentration of _____.

NAD+, glycolysis, H+

in the sixth step of glycolysis, G-3-P is converted to 1,3-BPG using the coenzyme _____, which is oxidized/reduced to ______

NAD+, reduced, NADH + H+

the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate to acetyl-coA produces 2 molecules of _____

NADH

in the malate aspartate shuttle, electrons are transferred from NADH to _____ forming _____ and _____. Malate cross the mitochondrial membrane then pass eltrons to ______, forming _____ and _____. OAA is converted to _____ which can cross the membrane. enzyme: ______

OAA, NAD+, malate. NAD+, OAA, NADH. aspartate. malate dehydrogenase

what absorbs glucose and galactose on the apical side?

SGLT1

where are the major sites of expression of GLUT5?

adipose, brain, intestine, kidney, skeletal muscle

which bond can humans digest?

alpha-1-4 bonds between glucose molecules

in step 3 of TCAC, isocitrate is oxidatively decarboxylated to ______ by the enzyme_____, which is inhibited by high ratio ______. This step produces the coenzyme _____.

alpha-ketoglutarate, isocitrate dehydrogenase, NADH:NAD+, NADH

amylopectin

amylopectin

what is the most branched starch?

amylopectin

amylose

amylose

what are the starches found in plants?

amylose and amylopectin

what is the problem with foods that have a high glycemic index?

blood glucose levels rise very quickly and then fall very quickly below the baseline - rise and crash

what are the major sites of expression of GLUT1

blood-brain barrier, CNS, enterocytes, fetal tissue, placenta

where are the major sites of expression of GLUT3?

brain, embryos, placenta, spermatozoa

where is most of the fiber in wheat?

bran

What is the path of carbohydrates once they reach the capilary?

capillary -> portal vein -> liver

is glycogenolysis catabolic or anabolic?

catabolic

what is fiber?

cellulose and other non-starch polysaccharides and many other plant components

when does gluconeogenesis occur?

low carb intake, fasting, endurance exercise

where does glycogenesis occur?

mainly in muscle and liver

what happens to amylose in the brush border?

maltose is hydrolyzed by maltase, forming free glucose

what happens to amylopectin in the brush border?

maltose is hydrolyzed by maltase, limit dextrins are hydrolyzed by a-dextrinase, forming glucose

what is amylopectin broken down to in the small intestine?

dextrin-->maltose and limit dextrin; can't digest a-1-6 bonds

enzymes hydrolyze polysaccharides into _____

dextrins

what are dextrins

di and some monosaccharides

what is the structural difference between glucose and galactose?

direction of C4 hydroxyl group

insoluble fiber ______ dissolve in water

does not

ETC step 2: energy released from the movement of _____ is used to pump _____ from the _____ to the _____-.

electrons, H+ mitochondrial matrix, inter membrane space

ETC step 1: as NADH and FADH2 are passed along the protein complex of the ETC, enzymes remove ____ and ____ regenerating ____ and _____

electrons, H+, NAD+, FAD

what part of wheat is mostly starch?

endosperm

what is the term for normal blood glucose?

euglycemia

is the conversion of glucose to G-6-P exergonic for endergonic?

exergonic - net -4 kcal

is the conversion of glucose to G-6-P exergonic or endergonic

exergonic - requires ATP but transfer releases more energy so overall exergonic

how do glucose and galactose enter the capillary

facilitated diffusion

how does fructose enter the enterocyte?

facilitated transport

how does fructose leave the enterocyte and enter the capilary?

facilitated transport

what happens to fiber in the colon?

fermented by bacteria

______ is related to cholesterol, CVD, colorectal cancer, obesity, T2D, digestive health

fiber

fructose

fructose

what are the substrates of GLUT5?

fructose, but not glucose

what are the susbstrates for GLUT2

fructose, glucose, galactose, glucosamine, mannose

what is the sweetest carbohydrate? Where is it found?

fructose, honey, fruit

how is phosphofructokinase bypassed in gluconeogenesis?

fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase

in the third step of glycolysis, F-6-P is converted to _____

fructose-1,6-bisphosphate

in step 6 of TCAC, succinate is oxidized to _____ by the enzyme _____, which is inhibited by a high ratio of _____, and produces the coenzyme _____.

fumarate, succinate dehydrogenase, FADH2:FAD, FADH2

Which of the following is a simple carbohydrate? A. galactose B. amylose C. raffinose D. glycogen

galactose

galactose

galactose

what constitutes raffinose?

galactose, glucose, fructose

what is the goal of TCA cycle?

generate reduced coenzymes

where are most of the vitamins and minerals in wheat?

germ

processing of grains removes what two parts

germ and bran

what are the parts of a kernel of wheat?

germ, endosperm, bran

in response to low blood glucose levels, the pancreas increases its release of the hormone_____

glucagon

skeletal muscle has no ____ receptors

glucagon

what are positive regulators of glycogen phosphorylase?

glucagon, epinephrine, AMP

glucagon promotes _________ in the liver

gluconeogenesis

What is the preferred source of energy for the CNS?

glucose

What is the source of energy to cells?

glucose

what can be used to synthesize amino acids and fatty acids?

glucose

what is the most abundant monosaccharide?

glucose

what is the most important monosaccharide?

glucose

what is the sole source of energy for red blood cells?

glucose

what monosaccharides make up sucrose?

glucose and fructose

what is lactose composed of?

glucose and galactose

what monosaccharides are in maltose?

glucose and glucose

what is the first step in glucose metabolism?

glucose is converted to G-6-P

how does glucose enter the enterocyte?

glucose transporter proteins, GLUT

What are the monosaccharides?

glucose, fructose, galactose

what are the substrates for GLUT1

glucose, galactose, manose, glucosamine

how is hexokinase bypassed in gluconeogenesis?

glucose-6-phosphatase

in the first step of glycolysis, glucose is converted to _____

glucose-6-phosphate

What is the term for an increase in blood glucose levels after a meal?

glycemic response

what is the homopolysaccharide in humans?

glycogen

what is glycogenolysis?

glycogen breakdown of individual glucose residues are systematically cleaved one at a time and routed through energy-releasing pathway

what enzyme is used in glycogenolysis

glycogen phosphorylase

what enzyme incorporates UDP-glucose in to glycogen?

glycogen synthase

What are the polysaccharides

glycogen, starch, fiber

insulin promotes _____ in liver and skeletal muscle cells

glycogenesis

insulin stimulates _____ in liver and muscle in the absorptive state

glycogenesis

what are the precursors for gluconeogenesis?

glycogenic amino acids, lactate, glycerol

what enzyme forms the glycogen primer?

glycogenin

epinephrine promotes ______ in liver and muscle

glycogenolysis

glucagon promotes _____ in the liver

glycogenolysis

glucagon stimulates ______ in liver when blood glucose levels decline

glycogenolysis

the ETC is a set of protein complexes containing redox center with progressively _______ affinities for electrons

greater

what is a high glycemic index? examples?

greater than 70; baked potato, waffles

what causes diverticulosis?

hard dry feces characteristic of a low-fiber diet

what enzymes catalyze the conversion of glucose to G-6-P?

hexokinase is muscle and glucokinase in liver

What are the three enzymes in glycolysis that must be bypassed in gluconeogenesis?

hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, pyruvate kinase

what is the signal for the pancreas to release insulin?

high blood glucose levels

phosphorylation ______ glycogen synthase

inactivates

fiber increases/decrease satiety

increases

in blood vessels, insulin _____ vasodilation and _____ cell proliferation

increases

in muscle, insulin ____ glucose uptake, _____ glycolysis, _____ glycogeneis, and _____ protein synthesis

increases all

Insulin _____ translocation of GLUT2

inhibits

lignin's, cellulose, hemicelluloses are examples of

insoluble fiber

in response to elevated blood glucose levels, the pancreas increases its release of the hormone_____

insulin

what induces glucokinase?

insulin

describe cellular insulin action.

insulin receptor is located on the membrane. insulin binds and starts signal transduction pathway. glucose transporter is translocated to the membrane

what is the problem with type 2 diabetes?

insulin receptors have difficulty binding insulin. few glucose transporters relocate to cell membrane making it difficult for glucose to be absorbed. hyperglycemia results.

what influences disappearance of glucose from the blood?

insulin secretion and action in target tissues

what hormone stimulates glycogen synthase? what hormones inhibit it?

insulin stimulates. glucagon and epinephrine inhibit

the negative regulators of glycogen phosphorylase are _____, _____, and _____.

insulin, ATP, G-6-P

the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA is reversible/irreversible

irreversible

the third step of glycolysis is reversible/irreversible?

irreversible

in step 2 of TCAC, citrate is isomerize to _____ by the enzyme _____.

isocitrate, aconitase

what is the glycemic load?

rating system used to calculate glycemic response that takes into account amount of carbohydrate in a single serving

is the isomerization of G-6-P to G-1-P reversible or irreversible

reversible

ribitol

ribitol

what pentose is a constituent of coenzymes FAD and FMN

ribitol

ribose

ribose

which pentose is a constituent of key nucleotides

ribose

what enzyme is released in the mouth for starch digestion? what does it do?

salivary a-amylase; hydrolyzes a-1-4 bonds in amylose and amylopectin in dextrins

what happens with carbohydrate digestion in the stomach?

salivary-a-amylase is destroyed by acid. no digestion in the stomach

sodium and glucose/galactose travel in the _____ direction. This is known as apical______

same; symport

how is lactate used?

shuttled to other tissues (Cori cycle) or converted to pyruvate for TCA cycle

Carbohydrates are classified as _____ carbohydrates and _____ carbohydrates.

simple, complex

soluble fiber helps ___ gastric emptying which _____ satiety and ____ blood glucose

slows, promotes, lowers

what is diverticulosis?

small, protruding pouches that form along the all of the large intestines

what substance is used to transport glucose and galactose via SGLT1

sodium

nearly 50% of added sugars in the diet come from what?

soft drinks

pectin, gum, mucilage, b-glucan are examples of ____

soluble dietary fiber

where can maltose be found?

starch digestion - beer

What stimulates gluconeogenesis? What inhibits it?

stimulated by glucagon and epinephrine. inhibited by insulin.

Pyruvate dehydrogenase is stimulate by _____ and _____. It is inhibited by increasing ratios of _____, _____, and _____.

stimulated by pyruvate and ADP inhibited by increasing ratio of ATP:ADP, NADH:NAD+, acetyl-CoA:CoASH

Glycemic index is influenced by:

structure of food, composition of carbs, macronutrients, processing, other foods in the meal

in step 5 of TCAC, succinyl-CoA is converted to _____ by the enzyme ______. Hydrolysis releases sufficient energy to drive phosphorylation of ____ to produce ____ which is converted to ____.

succinate, succinyl-CoA synthetase. GDP, GTP, ATP

in step 4 of TCAC, alpha-ketoglutarate is oxidized and decarboxylated forming ____ by the enzyme _____ and producing the coenzyme _____. The enzyme is inhibited by high ratio of _____.

succinyl-CoA, alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, NADH. NADH:NAD+

what are the brush border enzymes that digest disaccharides?

sucrase, lactase, maltase

where is sucrose found?

sugar

What is the number one source of added sugars in the U.S. diet?

sugar-sweetened beverages

insulin promotes fat ______ in adipose tissue

synthesis

insulin promotes protein _______ in muscle cells

synthesis

what is gluconeogenesis?

synthesis of glucose from precursor molecules when insufficient glycogen to maintain euglycemia

what happens to lactose in a person with lactose intolerance?

lactose enters the large intestine undigested; bacteria ferment lactose causing gas flatulence and diarrhea

What are the disaccharides?

lactose, sucrose, maltose

where is stachyose found?

legumes

what is normal fasting plasma glucose levels?

less than 100 mg/dL

what is diabetes fasting plasma glucose concentration?

less than 126 mg/dL

what is normal two-hour oral glucose-tolerance test levels?

less than 140 mg/dL

what is the acceptable range of blood glucose after a meal in a nondiabetic person?

less than 140 mg/dl

what is diabetes two-hour oral glucose tolerance test concentration?

less than 200 mg/dL

what is a low glycemic index? examples?

less than 55; banana, cherries

glucagon promotes _____ in adipose tissue and ______ in the liver

lipolysis, ketogenesis

What is the main site of glucose deposition after a meal?

liver

what organ is responsible for maintaining blood glucose levels?

liver

which glycogen supplies glucose to the blood?

liver

which has a higher concentration of glycogen?

liver

where does gluconeogenesis occur?

liver, kidney, intestine

20% of glycogen in the body is in _____. It is depleted for____

liver; maintaining blood glucose levels

how are glucose molecules connected in glycogen? how are the brances connected?

a-1-4, a-1-6

what are the branch points in amylopectin?

a-1-6

glucagon is released from _____ in the pancreas

a-cells

what glycosidic linkage is in maltose?

a1-4

what glycosidic linkage is sucrose?

a1-b2

soluble fiber helps with digestion by _____ water to _____ fecal matter

absorbing, soften

phosphorylation _____ glycogen phosphorylase

activates

how to glucose and galactose enter the enterocyte?

active transport

white sugar, raw sugar, corn syrup, maple syrup, honey, and molasses are all names for what?

added sugar

what does insoluble fiber due to fecal matter?

adds weight and volume

where and the major sites of expression of GLUT4?

adipocytes, heart, muscle

deoxyribose

deoxyribose

what is amylose broken down to in the small intestine?

dextrin --> maltose

how many NADH are produced in glucose metabolism and where? how many ATP does this make?

10 NADH. 2 from glycolysis, 2 from pyruvate oxidative decarboxylation to acetyl-CoA, and 6 from TCAC. makes 25-30 ATP.

what bonds are in amylose?

a-1-4

what are the regulated steps in glycolysis and the enzymes?

1 - glucokinase or hexokinase 3 - phosphofructokinase 10 - pyruvate kinase

in the sixth step of glycolysis, G-3-P is converted to ______

1,3-bisphosphoglycerate

how is the substrate level phosphorylation in step seven glycolysis able to occur?

1,3-bisphosphoglycerate has higher phosphate transfer potential that ATP

what are the three fates of G-6-P?

1. converted to G-1-P which is used to build glycogen (phosphoglucomutase'= 2. glycolysis 3. in liver converted back to glucose to maintain euglycemia (G-6-Phosphatase)

how does NADH cross the mitochondrial membrane?

1. malate-aspartate shuttle 2. glycerol-phosphate shuttle 3. lactate shuttle

what are the fates of pyruvate?

1. reduction, forming lactate 2. oxidative decarboxylation, forming acetyl-CoA 3. carboxylation - forming oxaloacetate - gluconeogenesis

how many GLUT do humans have?

14

how many ATP are invested in the first 5 steps of glycolysis?

2 ATP

how many FADH2 are produced from glucose metabolism? when? how many ATP does this make?

2 FADH2. 2 from TCAC. makes 3-4 ATP.

what constitutes stachyose?

2 galactose, glucose, fructose

in step eight of glycolysis, 3-p glycerate is converted to _____

2-p glycerate

good sources of fiber have how much?

2.5-3.9 g/serving

_% of glucose and galactose and _% of fructose cleared on the first pass through the liver

25, 90

NADH produces _____ ATP, and FADH2 produces _______. This is because FADH2 enters the ETC ______.

3, 2, later

how many monosaccharides are in oligosaccharides?

3-10

in step seven of glycolysis, 1,3-BPG is converted to _____ by transferring _____ to ____ forming _____

3-p glycerate, phosphate, ADP, ATP

how many total ATP are produced from the metabolism of one glucose molecule?

32-38 ATP

what are the products of glycolysis?

4 ATP (2 net), 2 NADH, 2 pyruvate

how many ATP are produce in glucose metabolism and when?

4 ATP. 2 from glycolysis and 2 from TCAC

What is the acceptable macronutrient distribution range for carbohydrates?

45-60%

What percent of people with diabetes have type 1?

5-10%

what is a medium glycemic index? examples?

56-69, raisins, whit rice

how many carbons are in fructose?

6

What is the acceptable range of blood glucose before a meal in a nondiabetic person?

60-100 mg/dl

What is the general formula for carbohydrates?

Cn(H2O)n

in the glycerol-phosphate shuttle NADH passes its electrons to _____ forming _____ and _____. Glycerol-phsophate enters the mitochondrion and passes its electrons to ____ forming _____ and _____. enzyme: _____

DHAP, NAD+, glycerol-phosphate. FAD, DHAP, FADH2. glycerol phosphate dehydrogenase

in the second step of glycolysis, g-6-p is converted to ______

F-6-P

Carbohydrates are essential nutrients. True or False

False

True of False: GLUT2 is constitutive.

False: translocated to apical membrane when needed

in the fifth step of glycolysis, DHAP is converted to ____

G-3-P

in the fourth step of glycolysis, F-1,6-BP is split into _____ and _____

G-3-P and DHAP

what inhibits hexokinase?

G-6-P - product

what is the formula for glycemic load?

GI/100 x grams in a typical serving

When lumen concentrations are high, what transporter is used to absorb glucose, galactose and fructose?

GLUT2

what transports fructose on the basolateral side?

GLUT2

what transports glucose and galactose on the basolateral side?

GLUT2

Which GLUT is insulin dependent?

GLUT4

what glucose transporter responds to insulin in the adipose and muscel cells?

GLUT4

what absorbs fructose on the apical side?

GLUT5

What is the ultimate source of carbohydrates? Explain.

The sun. Plants use carbon dioxide and water, powered by energy from the sun to produce glucose and oxygen. The energy from the sun is captured in the bonds of carbohydrates.

how is glucose activated in glycogenesis?

UTP hydrolysis powers the coupling of UMP to G-1-P forming UDP-glucose

Describe how carbohydrate intake (type, % of kcal) has changed in the US over the past century.

Wider variety of carbs due to ability to import sugar and process foods inductrially. Greater intake.

What does soluble fiber form?

a gel that dissolves or swells in water

is glycogenesis anabolic or catabolic?

anabolic

what is the side of the enterocyte facing the lumen?

apical

which bond can we digest? b-1-4 between glucose and galactose or b-1-4 between glucose and glucose?

b-1-4 between glucose and galactose

insulin is released by ____ in the pancrease

b-cells

what is the problem in diabetes type 1?

b-cells in pancreas have been destroyed by antibodies and are no longer able to produce insulin

where are the major sites of expression for GLUT2?

b-cells, kidney, liver, SI

what linkage is lactose?

b1-4

what is the side of the enterocyte facing the capillary?

basolateral membrance

how does soluble fiber relate to cholesterol?

binds cholesterol in gut, decreasing absorption which may help lower blood cholesterol levels

what is glucose from glycogen used for in muscles? in liver?

biological work, regulate blood glucose

what influences appearance of glucose in the blood?

rates of intestinal absorption and hepatic clearance

in step 1 of TCAC oxaloacetate reacts with acetyl-CoA to produce _____. This requires ____ and the enzyme ______and produces _____.

citrate. H2O, citrate synthase. CoASH

in the ETC, electrons move from complexes I and II to complex III by _____ and from complex III to complex IV by _____.

coenzyme Q, cytochrome C

how is a glycosidic bond formed?

condensation reaction between C1 OH group of one sugar and C4 H of another sugar

why can't humans digest dietary fiber?

contains b-1-4 bonds that we don't have enzymes for

consumption of dietary fibers from cereals and fruits is inversely associated with risk of _____

coronary heart disease

what are symptoms of diverticulosis?

cramping, diarrhea, fever, rectal bleedin

where is lactose found?

dairy

insoluble fiber increases/decreases constipation

decreases

in the liver, insulin _____ gluconeogenesis, _____ glycogenolysis, and _____ glycogen synthesis

decreases, decreases, increases

In the adipose tissue, insulin _____ lipolysis, _____ fat uptake, ____TG synthesis and _____ adipogenesis

decreases, increases, increases, increases

what causes lactose intolerance

deficiency of lactase - can't digest b-1-4 linkage in lactose

what are the substrates for GLUT3

dehydroabscorbic acid, glucose, galactose, mannose, xylose

what are the substrates of GLUT4?

dehydroascorbic acid, galactose, glucose

what is the glycemic index of food?

measure of how fast and how much blood glucose levels rise after eating that food

what is diabetes?

metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemia, glycosuria, honey-sweet urine

what is the Cori cycle?

metabolic pathway in which lactate produced by anaerobic glycolysis in the muscles moves to the liver and is converted to glucose, which then returns to the muscles and is metabolized back to lactate

where does TCA cycle occur?

mitochondrial matrix

Simple carbohydrates are classified as _____ and _____.

monosaccharides, disaccharides

excellent sources of fiber have how much?

more than 20% of RDA or more than 5 g/serving

in ______ cells, G-6-P cannot be converted to glucose

muscle

which has more glycogen, muscle or liver?

muscle

where does glycogenolysis occur?

muscle and liver during periods of energy need

80% of glycogen in the body is in____. It is depleted for _____

muscle, exercise

what nutrients are required for oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate?

niacin, thiamin, riboflavin, panothenic acid

what happens to insoluble fiber in the colon?

not fermentable by bacteria; passes through GI tract

what are limitations of glycemic index?

not typical amount consumed, some foods have low GI but other health risks, GI is influenced by other factors

Complex carbohydrates are classified as _____ and _____

oligosaccharides, polysaccharides

how are beta glycosidic bonds arranged?

on opposite sides

how are alpha glycosidic bonds arranged?

on the same side

what is the starting and finishing product of TCA cycle?

oxaloacetate

in step 8 of TCAC, malate is oxidized to _____ by the enzyme _____, producing ______. The enzyme is inhibite dby high ratio of _____.

oxaloacetate, malate dehydrogenase, NADH, NADH:NAD+

how is acetyl CoA formed from pyruvate?

oxidative decarboxylation

in the sixth step of glycolysis, G-3-P is oxidized/reduced to 1,3-BPG

oxidized

what happens with carbohydrate digestion in the small intestine?

pancreatic a-amylase hydrolyzes a-1-4 glycosidic bonds

What monosaccharides are used as the body other than as a fuel source?

pentoses

in step nine of glycolysis, 2-P glycerate is converted to ____

phosphoenolpyruvate

in the third step of glycolysis, the enzyme that converts F-6-P to F-1,6-BP is _______

phosphofructokinase

what enzyme isomerize G-6-P to G-1-P

phosphoglucomutase

1% of glycogen in the body is in____. It's concentration is _____

plasma; highly regulated

in the third step of glycolysis, phosphofructokinase is positively regulated by ____ and negatively regulated by ____ and _____

positively: AMP; negatively: ATP and citrate

how is pyruvate kinase bypassed in gluconeogenesis?

pyruvate carboxylase and phosphoenol carboxykinase

what enzyme converts pyruvate to acetyl CoA

pyruvate dehydrogenase

in the lactate shuttle, NADH passes its electrons to _____ forming _____ and _____. lactate enters the mitochondrion then passes its electrons to _____ forming ____ annd _____. enzyme: _____

pyruvate, NAD+, lactate. NAD+, NADH, pyruvate. lactate dehydrogenase

if oxygen is insufficient, NAD+ must be formed by converting _____ to _____. Produces ATP rapidly but cannot be maintained.

pyruvate, lactate.

in step ten of glycolysis, PEP is converted to _____ by transferring a ______ to ____ forming _____

pyruvate, phosphate group, ADP, ATP

What are the oligosaccharides?

raffinose and stachyose

insulin promotes glucose ____ in muscle and fat cells

uptake

what is glycogenesis?

uses energy to convert glucose to glycogen during periods of energy excess

ETC, step 5: after the completion of the ETC, cytochromes combine electrons, hydrogen ions, and oxygen to form ______. because oxygen is needed this is an ______ process.

water, aerobic

in step 7 of TCAC, ____ is added to convert fumarate to _____ by the enzyme _____.

water, malate, fumarase

why do legumes cause gas?

we don't have the enzymes to digest, we have to rely on colon bacteria

how is glycogen branched?

when 6-7 glucose molecules are added to the glycogen chain, a branching enzyme transfers them to form a new branch with a alpha-1,6 glycosidic bond

what are sources of insoluble fiber?

whole grains, seeds, legumes, fruits, vegetables