GRE Psych
ordinal scale
-Ranks -observations are ranked in terms of size or magnitude -ex: order of finish in horse race
Palmar reflex
Piaget, Sensorimotor, 1/4, 0-2 yrs; hand grasping elicited by placing object in hand
Object permanence
Piaget, Sensorimotor, 1/4, 0-2 yrs; knowing an object exists even when no longer seen
Circular reactions
Piaget, Sensorimotor, 1/4, 0-2 yrs; repeated behaviour intended to manipulate environment
Moro reflex
Piaget, Sensorimotor, 1/4, 0-2 yrs; throwing out of arms/legs elicited by loud/frightening noises
Representation
Piaget, Sensorimotor, 1/4, 0-2 yrs; visualizing or putting words to objects
Darley, J., Latane, B.
Proposed that there were two factors that could lead to non-helping: social influence and diffusion of responsibility
Reciprocal interaction
constant exchange of influences between people, constant factor in our behaviour
Terminal buttons
contain synaptic vessels that hold neurotransmitters
Stern
developed an equation to compare mental age to chronological age which came to be known as IQ
Kohler, W.
developed theory of isomorphism
Allan Paivio
dual code hypothesis
Agnosia
dysfunction in certain cortical association area difficulty processing sensory information
Apraxia
dysfunction in certain cortical association area inability to organize movement
Alexia
dysfunction in certain cortical association area inability to read
Agraphia
dysfunction in certain cortical association area inability to write
Somatic delusion
e.g. believing a part of the body is ugly of misshapen
Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory
empirical-keying or criterion-keying approach; to determine of subject is like a particular group or not
figure and ground relationship
the relationship between the meaningful part of a picture and the background
Insight
new perspective on old problem "A-ha!"
Neonate
newborn, many reflexive behaviours
criticism (Client-centered theory)
no use of diagnostic tools because Rogers believed client-centered therapy applied to any problem
White matter
outer covering of spine, nerve fibers, axon bundles, myelin sheathing
range
overall range or spread - most basic measure of variability - subtracts the lowest value from the highest value in a data set
Grammar
overall rules of relationship between morphemes and syntax for a certain language
Overregularization
overapplication of grammar rules (e.g. "I founded my toy" or plural vs. non plural)
Hyperphagia
overeating with no satiation of hunger; leads to obesity; damage to ventromedial region of hypothalamus
Base-rate fallacy
overestimating the general frequency of things we are most familiar with
interposition
overlap of objects shows which objects are closer
California Personality Inventory (CPI)
personality measure for "normal" / less clinical groups than MMPI, by Harrison Gough
Myers-Brigg Type Indicator (MBTI)
personality test from Jung's theory; - 93 questions 2 answers each; - 4-letter personality type, each letter 1 of 2 possible opposing characteristics: - Introverted vs. Extraverted, - Sensing vs. Intuition, - Feeling vs. Thinking, and - Judgment vs. Perception
Sleeper effect
persuasive communication from a source of low credibility may become more acceptable later; perhaps memory+discounting cue is severed over time, later recalling a source is less available, or differential decay: impact of cue decays faster than message
getting-learning type
phlegmatic low in activity and high in social contribution, dependent
Eidetic imagery
photographic memory, more common in children and rural
light
photons and waves
Blooming and pruning
process in which neural pathways are connected and then some die out (children go through these process)
Selective attention
process of tuning in to something specific while ignoring background stimuli
Ectomorph
skinny, fragile means inhibited, intellectual
Empirical-keying or criterion-keying approach
the approach to construct assessment instruments, involves selection of items that can discriminate between various groups; responses determine if he is like a particular group or not; e.g. Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory
Harold Kelley
the attributions we make about our actions or those of others usually accurate; we base this on consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus of the action
Applied psychology
the branch of psychology that uses principles or research findings to solve people's problems
Metacognition
The process of thinking about your own thinking, knowing what solving strategies to apply and when, or knowing how to adapt thinking to new situations
McCollough effect
afterimages due to fatigued receptors. - eyes have partially oppositional system for seeing colors. If one side is overstimulated and fatigued, it can no longer respond and is overshadowed by its opposite ex: dark afterimage after staring at a white light
Cooperative learning
students working on a project in small groups
Latent learning
takes place without reinforcement, knowledge not immediately expressed, e.g. learning while watching chess
Extinction (classical conditioning)
Disassociate car from vet by taking dog on frequent car trip to the park
Learning curve
Ebbinghaus, when learning something new, rate of learning usually changes over time; can be positively or negatively accelerated
Overshadowing
In classical conditioning, the inability to infer a relationship between a stimulus and response due to the presence of a more prominent stimulus
Preparedness
John Garcia Certain associations are learned more easily than others - Nausea & food can be paired easily, but light and nausea cannot be paired
Conditioned Response (CR)
Response that CS elicits after conditioning; UCR and CR will be the same (e.g. salivation)
Simultaneous Conditioning
UCS and CS presented at the same time
Drive-reduction theories
born with certain physiological needs, will be tension if not satisfied; when it is, return to state of homeostasis and relaxation
Avoidance conditioning
how to avoid something undesirable
Observational learning
learning by watching
Donald Hebb
medium amount of arousal best for performance
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
not-so-neutral stimulus, elicits response without conditioning (e.g. salivation)
B. F. Skinner
operant conditioning
Spontaneous recovery
reappearance of an extinguished response, even without further conditioning after the child's tantrum behaviour has been extinguished, the child may suddenly throw a tantrum again
Fixed ratio schedule
reinforcement delivered after a consistent number of responses; vulnerable to extinction
Kurt Lewin
theory of association
Delayed conditioning
type of forward conditioning; CS begins before UCS, lasts until the UCS is presented
State dependent learning
what a person learns in one state is best recalled in that state
Superstitious behaviour
"learning" that a specific action causes an event, when in reality the two are unrelated
object-relations theory
"objects" relationships: real others and one's internalized image of others;
Steps in neural transmission
(1) resting potential, neuron negatively charged, cell membrane does not let ions in; (2) presynaptic cell releases neurotransmitters from terminal buttons; (3) postsynaptic receptors in postsynaptic cells detects neurotransmitter and open ion channels; (4) excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) or inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) are changed in a nerve cell's charge as result of stimulation (5) action potential starts when a cell becomes stimulated with enough positive ions and fires (and "all-or-none" law) (6) AP travels down axon, salutatory conduction; (7) at the terminal buttons, neurotransmitters released to the next cell; Now neuron is the presynaptic cell for the next connection (8) absolute refractory period; (9) relative refractory period; (10) reuptake of neurotransmitter or deactivation by enzymes
Alzheimer's disease
(Not book definition) an irreversible, progressive brain disorder, characterized by the deterioration of memory, language, and eventually, physical functioning
Free association
- "Joseph Breuer" the central process in which a patient reports thoughts without censure or guidance - Freud: because unconscious material is always looking for a way out, the patient can uncover and express repressed material through free association
Client-centered theory
- Carl Rogers - Person centered/Rogerian theory - humanistic --> it has an optimistic outlook on human nature; - individual have an actualizing tendency that directs them out of conflict and toward full potential, - best accomplished in atmosphere that fosters growth
abnormal theory (Gestalt Theory)
- abnormality derived from disturbances of awareness, - client may not have insight or fully experience present situation (choosing not to acknowledge certain aspects)
Inner ear
- begins with oval window which is tapped by stapes, - vibration activates cochlea, - cochlear fluid activate hair-cell receptors on basilar membrane (traveling wave) and organ of corti for hearing; - vestibular sacs (also respond to hair movement) sensitive to tilt for balance; - receptors cells activate nerves to form electrical message
Rapid Eye Movement sleep
- comprises 50% of total sleep at birth, decreases to 25% - 20% sleep time spent in this type of sleep - Interspersed with non-REM every 30-40min - where dreams are experience - characterized by neural desynchrony - also known as paradoxical sleep --> physiological signs resemble waking state but muscle tone decreases to point of paralysis with sudden twitch (esp. In face and hands) - lasts 15 minutes at beginning of sleep cycle to one hour at the end -Rebound effect
therapy (Client-centered theory)
- directed by client who decides how often to meet and what to discuss; - therapist is nondirective, providing a self-exploration, safe and trusting atmosphere for client; - provide empathy, unconditional positive regard, genuineness/congruence
Dominant and recessive gene
- dominant gene always beat out recessive gene - recessive gene is not manifested unless it is paired with another recessive gene - combination of dominant and recessive genes determines what he/she looks like
variance (calculation)
- figure out how much each score differs (deviates) from the mean by subtracting the mean from each score - square each of these deviation values (to get rid of negative value) - add all these squared deviations to get the sum of square - divide sum by the number of scores you had(n)
Kurt Lewin
- founder of social psychology,; - applied Gestalt ideas to social behaviour; - conceived field theory - life space, valence, vector, barrier
phenotypic expression
- how one looks and sometimes acts - partially determined by heredity or genotype, but can also be influence by environment
estrogen
- increase in female during puberty causes genitals to matures and secondary sex characteristics to develop
androgens (example)
- increase in males during puberty causes genitals to matures and secondary sex characteristics to develop - example: testosterone
Field study
- naturalistic setting, - less control over environment than in lab; - generates more hypotheses than able to prove
Organizational hormones
- occur during specific periods in development, - permanent or long-lasting effects; - presence of H-Y antigen in development causes fetus to develop into a male, absence to female; - androgens in males and estrogen in females causes secondary sex characteristics; - menarche
theories for details of vision
- opponent-color/opponent-process - tri-color theory/component theory - opponent-process theory - lateral inhibition - color blindness - David Hubel and Torsten Wiese
Cerebral cortex (subsystem)
- outer half-inch of cerebral hemispheres; - sensory and intellectual functions; - split into frontal, occipital, parietal, temporal lobes; - 90% is neocortex (new in evolution, 6 layers cortex) - 10% < 6 layers and more primitive
Instinctual/innate behaviours
- present in all normal members of a species, - stereotypic in form throughout members even for the first time - independent of learning or experience
therapy (analytical theory)
- psychodynamic approach - because unconscious elements are addressed - in order to be more aware, unconscious material is explored through analyzing dreams, artwork, personal symbols
abnormal theory (psychoanalytic theory)
- repressed drives and conflict become manifested in dysfunctional ways - psychic determinism
Therapy (Behavior theory)
- short-term and directed; - thoughts, feelings and unconsciousness not addressed; - Therapist use counterconditioning techniques to help client learn new responses; - Techniques: systematic desensitization, flooding or implosive therapy, aversion therapy, shaping, modeling, assertiveness training, role playing
Experimental design
- takes place in controlled setting - must be able to control for: independent variable, dependent variable, and confounding variable
linear regression
- use correlation coefficients in order to predict one variable y from another variable x - let you define a line on graph that describes the relationship between x and y - when the least-square line or regression line is fit to the data - basically: use correlational data to make predictions based on a line fit with the least-squares method
Charles Darwin
- wrote Origin of Species and the Descent of Man - did not create the concept of evolution, but made it a scientifically sound principle by positing that natural selection was its driving force
ratio IQ
-(mental age / chronological age) X 100 -problem: after a certain age, chronological age increases while mental age does not (even if your mental age remains constant, your IQ will decrease with age)
deviation IQ (deviation quotient)
-1960 revision of Stanford-Binet (gets around problem of ratio IQ) -score that tells us how far away a person's score is from the average score for the particular age group the subject is a member of -deviation IQ = individual's standing among his or her same-aged cohort
MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)
-550 statements to which subjects respond true or false or cannot say -yield scores on ten clinical scales (such as depression) -has scales that can indicates whether the person is careless, faking responses, etc. -purpose: to aid in assessment of various clinical disorders -all scores are expressed as standard scores with a mean & standard deviation derived from standardization of samples
normal distribution
-68% will fall within 1 SD of the mean -96% will fall within 2 SDs of the mean -4% will fall beyond 2 SDs of the mean -symmetrical and has its greatest frequency in the middle, meaning that the mean, median, & mode are identical
f-ratio
-ANOVA -F ratio = between group variance estimate divided by the within group variance estimate -ex: if protein level doesn't make a difference, then we would expect an f-ratio close to 1 (mean scores on spelling test are about the same for each group, and should therefore be about the same as the difference between individuals within each group, regardless of the level of protein) -larger F-ratio = more statistically significant
interaction
-ANOVA -occurs whenever there is an interaction between the 2 independent variables; occurs whenever the effects of one IV are not consistent for all levels of the 2nd IV -gender is 2nd IV in the breakfast example (& high/low protein = other IV) -if someone were to ask you whether it was good to have a high-protein breakfast or a low protein breakfast before taking the test, you would have to answer "it depends on whether you're male or female" -helps ascertain whether IV influenced DV (spelling test score)
interval scale
-Equal intervals -uses actual #s (not ranks) -ex: temperature -arithmetic operations: addition/subtraction
ratio scaling
-Equal intervals + true zero point -unlike interval scales, there is a true zero point that indicates the total absence of the quantity being measured (ex: temperature of 0 doesn't mean that there is no temp, and therefore, could not be considered a ratio scale) -ex: income -arithmetic operations: All (add/subtract/multiply/divide)
correlational study
-IV is NOT manipulated -ex: go to classroom, give a spelling test and ask what each student had for breakfast
quasi-experiments
-IV is manipulated and subjects are NOT randomly assigned -lack sufficient control over variables; definitive statements on causal factors cannot be made
nominal (categorical) scale
-Names -labels observations so that observations can be categorized -ex: girl-boy, blue eyes-brown eyes
placebo effect
-a type of demand characteristic where a placebo has a beneficial effect on the subjects -possible remedy: control groups
MMPI-2 (revision of MMPI) (X)
-added content scales -formed using items derived from theoretical concerns rather than from empirical criterion-keying approach -ex: to form the low self-esteem content scale, the test authors selected items that ought to be related to low self-esteem (hence, the original clinical scales have been supplemented with content scales that were developed using a more theoretical approach)
Kulpe
-another contemporary of Wundt -disagreed with Wundt fundamentally on the idea that no thought could be formed without a mental image -Kulpe believed that there could be imageless thought
CPI (California Psychological Inventory)
-another personality inventory based on the MMPI -developed to be used with normal populations from age 13 and up -oriented to high school and college students -20 scales, including 3 validity scales used to assess test-taking attitudes -true-false items -measures personality traits like dominance, sociability, self-control, femininity -like the MMPI, all scores are expressed as standard scores with a mean & standard deviation derived from standardization of samples
correlation coefficents
-another type of descriptive statistic that measure to what extent, if any, 2 variables are related; 2 variables are related if knowing the value of 1 variable helps you predict the value of the other variable -help us understand the relationship & degree of association between 2 variables -allows us to mathematically specify how well we can predict the value of the 2nd variable given the corresponding value of the 1st variable -range from -1.00 to +1.00 (if it's +1.3 then a mathematical error has been made) -if you have a perfect correlation, then given a value of 1 variable, you can predict, with absolute certainty, the value of the 2nd variable. -as it moves closer to 0, the less sure you become about your prediction -if 2 variables have a correlation of 0, knowing the value of the 1st variable does not at all help you predict the value of the 2nd variable
matched-subjects design
-assume there is strong relationship between spelling test performance & intelligence. experimenter may want to make sure that both groups have roughly same intelligence level. could match subjects on the basis of the variable that he wants to control (intelligence). -12 subjects, 6 per group. high protein and low protein group. take subjects with 2 highest IQ scores and randomly assign each one into the 2 groups. the next 2 highest IQ subjects would also be randomly assigned to the 2 groups, and so on. -the pairing ensures that both groups are approximately equal on the matching variable (intelligence)
validity
-concerned with the extent to which a test actually measures what it purports to measure; all types of validity assessment examine the relationship between performance on the test in question and other independent and objective sources of info about the knowledge or behaviors of interest -reliability is a precondition for validity (but not vice versa)
Ebbinghaus
-contemporary of Wundt -showed that higher mental processes could be studied using experimental methodology -studied memory using nonsense syllables -showed that at least 1 of the higher mental processes could be studied empirically using good experimental methodology
nonequivalent group design
-control group is NOT necessarily similar to the experimental group since the researcher doesn't use random assignment -common in educational research bc you can't randomly assign subjects to different classes.
factor analysis*
-correlation is the cornerstone of this technique -attempts to account for the interrelationships found among various variables by seeing how groups of variables "hang together" -may be asked to do "armchair" factor analysis on GRE
demand characteristics
-cues in research situation that suggest to the subject what is expected of them -overall effects of the situation on a subject's behavior -if subjects have an idea of what is expected of them, the they will perform as expected -possible remedy: deception? -ex: placebo effect
standard deviation
-descriptive statistic; measure of variability or dispersion of scores -"average" scatter away from the mean (also the square root of the variance) -typical distance of scores from the mean - ex: variance = 36, SD = 6
range
-descriptive statistic; measure of variability or dispersion of scores -highest score minus the lowest score
variance
-descriptive statistic; measure of variability or dispersion of scores -how much each score varies from the mean -the square of the standard deviation -ex: SD = 5, variance = 25 -both SD and variance must be either 0 or a positive number, since there can be NO negative values to these measures of distance -MEAN CAN BE RELATIVELY HIGH AND YOU CAN STILL HAVE LITTLE RELIABILITY
projective tests
-different from personality inventories in 2 basic ways: 1. the stimuli in a projective test are relatively ambiguous 2. the test-taker is not limited to a small number of possible responses -test-taker is given the stimuli and asked to interpret what he or she sees, this means that the SCORING IS SUBJECTIVE, whereas the scoring of personality tests is more objective
Naturalistic observation (field study)
-does NOT have to look at relationship between at least 2 variables -researcher does not intervene at all in what is being studied -observes/measured behavior by what is occurring naturally
between-subjects design
-each subject is exposed to only ONE level of each IV -randomly assigned to groups and each group receives a different level of the IV (high protein vs. low protein) -equal in terms of any subject variables that may affect DV (ex: intelligence or motivation)... but these groups may differ on these variables due to chance
experimenter bias
-experimenter's expectations or attitudes that can affect results (by treating groups/subjects differently) -possible remedy: double-blinding
outliers
-extreme scores; affect each measure of central tendency differently -ex: outlier of 72: median and mode stay the same but the mean changes. -mean is most sensitive to extreme scores -if you have outliers in your data set and are interested in a representative score for any individual, it usually makes more sense to use the median instead of the mean as your measure of central tendency
Wundt
-founded 1st psychology lab -brought together earlier work in philosophy, physiology, and psychophysics to create psychology as a science -he believed that experimental psych has a very limited use: the methodology could not be used to study the higher mental processes such as memory, thinking, & language -proposed a sort of cultural psych to study the higher mental processes
scatterplot
-graphical representation of correlational data -"best-fitting straight line"
criterion validity
-has to do with how well the test can predict a person's performance on an established test of the same skill or knowledge area -does test performance indicate number of previous American History courses taken?
SEM (standard error of measurement) (X)
-how close a person's score is to their true score -an index of how much, on average, we expect a person's observed score to vary from the score the person is capable of receiving based on actual ability. -best SEM = 0. but since no test is perfect, this is not possible. -the smaller the test's SEM, the better -provides info about a test's reliability
construct validity
-how well performance on the test fits into the theoretical framework related to what it is you want the test to measure -ex: is test performance related to interest in history? -related types: convergent
z-score
-indicates the number of SDs your score is away from the mean -subtract the mean of the distribution from your score and divide the difference by the SD -negative z-scores fall below the mean -positive z-scores fall above the mean -ex: mean=20, SD=15, and your score=50, z-score = 2 (your score falls 2 SDs ABOVE the mean, bc it is a positive score) -in a normal distribution, 84% of scores will fall BELOW a score with a z-score of +1 -whenever you transform ALL the scores in a distribution into z-scores, the z-scores will always have a mean of zero and an SD=1. (doesn't matter that distribution was skewed or what the old mean an SD were... always 0 and 1).
significance testing
-inferential statistics -tool researchers used to draw conclusions about populations based upon research conducted on samples -researcher is trying to show that one hypothesis (the research or "ALTERNATIVE hypothesis") is supported by the data by showing other possible hypotheses (represented by the "NULL HYPOTHESIS") are inconsistent with the data collected. -experimental hypotheses are confirmed by disconfirming the null hypothesis (by showing that it is NOT supported by the data) -the null hypothesis = population mean is the same as the sample mean (example on pg. 289) -if the 2 groups differ on the DV measured, the difference could reflect a real difference, or a difference due to chance, or random error.
Strong-Campbell Inventory
-interest testing (best known type) -organized like a personality inventory -like the MMPI, was developed using an empirical criterion-keying approach -given lists of interests and asked to say whether they like or dislike the interest listed. -based partly on Holland's model of occupational themes
Wechsler tests
-major group of intelligence tests -NOT organized by age levels (like Stanford-binet) -have all items of a given type grouped into subsets -arranged in order of increasing difficulty within each subset -2 broad subscales: 1. verbal: based on info, vocab, and similar skills 2. performance: derived from tests of manipulative skill, eye-hand coordination, & speed -Wechsler developed 3 major IQ tests 1. WPPSI (Wechsler Preschool & Primary Scale of Intelligence 2. WISC (Wechsler intelligence scale for children) 3. WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) (WAIS III is current version used)
within-subjects design (repeated measures design)
-matching subjects on every variable at the same time -using SAME subjects in both groups -subject's own performance is the basis of comparison -each subject exposed to more than 1 condition (high protein on day 1, low protein on day 2), allowing the researcher to separate the effects of individual differences in intelligence from the effects of the IV, the level of protein in the breakfast -problem with this design: ppl may just do better on the 2nd test bc they are more familiar with the test format or they may do worse bc of boredom; to avoid this, use "COUNTERBALANCING"
IQ
-measure of intelligence aptitude using an equation comparing mental age to chronological age. -IQ = (mental age / chronological age) X 100 -IQ of 100 means that a person's mental age is = to their chronological age
Ear parts
-outer ear (pinna and auditory canal) - middle ear (tympanic membrane, ossicles, stapes) - inner ear (oval window, cochlea, basilar membrane, organ of corti, vestibular sac)
TAT (thematic apperception test)
-projective test -20 simple pictures depicting scenes that have ambiguous meanings (ex: boy staring sadly at violin) -asked to tell a story about what is happening, including events leading up to what is happening and to provide an ending. -like ink blot test, there is no standardized measure for scoring -scoring is qualitative
Rorschach Inkblot Test
-projective test -presented in specific order and have specific instructions to describe what it is that the blots remind the subject of -considers what person saw/spontaneous remarks that they may have made
Blacky pictures
-projective test for children -cartoon pictures with a dog named Blacky -based on psychoanalytic theory: each picture of him is meant to correspond to a particular stage of psychosexual development -asked to tell stories about the picture she or he is shown
Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank
-projective test of sentence completion -sentence stems and asked to complete them -theory is that the person will fin in the blanks with whatever is on their mind
Binet & Simon
-published the 1st intelligence test (Binet-Simon test) -purpose of test was to assess the intelligence of French schoolchildren to ascertain which children were too mentally retarded to benefit from ordinary schooling -Binet introduced concept of mental age (age level at which a person functions intellectually, regardless of actual chronological age)
sample size (X)
-related to significance levels -the larger the sample size, the smaller the difference between the groups has to be significant -if you use really large sample sizes & you can get a statistically significant result, the difference between the groups on the DV measure might be so small as to make the results trivial
inferential statistics
-researchers generalize beyond actual observations -making an inference from the sample involved in the research to the population of interest, and providing an estimate of popular characteristics -allow us to use a relatively small batch of actual obervations to make conclusions about the entire population -
personality inventory
-self-rating device usually consisting of somewhere between 100 and 500 statements; subject is asked to determine if given statements apply to them -although these structured tools are quite reliable, the truthfulness of responses is not guaranteed -perceived social acceptability of a response is a problem
Cattell
-studied under Wundt -introduced mental testing to the U.S.
t-test*
-t-tests are used to compare the means of 2 groups -use when you have 2 groups
Hawthorne effect
-tendency of people to behave differently if they know they're being observed -possible remedy: control group design (observe both the control group and experimental group)
content validity
-test's coverage of the particular skill or knowledge area that it is supposed to measure -ex: does the test measure various facets of American History? (does it have questions regarding American History?)
chi-square test
-tests the equality of 2 frequencies or proportions -use when individual observations are names or categories -work with "CATEGORICAL" rather than numerical data -ex: male or female -"NOMINAL" since it involves classifying/naming -wind up with frequencies or proportions -individuals asked whether they are dems or repubs, data might be given in numbers (80 people) or frequencies (53%)
ANOVA
-used to compare means of MORE than 2 groups -estimate how much group means differ from each other by comparing the between-group variance to the within-group variance using the F ratio -used to determine if there is any interaction between 2 or more IVs -2 types: interaction & factorial design
empirical criterion-keying approach
-used to develop MMPI -tested thousands of questions and retained those that differentiated between patient and nonpatient populations, even if the item didn't seem to have anything to do with abnormality -examined responses of patient groups with different diagnoses. -each criterion group's responses formed the basis of a particular clinical scale, so that if a new patient answered questions in the same way that say, the depressive group did, that patient would receive a high depression score
face validity
-whether or not the test items appear to measure what they are supposed to measure -does the test look like it measures KNOWLEDGE of American History? (if the test is on european history, then its lacking face validity)
hyperpolarized
...
relationship between presynaptic cell/postsynaptic cell
...
random sampling
...every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen for the sample
4 basic types of measurement scales
1. nominal 2. ordinal 3. interval 4. ratio
2 ways that test results can be interpreted
1. norm-referenced testing 2. domain-referenced testing
significance tests
1. t-test 2. anova 3. chi-square test
3 methods used to establish reliability of a test
1. test-retest 2. alternate-form method 3. split-half reliability -in all of these methods, a correlation coefficient is then calculated using the pairs of scores -high positive correlation (greater than or = to .80) indicates a high level of reliability
what happens if the scores in a distribution are all the same? how about very spread out?
1. there is no variability 2. the variability is high
3 basic types of research
1. true experiments 2. quasi-experiments 3. correlational studies -all 3 look at the relationship between at least 2 variables
Adolescence
13-19 years; onset of puberty; adrenal and pituitary glands secrete hormones: androgen (boys) and estrogen (girls) for secondary sex characteristics and growth spurt
Sleep hours for infants and elderly respectively
16 hours of sleep a day, 6 hours
Motor development
1st 2 years of life largely by internal, maturational factors, - but interacting with infants with attention and affection fosters physical, emotional, and intellectual growth; - neglected children show higher incidences of mental retardation, mortality, and poorer physical development
Elaine Hatfield
2 basic types of love: passionate love and compassionate love
Germinal stage
2 weeks, zygotes moves down fallopian tube, grows into 64 cells, implants self into uterus wall
levels of IV
3 levels of IV if we give one group a low-protein breakfast and the other a high-protein breakfast, and one group a no-protein breakfast
Testosterone
3 months after conception; testes secrete, formation of male reproductive system, while absence for female
Lawrence Kohlberg (+stages)
3 stages moral development, preconventional/premoral, conventional/morality of conformity, postconventional/morality of self-accepted principles; - analyzing responses of children to 9 hypothetical moral dilemmas; e.g. Heinz dilemma
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
31 cards (1 blank and 30 pictures) with interpersonal scenes (2 people facing each other); - subject tells story about each which reveals aspects of personality; - often measure need for achievement; - interpreting terms include needs, press, personology
Percentages under normal distribution based on SDs (from mean to end)
34.13%, 13.59%, 2.02%, 0.26% and +3 99.74% +2 97.72% +1 84.13% 0 50.00% -1 15.87% -2 2.28% -3 0.26%
Fetal stage
3rd month until birth, quantitative growth and "quickening" (initial movement perceived/felt by mother)
Jean Piaget (cognitive; +stages)
4 cognitive developmental stages; sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational; - humans experience interaction between internal maturation and external experience leading to adaptation, through assimilation and accommodation; - language development determined by current cognitive stage
Sleep cycles
4-6 complete ones, each about 90 minutes, early in the night most time in stage 3 and 4, 2 and REM sleep predominate later
Sigmund Freud (+stages)
5 stages of personality development, oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital; - driving force of humans and their development is of sensual gratification / biological needs; - advancement of stages affects personality; - parental over or under-indulgence at a stage may result in fixation; - later, life stressors may result in regression
criterion of significance (alpha level)
5%; reject null if they are sure that observed differences are not due SOLELY to chance; reject the null hypothesis if significance level = or is less than 5%
H-Y antigen
6 weeks after conception: presences causes testis, absence causes ovaries
Erik Erikson (+stages)
8 life span developmental stages, each has its own unique psychosocial conflict to resolve; (1; birth-18mos) trust vs. mistrust to trust, (2; 18mos-3 yrs) autonomy vs. shame and doubt to independence, (3; 3-6 yrs) initiative vs. guilt to purpose, (4; 6-puberty) industry vs. inferiority to competency, (5; teen) identity vs. role confusion to sense of self, (6; young adult) intimacy vs. isolation to love, (7; mid age) productivity vs. stagnation to productivity and caring, (8; old age) ego integrity vs. despair to wisdom and integrity
Erik Erikson
8 stages of psychosocial development; noted for completeness from infancy through old age; coined "identity crisis" of adolescence
Glial cells
A type of cell that help support neurons; oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells
Sympathetic nervous system
ANS, controls arousal mechanisms (blood circulation, pupil dilation, threat and fear response) - Lie detector test relies on the premise -->lying activates the sympathetic nervous system and cause things like (increase heart rate, blood pressure, respiration)
Parasympathetic nervous system
ANS, recuperation after arousal (decrease HR, BP, respiration)
Cognitive Theory (originator)
Aaron Beck
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
Act only on serotonin most frequently prescribed because fewer side effects than tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs); Ex. fluoxetine (Prozac®), paroxetine (Paxil®), sertraline (Zoloft®)
Strange situation
Ainsworth; infant (8mos-2 yrs) playing with mother then replaced by a stranger, while researchers watch through one-way mirror; found infants overall had stranger anxiety (cried when stranger entered) and separation anxiety (cried when mothers left); different response to return of mother: securely attached (ran and clung) vs. avoidant (ignored or avoided) vs. ambivalent; securely attached more readily explore environment
Soma
Aka cell body. largest central portion, and make up gray matter, has a nucleus that directs neuron's activity
Rational-Emotive Theory (originator)
Albert Ellis
individual theory
Alfred Adler - Adlerian theory - people are viewed as creative, social and whole as opposed to Freud's more negative and structural approach - process of becoming - Healthy individuals: --> peruse goals in spite of feelings of interiority, --> has a "will to power" or a quest for feelings of superiority --> pursue goals that are outside of himself and beneficial to society
Parallel distributive processing
Allan Collins and Ross Quillian - People make decisions about the relationship between items by searching their cognitive semantic hierarchies. - The farther apart in the hierarchy, the longer it will take to see a connection
Dual code hypothesis
Allan Paivio, items better remembered if encoded both visually and semantically (icons/images+understanding)
Proprium or propriate function
Allport; his version of the ego, believed it acted relatively consistently based on traits developed through experience
Stanley Hall
America's first Ph.D. in psychology from Harvard; coined the term "adolescence", started American Journal of Psychology, founded American Psychological Association
Schema
An organized bunch of knowledge gathered from prior experiences that includes ideas about specific events or objects and the attributes that accompany them. - New events and objects are categorized based on how well they match the existing attributes of schema Ex: birds have wings and can fly --- but knowing that penguin is also a bird, schema of bird changes
Carl Gustav Jung
Analytical theory, Freud's student, broke from Freud because Freud place too much emphasis on the libido
6 periods
Ancient Greeks, middle ages (500-1600), scientific revolution (1600-1700), Enlightenment (1700-1800) The brink of psychology (1800-1900), The saga continues (1900s)
Bem Sex Role Inventory
Androgynous individuals have higher self-esteem, lower anxiety, more adaptability than their highly masculine or feminine counterparts
Names from 1800-1900
Anton Mesmer Franz Joseph Gall J. Spurzheim Charles Darwin Sir Francis Galton Gustav Fechner Johannes Muller Wilhelm Wundt Herbert Spencer William James Hermann von Helmholtz Stanley Hall John Dewey Edward Titchener James Cattell Dorothea Lynde Dix
Paul Ekman
Argued that human have 6 basic emotions: sadness, happiness, fear, anger, surprise, disgust drew conclusion from cross-cultural studies, individuals could recognize facial expressions corresponding to those six; FACS coding
Sheldon, W.
Attempted to relate somatotype (body type) to personality type
Antisocial
B, dramatic, emotional or erratic; disregard for rights of others, absence of guilt
Borderline personality disorder
B, dramatic, emotional or erratic; instability in relationships and emotions, impulsivity
Narcissistic personality disorder
B, dramatic, emotional or erratic; need for admiration, idea of superiority
Histrionic personality disorder
B, dramatic, emotional or erratic; shallow or excess emotion, attention-seeking
behavior theory (originators)
B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov, Joseph Wolpe
Kelly, G.
Based personality theory on the notion of "individual as scientist"
Bandura, A.
Behaviorist theorist known for his social learning theory; did modeling experiment using punching bag ("Bobo" doll)
Dollard, J. and Miller, N.
Behaviorist theorist who attempted to study psychoanalytic concepts within a behaviorist framework; also known for their work on approach-avoidance conflicts
Self-perception theory
Bem; alternative explanation to cognitive dissonance; - when people are unsure of beliefs, they take cues from own behaviour (rather than aligning beliefs to match actions) - $1000 to work on Saturday
Frustration-aggression hypothesis
Berkowitz; there is a relationship between frustration in achieving a goal (no matter how small) and show aggression
White Matter
Bundles of axon Nerve fiber
Dependent personality disorder
C, anxious or fearful; dependence and clinginess to others
Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
C, anxious or fearful; excessive orderliness and control, perfectionism, rigid conformity to rules and moral codes
Avoidant personality disorder
C, anxious or fearful; social inhibitions hypersensitivity, perceptions of inadequacy
Backward Conditioning
CS presented after UCS (e.g. food, then light); proven ineffective; accomplishes only inhibitory conditioning, harder time pairing CS with UCS later even with forward conditioning
Emergency Theory
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion. Emotions and bodily reactions occur simultaneously In emotional situations, our body is cued to react in the brain (emotion) and in the body (biological response) Ex: We tremble and feel scared in response to anger
analytical theory
Carl Gustav Jung - the psyche was directed toward life and awareness (rather than sex). - In each personal the psyche contains conscious and unconscious elements (personal and collective unconscious) -
David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel
Cells in the visual cortex are so complex and specialized that they respond only to certain types of stimuli (e.g. some only respond to vertical lines, some to right angles)
Conflict (psychoanalytic theory)
Central to human nature, between different drives vying for expression (particularly conscious and unconscious
Semantic differential charts (Researcher)
Charles Osgood, Allow people to plot meanings of words on graphs - people with similar backgrounds and interests plotted words similarly - indicating words have similar connotations for cultures/subcultures
Language acquisition device (LAD)
Chomsky, Human have innate ability to learn language (to adopt generative grammar rules of the language they hear); - children made small errors based on grammar rules rather than large structural errors; - seems they only need exposure to a language to easily use LAD, not through imitation, memory, or conditioning; genetic interpretation - children who learn different languages progress similarly
Transformational grammar
Chomsky, differentiates between surface structure (way words are organized; 3 different sentences) and deep structure (what it means; could mean the same thing) - Surface structure: the way that words are organized - Deep structure: underlying meaning of sentence
doll preference studies
Clark; demonstrated negative effects that group segregation had on African-American children's self-esteem, they thought white dolls were better
Dementia
Cognitive problems (memory, spatial tasks, or language) that result from a medical condition; may be result of Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Huntington's, or Pick's disease DSM-IV-TR: Memory impairment; 1 or more of the following (aphasia, apraxia, agnosia, disturbance in exective functioning); can have behavioral disdurbances
Mischel, W.
Critic of trait theories of personality
Olds, J., and Milner, P.
Demonstrated existence of pleasure center in the brain using "self-stimulation" studies in rats
Kandel, E.
Demonstrated that simple learning bx in sea snails (Aplysia) is associated with changes in neurotransmission
visual cliff apparatus
Depth perception is innate - animals and babies avoided "cliff" regardless of glass
dualism/ mind-body problem
Descartes, mind is a nonphysical substance that is separate from the body
Allen Newell and Herbert Simon
Designed first Computer Simulation Models called LOGIC THEORIST, then revamped it and called it GENERAL PROBLEM SOLVER
Trucking company game
Deutsch; 2 companies can choose to cooperate and agree on high fixed prices, or compete with lower prices, but lack of complete trust will choose to compete; prisoner's dilemma in economic terms
Prisoner's dilemma
Deutsch; if 2 criminals detained separately, best strategy is for neither to talk, but it is a gamble that requires trust, so most spill the beans; in economic terms is the trucking company game
Helmholtz, H.
Developed Young-_______ trichromatic theory of color vision; developed place-resonance theory of pitch perception
Stevens, S. S.
Developed ______ law as an alternative to Fechner's Law
Yerkes, R. and Dodson, J.
Developed ______-______ Law which states that performance is best at intermediate levels of arounsal
Fechner, G.
Developed ________ Law, which expresses the relationship between the intensity of the stimulus and the intensity of the sensation
Berkeley, G.
Developed a list of depth cues that help us to perceive depth
Heider, F.
Developed balance theory to explain why attitudes change; also developed attribution theory and divided attributions into two categories: dispositional and situational
Festinger, L.
Developed cognitive dissonance theory, also developed social comparison theory
Alfred Binet
Developed concept of IQ and first intelligence test (Binet Scale)
Petty, R., Cacioppo, J.
Developed elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (central and peripheral routes to persuasion)
Wolpe, J.
Developed method of systematic desensitization to eliminate problems
Hering, E.
Developed opponent process theory of color vision
Skinner, B.F.
Developed principles of operant conditioning; _______ Box (rats)
Bem, D.
Developed self-perception theory as an alternative to cognitive dissonance theory.
Wilson, E. O.
Developed sociobiology
Janis, I.
Developed the concept of groupthink to explain how group decision making can sometimes go awry
Craik, F. and Lockhart, R.
Developed the levels-of-processing theory of memory as an alternative to the stage theory of memory
Gibson, E. and Walk, R.
Developed the visual cliff apparatus, which is used to study the development of depth perception
Guilford, J.
Devised divergent thinking test to measure creativity
Smith, E.,Shoben, E., and Rips, L.
Devised the semantic feature-comparison model of semantic memory
Collins, A. and Loftus, E.
Devised the spreading activation model of semantic memory
E. H. Weber
Differential threshold
Chomsky, N.
Distinguished between the surface structure and deep structure of a sentence; studied transformational rules that could be used to transform one sentence into another
Stress-inoculation training
Donald Meichenbaum prepares people for foreseeable stressors
opponent-color/opponent-process theory
Edward Hering 2 types of color-sensitive cells - Cones that respond to blue-yellow - Cones that respond to red-green - If one color is stimulated, the other is inhibited (we don't see redish-green) ex: when you stare at red for a long time, you see a green afterimage
Hierarchical semantic network
Elizabeth Loftus & Allen Collins - The more closely related two items are, the more closely they are located in the hierarchy, and the more quickly a subject can link them
illusion of control
Ellen langer Belief that you can control things that you actually have no influence on. - The driving force behind manipulating the lottery, gambling and superstition
Cognitive Theory
Emphasizes conscious thought patterns (rather than emotions or behaviours), - interpretation of an experience rather than the experience itself; - Beck Depression Inventory
Bekesy,G.
Empirical studies led to traveling wave theory of pitch perception which, at least partially, supported by Helmholtz's place-resonance theory
Gestalt Theory
Encourage people to stand apart from beliefs, biases and attitudes derived from the past - goal is to fully experience and perceive the present in order to become a while and integrated person
Sherrington, C.
English physiologist who first inferred the existence of synapse
von Frisch, K.
Ethologist who studied communication in honey bees
Tinbergen, N.
Ethologists who introduced experimental methods into field situations
Lorenz, K.
Ethologists who studied unlearned, instinctual bxs in the natural environment
Elimination disorders
Ex. Nocturnal enuresis, bed wetting, usually treated with behaviour modification
Tic disorders
Ex. Tourette's syndrome is indicated by motor and vocal tics
Developmental disorders
Ex. autism, indicated by severe problems with social skills, communication, and interests
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
Ex. phenelzine (Nardil®)
M.E. Olds
Experiment shows that there is electrical stimulation of pleasure centers in the brain used as positive reinforcement, this is evidence against drive-reduction theory
Cognitive dissonance theory
Festinger; it is uncomfortable for people to have beliefs that do not match actions; people are motivated to back actions up by changing beliefs; the less act is justified by circumstance, the more we feel need to justify it by aligning attitude with the behaviour
Theory of reasoned action/planned behaviour
Fischbein and Ajzen; people's behaviour in a given situation is determined by attitude about situation and social norms; perceived behavioural control, attitude toward behaviour, behavioural intentions, subjective social norms; grounded in various attitude theories (learning, expectancy-values, consistency, attribution);
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI)
For children 4-6
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-R)
For children 6-16
Macoby, E. and Jacklin, C.
Found support for gender differences in verbal ability
Miller, G.
Found that the capacity of short-term memory is seven (plus or minus two) items
Broca, P.
French anatomist who identified the part of the brain primarily associated with producing spoken language (_____'s Area)
Anal stage
Freud, 2/5, 18mos-3 yrs; pleasure by control and release of feces
Phallic stage
Freud, 3/5, 3-6 yrs; pleasure from self-stimulation of genitals; boys develop Oedipus complex, girls Electra complex; both resolve conflict by identifying with same-sex parent
Latency stage
Freud, 4/5, adolescence; repressed sexuality; identification with same-sex friends; focus on school and growing up
Genital stage
Freud, 5/5, adolescence-adulthood; hormones reawaken sexual instincts; love now nonfamilial
Oedipus complex
Freud, Phallic, 3/5, 3-6 yrs; boys in love with mother, jealous of father; suppress lust by castration anxiety, then identify with father
Electra complex
Freud, Phallic, 3/5, 3-6 yrs; girls in love with father because of penis envy, angry with mother, then identify with mother
aggression
Freud; central force that must find a socially acceptable outlet
psychic determinism
Freud; pathological behaviour, dreams, unconscious behaviour (e.g. hysterical or neurotic women) are symptoms of underlying, unresolved conflict, which are manifested when the ego does not find acceptable ways to express conflict
Defense mechanism (+types)
Freud; way in which ego protects self from threatening unconscious material; - repression/denial, － rationalization, － projection, － displacement, － reaction formation, － compensation, － sublimation, － identification, － undoing, － countertransference - dreams
We are primarily motivated to maintain physiological or psychological homeostasis. Example theories and problem?
Fritz Heider's balance theory, Charles Osgood and Percy Tannenbaum's congruity theory, Leon Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory; what about individuals who often seek stimulation, novel experience, or self-destruction?
Gestalt Theory (originators)
Fritz Perls, Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka
Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall
Gate Control Theory of Pain
Girls (language learning)
Gender that learns faster and more accurately in language
Wernicke, C.
German neurologist who identified the part of the brain primarily associated with understanding spoken language (_______'s Area)
Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka
Gestalt ("whole") psychology, asserts perception is greater than the sum of its parts
Pragnanz
Gestalt idea that experience will be organized as meaningful, symmetrical, and simple whenever possible, includes closure, proximity, continuation, symmetry, size and color constancy, minimum principle (tendency to see what is easiest or logical)
Conformity (types)
Going along with real or perceived group pressure compliance, acceptance
Spine (subsystem)
Gray matter, white matter
James Stoner
Group polarization
Irving Janis
Groupthink
American Psychology Association (APA)
Hall; founded 1892; governing body of psychology; purpose to "advance psychology as a science, as a profession, and as a means of promoting human welfare"
Social isolation from rhesus monkeys
Harlow, the isolated monkeys --> - the lack of interaction and socialization hampered social development, - once brought together with others, males did not display normal sexual functioning and females lacked maternal behaviours
Learning to learn from rhesus monkeys
Harlow, monkeys became better at learning tasks as they acquired different learning experiences, eventually learned after only one trial
Contact comfort from rhesus monkeys
Harlow, study of attachment. mother-infant attachment, -infants attach to mothers through comforting experience rather than through feeding - infants placed with two surrogate mothers (wire with feeding bottle, and terrycloth with no bottle); infant spent most time with terrycloth mother especially when afraid, only approached wire mother to feed;
Henry Landsberger
Hawthorne effect
Attribution theory
Heider; how people infer causes of other's behaviour; attribute intentions and emotions to almost anything, even shapes on a screen; 3 elements: locus, stability, controllability
Balance theory
Heider; how people make feelings/actions consistent to preserve psychological homeostasis Kaplan:Relationship betwen P, O and X, dislike(-), like (+), balance if 1 or 3 +, imbalance if 0 or 2 + - too simplistic - Balance exists when all 3 fit together harmoniously, when there sin't balance, there will be stress, and a tendency to remove stress by achieving balance
place-resonance theory
Hermann von Helmholtz ; different parts of basilar membrane respond to different frequencies
Synaptic vessels
Holds neurotransmitters
RIASEC system
Holland divided ineterests into 6 types: 1. realistic 2. investigative 3. artistic 4. social 5. enterprising 6. conventional
Whorf, B.
Hypothesized that language determines how reality is perceived
Rene Descartes
I think therefore I am, figure out truth through reason and deduction; dualism/ mind-body problem
Type I and II errors
I when incorrectly reject null, thought significant but chance; II when incorrectly accept null, thought chance but significant
Mental retardation
IQ 70 or below; mild 70-55, moderate 55-40, severe 40-25, profound <25
true experiment
IV is manipulated AND subjects randomly assigned into groups
Luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
In females, regulate the development of ovum and trigger ovulation In males, regulate the development of sperm cells and the production of testosterone
Scientific approach
Includes: testable hypothesis, - reproducible experiment, - operationalized definition (observable and measurable)
Alfred Adler
Individual theory
Changes in Freud's view of layout of the mind
Initially: Freud preferred a topographic model of mental life Then: Mental life was structural, meaning that mental life has particular organization other than layers (ego, id, superego)
Changes in Freud's psychoanalytic theory
Initially: an individual's greatest conflict was that between the libido and the ego Then: the true conflict is that between Eros and Thanatos ("the aim of all life is death")
McGuire
Inoculation theory
independent variable
Interest in the effect of independent variable on the dependent variable - often manipulated by applying it in experimental or treatment condition and withholding it from control condition
Julian Rotter
Internal-External Locus of Control Scale
Sperry, R. and Gazzaniga, M.
Investigated functional differences between left and right cerebral hemispheres using "split-brain" studies
Bartlett, F.
Investigated the role of schemata in memory; concluded that memory is largely a reconstructive process.
Kahneman, D. and Tversky, A.
Investigated the use of heuristics in decision making ; studied the availability heuristic and the representativeness heuristic
Association between picture vs. words
It takes longer to make association between pictures than between words --> Pictures must be mentally put into words before associations can be made
Response bias
J.A. Swet's Theory of Signal Detection; interplay between response bias and stimulus intensity determines response (false alarm, hit, miss, correct rejection, receiver operating characteristic)
Theories of emotion x 3
James-Lange theory of emotion Cannon-Bard theory of emotion Schachter-Singer theory
Systematic desensitization
Joseph Wolpe, applies classical conditioning to relieve anxiety, - exposed to increasingly anxiety-provoking stimuli until anxiety is decreased - start from staring at a picture of snake and then eventually holding on
archetype
Jung, - universally meaningful concepts, passed through collective unconscious; - allow us to organize experiences with consistent themes and indicated by cross-cultural similarity in symbols, folklore, myths; - Common archetypes: persona, shadow, anima, animus, self
M.J.Lerner
Just world bias
Neo-Freudians
Karen Horney and Harry Stack Sullivan, accepted some of freud's ideas and reject others
Explicit memory
Knowing something and being consciously aware of knowing it, such as knowing a fact
Implicit memory
Knowing something without being aware of knowing it "HM" --> cannot remember anything he did
Preconventional/Premoral stage
Kohlberg, 1/3; (1) avoid punishment, (2) gain rewards; "if I steal I'll get in trouble"
Concentional/morality of conformity stage
Kohlberg, 2/3; (3) gain approval, (4) follow law and authority; "stealing is against the law"
Postconventional/morality of self-accepted principles
Kohlberg, 3/3; (5) grey areas, attentive to rights and social welfare, (6) abstract decisions on ethical principles; "unjust that money is an obstacle,more ethical to save wife"
Organic disorders that result from years of heavy drinking
Korsakoff's and Wernicke's syndrome
Encoding specificity principle
LTM is subject to... material is easier to be remembered if retrieved in same context as learning/storage
Theory of association
Lewin, grouping based on co-occurence in time and space; associate certain behaviours with certain rewards and cues Ivan Pavlov later proved experimentally
Life space
Lewin; collection of forces (valence, vector, barrier) on the individual, field of perception and action
Valence (life space)
Lewin; life space; + if person thinks region will reduce tension by meeting present needs, - if region with increase tension/ danger
Barrier (life space)
Lewin; life space; block locomotion between regions of person and psychological environment
criticism (Rational-Emotive Theory)
Like cognitive and behaviour theory, considered too sterile and mechanistic
Imprinting
Lorenz, -certain species (often birds) young attach to first moving object they see, - displayed by a "following response", - subjective to sensitive learning period - after that period this would not occur
*Fixed action patterns (example)
Lorenz, triggered by releasing stimuli, automatic and innate, instinctual, complex chains of behaviour; four defining characteristics: 1) uniform patterns, 2) performed by most members, 3) more complex than simple reflexes, 4) cannot be interrupted or stopped in the middle Ex:
Animal aggression
Lorez, certain aggression necessary for survival of species, instinctual rather than learned
Neural synchrony
Low-amplitude and fast -frequency alpha waves
Just world bias
M.J. Lerner The belief that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people - it is uncomfortable for people to accept that bad things happen to good people, so they blame the victim
Mean IQ
Mean of Americans is standardized to 100, with SD 15 or 16 depending on test; correlates most with IQ of biological parents and socioeconomic status
Stimulus-overload theory
Milgram; explains why urbanities are less prosocial than country people; they do not need any more interaction; e.g. emergency situations familiar to city people, novelty for town people will attract attention and help
Personality tests (2 types)
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and California Personality Inventory (CPI)
Echolocation
Most sophisticated type of perception generally replaces sight, marine mammals (dolphin) and bats, - emit high-frequency sounds and locate nearby objects from the echo; bats can fly through grids of thin nylon strings and can locate and eat small flying insects at 2/s
Computer simulation models
Newell and Simon, designed to solve problems like humans
Kernberg, O.
Object-relations theorist
Klein, M.
Object-relations theorist
Mahler, M.
Object-relations theorist
Winnicott, D.W.
Object-relations theorist
Myelencephalon
Of Hindbrain, aka medulla; Mainly controls for reflexes, but also controls sleep, attention, movement
Frontal lobe
Of cerebral cortex controls speech (Broca's area), reasoning, problem solving
Temporal lobe
Of cerebral cortex responsible for hearing, also Wernicke's area (related to speech)
Parietal lobe
Of cerebral cortex responsible for somatosensory system
Occipital lobe
Of cerebral cortex responsible for vision
Thalamus
Of diencephalon, channels sensory information to cerebral cortex
Hypothalamus
Of diencephalon, controls autonomic nervous system biological motivations (hunger, thirst) and pituitary gland
Metencephalon
Of hindbrain, has pons(connects brain parts to spine) and cerebellum(controls muscle coordination, balance, posture)
Tegmentum
Of mesencephalon, rest of reticular formation; Also involved in the sensorimotor system, analgesic effect of opiates
Tectum
Of mesencephalon, vision and hearing
Amygdala
Of telencephalon, controls emotional reactions such as fear and anger
Hippocampus
Of telencephalon, involves in memory - transfer STM into LTM, - new neurons can form in adult mammalian brain
Cingulate gyrus
Of telencephalon, links brain areas dealing with emotion and decisions
Limbic system
Of telencephalon, structures around the brainstem involved in 4Fs (fleeing, feeding, fighting, and fornicating)
Sigmund Freud
One of most important in clinical, abnormal, personality id, ego, superego; unconscious motivations; psychoanalysis; famous writings Interpretation of Dreams, Theory of Sexuality, Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Civilization and its Discontents
Natural selection
Only the fit survive - at the heart of evolution - it explains the evolution or genetic development of various species over time and explains the concept of genetic drift - favors inclusive fitness over individual fitness
Skinner, B.F.
Operant conditioning pioneers worked with pigeons and mice in operant chambers
Edward Hering
Opponent-color or opponent process
ordinal variables
Order variables need to be arranged by order (not necessarily equally spaced) ex: maranthon finishers
Hormones (type)
Organizational and activational
Freud, S.
Originator of psychodynamic approach to personality
Autonomic nervous system
PNS, interacts with internal environment, - Responsible for the "fight or flight" response, - It controls the involuntary functions including movement of smooth muscles, digestion, blood circulation, breathing
Frequency
Pace of vibration or sound waves per section - determines pitch - low frequency - low pitch - measured in hertz(Hz) from sound wave, ~1000Hz best heard by humans
Forward Conditioning (types)
Pairing of the CS and the UCS in which the CS is presented before the UCS delayed conditioning and trace conditioning
Allan Collins and Ross Quillian
Parallel distributive processing - People make decisions about the relationship between items by searching their cognitive semantic hierarchies. - The farther apart in the hierarchy, the longer it will take to see a connection
Extinction (operant conditioning)
Parents reduce temper in child by not giving into, reinforcing behavior
Arousal
Part of motivation. One must be adequately aroused to learn or perform
Classical conditioning
Pavlovian conditioning; teaching a response (relationship) to neutral stimulus by pairing with not-so-neutral stimulus
James Gibson
Perceptual development, optic array
Clark Hull
Performance = Drive x Habit; will do what has worked in the past to satisfy drive
Edward Tolman
Performance = Expectation x Value; expectancy-value theory; goals they expect they can meet and how important goal is
Rescorla, R.
Performed experiements which showed that contiguity could not fully explain classical conditioning; proposed contingency theory of classical conditioning
Watson, J.
Performed experiment on Little Albert that suggested that the acquisition of phobias was due to classical conditioning; school of Bxiorism founder; stimulus-response chains
Zimbardo, P.
Performed prison simulation and used concept of deindividuation to explain results
Clark, K., Clark, M.
Performed study on doll preferences in African-American children; the results were used in the 1954 Brown v. the Topeka Board of Education Supreme Court case.
Dissenter
Person who speaks out against majority
elaboration likelihood model
Petty and Cacioppo; model of persuasion suggests those involved in an issue listen to strength of arguments rather than more superficial factors
Maslow, A.
Phenomenological personality theorist known for developing a hierarchy of needs and for the concept of self-actualization
Lewin, K.
Phenomenological personality theorist who developed field theory
Rogers, C.
Phenomenological theorist who found empathy, congruence, and unconditional positive regards to be important aspects; person-centered
Cannon, W.
Physiologist who studied the autonomic nervous system, including "fight or flight" reactions; investigated homeostasis; and with Bard, proposed _______-Bard theory of emotions
Rochel Gelman
Piaget underestimated cognitive ability of preschoolers; can deal with ideas such as quantity in small sets of objects
Sensorimotor stage
Piaget, 1/4, 0-2 yrs; first reflexive behaviour cued by sensations, then circular reactions, object permanence, then representation
Preoperational stage
Piaget, 2/4, 2-7 yrs; egocentric understanding, rapidly acquiring words, inability to perform mental operations (causality or quantity)
Concrete Operational stage
Piaget, 3/4, 7-12 yrs; understanding of concrete relationships (math and quantity), development of conservation
Formal Operational stage
Piaget, 4/4, 12+ yrs; understanding abstract relationships (logic, ratio, values)
Babinski reflex
Piaget, Sensorimotor, 1/4, 0-2 yrs; fanning of toes elicited by touching bottom of foot
PET
Positron emission tomography scans glucose metabolism to measure activity in various brain regions
Heuristics
Problem solving strategies that use rules of thumb or short-cuts based on what has worked int eh past - Cannot guarantee a solution, but it is faster than algorithm
Gardner, H.
Proposed a theory of multiple intelligences that divides intelligence into seven different types, all of which are equally important; traditional IQ tests measure only two of the seven types
Lerner, M.
Proposed concept of belief in a just world
Paivio, A.
Proposed dual-code hypothesis
Broadbent, D.
Proposed filter theory of attention
Melzack, R. and Wall, P.
Proposed gate theory of pain
James, W. and Lange, C.
Proposed the James-Lange two-factor theory of emotions
Schachter, S. and Singer, J.
Proposed the Schachter-Singer two-factory theory of emotions
Thorndike, E.
Proposed the law of effect; used puzzle boxes to study problem solving in cats
Darwin, C.
Proposed theory of evolution and natural selection as its centerpiece
Sternberg, R.
Proposed triarchic theory that divides intelligence into three types: componential, experiential, and contextual
Wever, E. and Bray, C.
Proposed volley theory of pitch perception in response to a criticism of the freqency theory of pitch perception
Aronson, E., Linder, D.
Propsed gain-loss principle (an evaluation that changes will have more effect thatn an evaluation that remains constant)
Blood-brain barrier
Protects the brain by making it difficult for toxic substances to pass from the blood into the brain, since blood vessel cells in the brain are tightly packed
Adler, A.
Psychodynamic theorist best known for concept of inferiority complex
Jung, C.
Psychodynamic theorist who broke with Freud over the concept of libido; suggested that the unconscious should be divided into the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious, with archetypes being in the collective unconscious.
Horney, K.
Psychodynamic theorist who suggested that there were three ways to relate to others: moving toward, moving against, moving away from
Heinz dilemma
Question used in ethics and moral classes when trying to figure out what stage of Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development they are in. Woman is dying and needs expensive medication, husband cannot afford it, do you think he should steal or let wife die?
Beta waves
REM-sleep, low-amplitude and fast-frequency waves that characterize waking states
Cued recall
Recall begins with task Ex: fill-in-the-blank" test
Bottom-up processing
Recognizing an item or pattern from data or details (data driven)
Top-down processing
Recognizing an item or pattern guided by larger concepts
Swets, John A.
Refined ROC curves in signal detection theory
Scientific Revolution
Rene Descartes, John Locke, Thomas Hobbes
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
Revised Binet's version - used with children, organized by age level - Best known predictor of future academic achievement
Will to meaning
Rollo May individual constantly strives to rise above a simple behavioral existence and toward genuine and meaningful existence
Experimenter bias
Rosenthal effect; researchers see what they want to see; minimized in double-blind
Luria, A.
Russian neurologist who studied how brain damage leads to impairment in sensory, motor, and language functions
Lev Vygotsky and Alexander Luria
Russian psychologists, - development of word meanings are complex and altered by interpersonal experience (communicating with significant people in their lives to learn cultural habits); - also, language is a tool in developing abstract thinking (not only byproduct)
George Miller
STM capacity of 7±2
Cognition Theory of Emotion
Schachter-singer theory; emotions are the product of physiological reactions, cognitions are the link in the chain. interpretation of the physiological arousal is determined by the cognition we attach to a situation, leading to emotion Situation cause us to tremble --> we may feel fear or anger depending on the ideas we have about what emotions fits the situation
Types of verbal learning and memory tasks
Serial learning Serial-anticipation learning Paired-associate learning Free-recall learning
Endomorph
Sheldon, Somatotypes' short, plump means pleasure-seeking, social
Somatotypes (personality theory' +types)
Sheldon; personality based on body types, three physiques and corresponding personality types: endomorph, mesomorph, ectomorph
criticism (Cognitive Theory)
Similar to behaviour therapy, addresses how a person thinks, rather than why the thought patterns developed; removing symptoms may not cure problem
Operant conditioning
Skinner, instrumental conditioning; behaviour primarily influenced by reinforcement strategies, do what rewards, not what doesn't
Ancient Greeks
Socrates, Plato, Aristotle
Iconic memory
Sperling, sensory memory for vision, people could see more than they can remember, a partial report in an experiment involving random letters showed people forgot other letters by the time they wrote first ones down
Stanley Milgram
Stimulus-overload theory; also experiment where participants ordered to give "painful electric shocks" to a "learner" when incorrect, explored how people respond to orders; conditions that facilitated conformity: remoteness of victim, proximity of commander, legitimate-seeming commander, conformity of other subjects; conformed 66% of the time; raised ethical issues; also explained actions of Nazi war criminals
Group polarization
Stoner; group discussion generally serves to strengthen the already dominant point of view; explains risky shift
Donald Meichenbaum
Stress-inoculation training
Hovland, C.
Studied attitude change
Asch, S.
Studied conformity by asking subjects to compare the lengths of lines.
Gibson, J.
Studied depth cues (esp. texture gradients) that help us to perceive depths
Loftus, E.
Studied eyewitness memory and concluded that our memories can be altered by presenting new information or by asking misleading questions
Hubel, D. and Wiesel, T.
Studied feature detection in visual cortex and discovered simple, complex and hypercomplex cells
Witkin, H.
Studied field-dependence and field-independence using the rod and frame test
McGuire, W.
Studied how psychological inoculation could help people resist persuasion
Kohler, W.
Studied insights in problem solving
Rotter, J.
Studied locus of control
Kluver, H. and Bucy, P.
Studied loss of normal fear and rage reactions in monkeys resulting from damage to temporal lobes; also studied in amygdala's role in emotions
Ebbinghaus, H.
Studied memory using nonsense syllables and the method of savings
McClelland, D.
Studied need for achievement (nAch)
Milgram, S.
Studied obedience by asking subjects to administer electroshock; proposed stimulus-overload theory to explain differences between city and country dwellers
Bandura, A.
Studied observational learning
Newcomb, T.
Studied political norms
Schachter, S.
Studied relationship between anxiety and the need for affiliation
Milner, B.
Studied severe anterograde amnesia in H.M., a patient whose hippocampus and temporal lobes were removed surgically to control epilepsy
Garcia, J.
Studied taste aversion learning and proposed that some species are biologically prepared to learn connections between certain stimuli
Sperling, G.
Studied the capacity of sensory memory using the partial-report method
Zajonc. R.
Studied the mere exposure effect; also resolved problems with the social facilitation effect by suggesting that the presence of others enhances the emission of dominant responses and impairs the emission of nondominant responses
Hall, E.
Studied the norms for interpersonal distance in interpersonal interactions
Premack, D.
Suggested _______ Principle: that a more-preferred activity could be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity
Eagly, A.
Suggested that gender differences in conformity were not due to gender per se, but to differing social roles.
Spearman, C.
Suggested that individual differences in intelligence were largely due to differences in amount of a general factor called g
Bem, S.
Suggested that masculinity and femininity were two separate dimensions; concept of androgyny
McClelland, J. and Rumelhart, D.
Suggested that the brain processes information using parallel distributed processing (PDP)
t-scores
T-score distribution has a mean of 50 and an SD of 10. ex: t-score of 60 is 1 SD above the mean. -because of their "nice round numbers," t-scores are often used in test score interpretation
bystander effect
The Kitty Genovese care (murder witnessed by many people) Why people are less likely to help when others are present
Neuron
The basic unit of the nervous system Consist of: Dentrites, cell body (soma), axon hillock, axon, myelin sheath, nodes of Ranvier, Terminal buttons, cell membrane, synapse, glial cells
Authoritarianism
The disposition to view the world as full of power relationships - measured by the F-scale (Fascism scale); - these individuals are either highly domineering (if top dog of situation) or submissive (as if they are in presence of a more powerfulfigure); - also likely conventional, aggressive, stereotyping, and anti-introspective
Functional fixedness
The idea that people develop closed minds about the functions of certain objects. From this they cannot think of creative uses or think divergently "Bird cage can only used as birdcage" development of closed minds about the function of objects, difficult to think outside the box
Decision making
The process of working on solving a problem until an acceptable solution; -The process of reaching a solution is usually based on some sort of assumption: rational/irrational - Solution is usually found by relying on reasoning and/or emotion - Common techniques: Making list of pros and cons, flipping coins, divination, consulting
Henry Murray
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Bilingual children (language learning)
These children learn language slower
Law of effect
Thorndike, precursor of operant conditioning Cause-and-effect chain of behaviour; continue what rewards, stop what doesn't
Stickleback fish
Tinbergen, males develop red coloration on belly, which is the releasing stimulus for attacks; males attacked red-bellied crude models rather than the detailed but non-red models
Herring gull chicks
Tinbergen, peck at end of parents' bills which have a red spot on the tip, parents then regurgitates food for chicks; chicks pecked more at a red-tipped model bill than at a plain model bill; the greater the contrast between bill and red spot even when unnaturally strong; supernormal sign stimulus
Sign learning
Tolman; pursuing signs towards a goal; purposive behaviour
Prosody
Tone inflections, accents, and other aspects of pronunciation that carry meaning
Allport, G.
Trait theorist known for concept of functional autonomy; also distinguished between idiographic and nomothetic approaches to personality
Eysenck, H.
Trait theorist who proposed two main dimensions on which human personalities differ: introversion-extroversion and emotional stability-neuroticism
Cattell, R.
Trait theorist who used factor analysis to study personality
Cattell, R.
Trait theorist who used factor analysis to study personality. Divided intelligence into fluid and crystallized and looked at how they change throughout the lifespan
Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz
Tri-chromatic theory/tri-color/component theory
Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs)
Tricyclic chemical structure; ex. amitriptyline (Elavil®)
Sherif, M.
Used autokinetic effect to study conformity; also performed Robber's Cave experiment and found that having superordinate goals increased intergroup cooperation
Thurstone, L.
Used factor analysis to study primary mental abilities - factors more specific than g but more general than s
Luchins, A.
Used the water-jar problem to study the effect of mental sets on problem solving
Behaviourism
Watson, everything can be explained by stimulus-response chains, chains are developed by conditioning; only objective and observable elements important
Differential threshold
Weber, just noticeable difference; the minimum difference between two stimuli to be perceived as different intensities
Backward masking
When subjects are exposed to bright flash or new pattern before the iconic image fades, the 1st image will be erased
Benjamin Whorf
Whorfian hypothesis; from studying Hopi, language or how a culture says things influences perspective, used for argument for non-sexist language; however cultures that don't have certain colors can still recognize them, so unclear the extent language affecting our perceptions
Can a test have perfect reliability and very little validity?
YES. reliability is a precondition for validity (but not vice versa).
Holophrastic speech
Young children using one word (holophrases) to convey a whole sentence (e.g. "me" for "give that to me")
negative correlation
a change in value in 1 variable tends to be associated with a change in the opposite direction of another variable; as the value of 1 variable increases, the value of the other tends to decrease
Panic attack
a component of many different anxiety disorders, lasts for a discrete period of time often <10 min; overwhelming feelings of danger or need to escape, expressed as an intense fear of dying or "going crazy"; accompanied by sweating, trembling, pounding heart, etc.
Eugenics
a plan for selective human breeding to strengthen species
attitude
a positive, negative or neutral evaluation of a person, issue or object
Self-awareness
a state; temporary condition of being aware of how you are thinking, feeling or doing
Weber's law (+ equation)
a stimulus needs to be increased by a constant fraction of its original value to be noticed as different (K=ΔI/Io); applies to all senses but a limited range of intensities K(the constant fraction)=ΔI(increase in intensity needed for jnd)/I(original intensity)
Self-consciousness
a trait; how often one generally becomes self-aware; very, if you pay a lot of attention to your self
Stimulus discrimination
ability to discriminate between different but similar stimuli (door bell is different from phone ringing)
Type II error
accept the null hypothesis, when it's false; statistically significant result was obtained and the null hypothesis was accepted, even though it's false; probability of making this error is "BETA"
Incidental learning
accidental learning, unrelated items grouped together; opposite of intentional learning (e.g. dog associates car with vet)
Bogus pipeline
an instrument that measures physiological reactions in order to measure truthfulness of attitude self-reporting
Garcia effect
animals strongly and automatically connect nausea and food, especially strong in children; preparedness
Victor Vroom
applied expectancy-value theory to individual behaviour in large organizations (e.g. those lowest on totem pole have least motivation since little incentives)
Neil Miller
approach-avoidance conflict; state felt when a goal has both pros and cons, typically focus on pros when far from goal, cons when close to goal
Charles Osgood and Percy Tannenbaum's congruity theory
associative or dissociative attitudes on 7pt scale toward objects
Mary Ainsworth
attachment through use of strange situation; stranger and separation anxiety, securely attached vs. avoidant infants; work carried on by Mary Main
Domain-referenced tests
attempt to measure less-defined properties (e.g. intelligence), check for reliability and validity
confounding variable
attempts to eliminate/minimize these. - variables in the environment that might also effect the dependent variable and blue the effect of independent variable on the dependent variable
Reactance
attitude change in response to feeling that options are limited; e.g. dislike experiment and intentionally behaving unnaturally, or being set on a certain flavour of ice cream as soon as told it is sold out
Fritz Heider's balance theory
attitude change, based on balance of "sentiment" or liking relationships, if the net affect valence multiplies out to a positive result
Fritz Heider
attribution theory, balance theory
Cluster C personality (anxious or fearful disorders)
avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive
Reticular formation
base in hindbrain, rest in midbrain; oldest brain area; Controls alertness, thirst, sleep, involuntary muscles (i.e. heart)
personality typology (psychoanalytic theory)
based on personal activity and social interest - ruling-dominant type - getting-learning type - avoiding type - socially useful type
Genes
basic unit of heredity. made of DNA molecules, organized in chromosomes - Human nucleus cells contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. - Chromosomes in cells act as carriers for genes, and therefore for heredity
Polarized light
bees when sun is obscured by clouds, bees can use this navigational cue to infer sun positioning
Flower selection of bees
bees can see UV light, sees certain markers on flowers (honey guides) that people do not
Round dance
bees dance to indicate food is extremely nearby
Waggle dance
bees dance to indicate food is far away
Narcissism
believing you are better than you are or look better than you do; unrealistic self-esteem
normal distribution(+characteristic)
bell curve; larger the sample, greater chance of having a normal distribution
Autoshaping
by having an apparatus (e.g. lever), an animal controls its reinforcements (e.g. food) through behaviours (e.g. pressing), shaping its own behaviour
J. Spurzheim
carried Franz Joseph Gall on his work, even when others proved theory wrong
Rosenzweig Picture-Frustration (P-F) Study
cartoons in which one person is frustrating another; asked to describe how the frustrated person responds
First phrases spoken (language learning)
children use nouns first then verbs, usually one noun and one verb (e.g. "me want") or two nouns (e.g. "mommy shirt")
ruling-dominant type
choleric high in activity but low in social contribution, dominant
Monoamines (examples)
class of neurotransmitter that dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine belongs to
figure-ground reversal patterns
classic illusion; ambiguous figures, can be perceived as 2 different things depending on which part you see as figure and which part you see as the background
Ambiguous figures
classic illusion; figure can be perceived as 2 different things depending on how you look at them
prosopagnosia
classic illusion; inability to recognize faces, sees jumble of facial features
Robert Fantz
classic illusion; infants prefer relatively complex and sensical displaces
apparent motion
classic illusion; motion is inferred when there is none - use of flashlight or rapidly show still-frame pictures
impossible objects
classic illusion; objects that have been drawn and can be perceived but geometrically impossible
Purkinje shift
classic illusion; point of light viewed in darkness appears to shake or move due to our eye movement
moon illusion
classic illusion; shows context affects perception, on horizon visual cues make moon seem more distant than overhead sky, because we cannot correct for distance with no cues
autokinetic effect
classic illusion; single point of light viewed in darkness appears to shake or move due to our eye movement
pattern recognition
classic illusion; template matching and feature detection (e.g. look for letter o, look for rounded edges first, etc)
phi phenomenon
classic illusion; tendency to perceive smooth motion motion is inferred when there is none - use of flashlight or rapidly show still-frame pictures
ponzo illusion
classic illusion; two lines of equal length appear unequal; /=\ 2 horizontal line of equal length appear unequal because of 2 vertical lines that slant inward
muller-lyer illusion
classic illusion; two lines of equal length appear unequal; <--> vs. >--< inward facing arrowhead make a line appear shorter than outward facing arrow head
Ivan Pavlov
classical conditioning
cornea
clear protective coating on the outside of the eye
Empathy
client-centered therapist must appreciate rather than just observe client's perspective
Unconditional positive regard
client-centered therapist must maintain positivity regardless of choices, feelings or insights to facilitate a trusting and safe environment
Genuineness/congruence
client-centered therapist should speak and act genuinely, not maintain a professional reserve (feelings and experiences of the therapist should match)
Carl Rogers
client-centered therapy; client directs course of therapy, receives unconditional positive regard; humanistic; also first to record sessions for later study and reference
Continuous motor tasks vs. discrete motor tasks
continuous motions easier to learn, once started continues naturally - bike; discrete divided into parts and do not facilitate recall of each other - setting up chessboard
Thorndike (book)
credited with writing first educational textbook in 1903 to assess students and teaching
Karl von Frisch
dance of the honeybees, and also studied senses of fish
discrete data
data that has been counted rather than measured, usually limited to whole or positive values ex: group size, number of hospital visit, number of symptoms
Osmoreceptors
deal with thirst
Forgetting theories
decay (or trace) and interference theory
Habituation
decreasing responsiveness to a stimulus due to increasing familiarity
Reactive depression
depression resulting from particular events, similar to Martin Seligman's learned helplessness
Major depressive disorder
depressive episode by depressed mood, loss of interests, changes in weight or sleep, low energy, feelings of worthlessness, or thoughts of death; symptoms are present nearly every day for at least two weeks; females 2x likelier to be diagnosed; more common in developed countries
Shaping
differential reinforcement of successive approximations; Skinner rewarded rats first for being near lever then for touching it, reward for behaviours that brought them closer to the desired one (e.g. pressing lever)
Phonemes
discrete sounds that make up words but have no meaning (e.g. ee, p, sh); phonics is learning to read by sounding out phonemes
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
does not produce a specific response on its own (e.g. light or bell)
Leon Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory
drive to reduce cognitive dissonance, holding conflicting ideas simultaneously whether beliefs, attitudes, or actions
Psychopharmacology (criticisms)
drugs that take away symptoms do not provide interpersonal support
Broca's aphasia
dysfunction in certain cortical association area language disorder from damage to Broca's area, in left frontal lobe; can understand speech but has difficulty speaking (slow, laborious, omits words)
Wernicke's aphasia
dysfunction in certain cortical association area language disorder from damage to Wernicke's area, in left temporal lobe; can speak but doesn't understand how to correctly choose words (fluent but nonsensical)
Sleep disorders (group 13; types)
dyssomnias and parasomnias; insomnia, hypersomnia, narcolepsy, nightmare, sleep terror
Interaction between instinct and learning
e.g. rodents reared in isolation perform instinctual nest-building but much less efficient and successful than those exposed to learning opportunities
factorial design
each level of a given IV occurs with each level of the other IVs
Harry Stack Sullivan
emphasized social and interpersonal relationships; what one does is meant to elicit particular reactions
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
employs principles from cognitive and behavioral theory
Skinner box
empty box (with a rat and a lever), later proved the influence of reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement Schedule
every correct response is met with reinforcement; quickest but most fragile learning, as soon as rewards stop coming, the animal stops performing
Autonomic conditioning??? (still need example)
evoking responses of autonomic nervous system through training
John B. Watson
founded behaviouralism; studied conditioning, stimulus-response chains, objective, observable behaviours; humans ready to be trained by environment
Stanley Hall
founder of American Psychology Association (APA)
*Konrad Lorenz
founder of ethology, imprinting, animal aggression, releasing stimuli, fixed action patterns
Konrad Lorenz
founder of ethology; imprinting in ducklings; On Aggression
Nikolaas Tinbergen
founder of modern ethology models in naturalistic settings, stickleback fish and herring gull chicks
Wilhelm Wundt
founder of psychology, first official lab at U of Leipzig, also began first psychology journal; wrote principles of physiological psychology attempted to study and analyze consciousness; ideas forerunners of Edward Titchener
Edward Titchener
founder of structuralism, focused on the analysis of human consciousness; Through introspection, lab assistants objectively describe discrete sensations and contents of their minds; method soon dissolved
Gustav Fechner
founding experimental psychology from Elements of Psychophysics; first systematic experiment to result in mathematical conclusions; previously thought the mind could not be studied empirically
Phrase
group of words when put together function as a syntactic part of a sentence (e.g. "walking the dog")
Yerkes-Dodson effect
higher arousal for simple tasks (motivation), lower arousal for complex tasks (concentration); optimal arousal is an inverted U on a graph Y-axis: performance X-axis: arousal Difficult task --> upside-down U shape Simple task --> reaches peak then becomes horizontal
Educational psychology
how people learn in educational settings such as student and teacher attributes
perception
how we organize or experience sensation
texture gradient
how we see texture or fine detail differently from different distances
Validity (+types)
how well a test measures a construct; multitrait-multimethod technique determines validity; internal, external: concurrent, construct, content, face
Thomas Hobbes
human and animals are machines, sense-perception was all that could be known - can use science to learn people (like physics vs. machines)
Social exchange theory
humans interact in ways that maximize reward and minimize costs
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential
hyperpolarization, + let out, - compared to outside, decrease firing
George Sperling
iconic memory people could see more than they can remember
statistically significant
if it is significant, same finding can be generalized to the population use test of significant to reject null hypothesis
discriminate validity
in order to show that a test has construct validity, researchers also have to show that performance on the test is not correlated with other variables that the theory predicts that test performance should not be related to -ex: is test performance not related to test-taking experience?
Agonists
increase effects of a neurotransmitter (e.g. selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors [for depression] increase serotonin activity)
Sensitization
increased sensitivity to environment after exposure to a strong stimulus - Rubbing arm after pain?
Sham rage
incredible rage easily provoked when cerebral cortex is removed
Psychological abstracts
index published by APA, found at most major libraries; montly compilation of "nonevaluative summaries of the world's literature in psychology"; in each issue, article abstracts arranged by topic; hardcopy version of PsycINFO
Delirium
indicated by disturbed consciousness (awareness, attention, focus) and cognition (memory disorientation)
Paranoid (schizophrenia)
indicated by preoccupation with delusions or auditory hallucinations
Catatonic (schizophrenia)
indicated by psychomotor disturbance such as catalepsy, excessive motor activity, prominent posturing, echolalia, echopraxia
Learning disorders
indicated by school achievement or standardized scores at least 2 SDs below mean for age and IQ
Dependence
indicated by some combination of: continued use despite substance-related problems; need for increased amount; desire but inability to stop use; withdrawal; lessening of outside interests; much time getting, using, or recovering from substance
percentile
indicates the percentage of scores that fall at or below a given score (e.g. if your score is at the 90th percentile, 90% of the scores fall at or below your score)
Hedonism
individuals are motivated by what brings most pleasure and least pain
Token economy
individuals in the environment are motivated by secondary reinforcers; e.g. tokens in prisons, rehab, etc., cashed in for more primary reinforcers (e.g. candy, books, privileges)
Tachistoscope
instrument used to present visual material (words/images) to subjects for a fraction of a second, in cognitive or memory experiments
Edward Thorndike
instrumental learning in animals, - led to law of effect that successful behaviours are likelier to be repeated; - cats in puzzle boxes: eventually accidentally press escape door lever and be free, later the cat activates lever right away
Anne Anastasi
intelligence in relation to performance; pioneered development of psychometrics, "no intelligence is culture-free"
norm-referenced testing
involves assessing an individual's performance in terms of how that individual performs in comparison to others (to that test's norms) -ex: "Erika did better than 99% of 2nd graders tested" -derived from standardized samples; the samples should be large and representative of the population to whom the particular test will be administered -one problem with it: the population to whom the tests will be administered can, often does, change. If it changes, then the original standardization sample would no longer be representative of the population
Trichotillomania
irresistible impulse to pull out one's own body hair
pyromania
irresistible impulse to set fires
Kleptomania
irresistible impulse to steal
Impulse control disorders not elsewhere classified (group 14; types)
irresistible urge dictates behaviour, giving in lessens tension, though disruptive to overall functioning; kleptomania, pyromania, pathological gambling, trichotillomania
Crystallized intelligence
knowing a fact
Declarative memory
knowing a fact
Fluid intelligence
knowing how to do something
Procedural memory
knowing how to do something
size constancy
knowing that an elephant is big no matter how it might appear
Self-esteem
knowing you are worthwhile and in touch with strengths; 50% perceive selves accurately, 35% narcissistically
Katherine Nelson
language development begins with onset of active speech rather than during the first year of only listening
Sensory memory (+types)
last seconds, connects perception and memory, includes iconic and echoic memory
Where opponent-process and tri-chromatic theory works respectively
lateral geniculate body, retina
E. L. Thorndike
law of effect
Edward Thorndike
law of effect; precursor to operant conditioning
Abraham Maslow
leader of humanistic movement; hierarchy of needs
Abraham Maslow
leader of humanistic psychology; examined normal or optimal functioning rather than abnormal; hierarchy of needs; people inherently strive for self-improvement
Age affects learning
learn 3-20, constant 20-50, drops 50+
Secondary Reinforcement
learned reinforce, often through society; money, prestige, rewards
Perceptual/conceptual learning (+example)
learning about something in general (history) for knowledge rather than learning-specific stimulus-response chains (e.g. Tolman's experiments with animals forming cognitive maps of mazes rather than simple escape routes)
Modeling (+example? and researcher)
learning and behaving by imitation; Albert Bandura's Bobo doll (children watching adults with blow up dolls)
Hermann Ebbinghaus
learning curve
bar graph
like a histogram except that the vertical bars do not touch - various columns are separated by space
Neuromodulators
like neurotransmitters but cause long-term changes in postsynaptic cell
Groupthink
likely to occur in a group with unquestioned beliefs, pressure to conform, invulnerability, censors, cohesiveness, isolation, strong leader; to minimize conflict and reach consensus without critical testing, analyzing, or evaluating
Chaining
linking a series of behaviours that result in reinforcement, one behaviour triggers the next (e.g. learning the alphabet)
Response learning
links together chains of stimuli and responses, learns what to do in response to particular triggers (leaving a building in response to fire alarm)
Morphemes
made of phonemes, smallest units of meaning in language, words or parts of words (e.g. boy, -ing)
Magnifying/minimizing
making too much or little of something (e.g. "it was luck that I did well")
Abnormal theory (Cognitive Theory)
maladaptive cognitions lead to abnormal behaviour or disturbed affect; - cognitive triad - types of maladaptive cognitions: arbitrary inference, overgeneralization, magnifying/minimizing, personalizing, dichotomous thinking
Klinefelter's syndrome
male with one Y and 2 X chromosomes, hypogonadism and reduced fertility; other physical and behavioural differences and problems with varying severity
John Locke
man mind is tabula rasa (blank slate) at first; knowledge not innate, from experience
Somatoform disorders (group 8; +types)
manifested by physical or bodily symptoms that cause reduced functioning; conversion disorder, hypochondriasis; formerly "psychosomatic" disorders
nature-nurture debate in terms of personality
many argue that there is no true gender differences - children are reinforced for stereotypical behaviors - prevailing pov -> interactionist
Undifferentiated (schizophrenia)
many schizophrenic symptoms not fitting a particular type
Personal unconscious
material from individual's own experiences, can become conscious
Meta-analysis
mathematically combines and summarizes overall effects or findings for a topic; best known for consolidating effectiveness of psychotherapy, can calculate overall effect size or conclusion drawn from a collection of studies; needed when conflicting results and different methods
test-retest reliability
measured by the same individual taking the same test more than once
Incidental learning
measured through presenting subjects with items they are not supposed to try to memorize, then test for learning
Electroencephalogram
measures brain wave patterns and have made it possible to study waking and sleeping states
Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)
measures cognitive triad and gauges severity of diagnosed depression; determines number of depressive symptoms, for research and clinical settings
Savings
measures how much info remains in LTM (information retention) by assessing how long it takes to learn something the second time
fMRI
measures oxygen flow in different brain areas, used most in cognitive psych to measure activity in different brain regions during certain tasks
Internal validity
measures the extent to which items in a measure "hang together" and test the same thing
Clark Hull
mechanistic behavioural ideas; motivation: performance = drive x habit; we do what we need and what worked best in the past; Kenneth Spence modified theory
avoiding type
melancholic low in activity and low in social contribution, withdrawn
Karl Lashley???
memories are stored diffusely in the brain
Screen memory
memories that serve as representations of important childhood experiences
Mnemonics
memory cues that aid learning and recall (e.g. OCEAN for the Big Five factors of personality...)
Donald Hebb
memory involves changes in synpases and neural pathways to make a memory tree
Frederick Bartlett
memory is reconstructive rather than rote, People are more likely to remember ideas/semantics more than details/grammar
Elizabeth Loftus
memory of traumatic events altered by event and by the phrasing of questions (e.g. "how fast were the cars going when they crashed" vs "what was the rate of the cars upon impact"); relevant in law-psychology such as witness testimony
Type I error
mistakenly reject null hypothesis; there is really no distance between the population values mentioned in the null hypothesis & a statistically significant result was obtained just by chance; true null hypothesis was rejected; 5% chance of making this error (same as alpha level); if null hypothesis is rejected, there are 5 chances out of 100 that the decision is wrong
Overgeneralization
mistaking isolated incidents for the norm (e.g. "no one will ever want to be with me")
Behavior theory
model based on learning; - application of classical and operant conditioning principles to human abnormal behavior, - change maladaptive behaviour through new learning; - radical behavioralism, - neobehaviouralism
Aggressive children at early age
moderate tendency to remain aggressive through later life
Enlightenment
most important question of the time: understanding the mind (supplanted understanding existence) immanuel Kant
Pluralistic ignorance
most in a group privately disagree but incorrectly believe most in group agree
Variable ratio schedule
most time to learn but least likely to be extinguished; reinforcements are delivered after different numbers of correct responses, ratio cannot be predicted
Premack principle
motivated to do what they do not want to do by rewarding themselves afterwards with something they like to do Eat dessert after eating unwanted vegetable
Drive-reduction theory
motivation to reduce internal tension, once satisfied, back to homeostasis/ relaxation; against M.E. Olds electrical stimulation of pleasure centres
Dorothea Lynde Dix
movement for better care for mentally ill through hospitalization
Eye movements and gaze durations
movements and durations indicate information processing while reading
Primary Reinforcement
natural reinforcement, without requirement of learning; food and water
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
naturally occurring response (e.g. salivation to food)
Henry Murray, David McClelland
need for achievement (nAch); need to pursue success or to avoid failure - goal is to feel successful
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
neutral stimulus once paired with UCS; no naturally occurring response, only with UCS pairing (e.g. light (CS) eventually produces salivation)
Partial Reinforcement Schedule (+types)
not all correct responses met with reinforcement; slower but more resistant; fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval; variable is best because it is unexpected, ratio gives better response since based on # of correct behaviours
PsycINFO database
online format of Psychological Abstracts; access all psychology abstracts catalogued under search
Hierarchy of bees
only one queen bee, which produces a chemical that suppresses ovaries in all other female bees, constantly tended to and fed, lays thousands of eggs in the spring; when eggs mature, scouts finds new site for old queen and her workers, a new queen emerges
Schizophrenia (onset)
onset between late adolescence and mid-30s; process vs. reactive
James Cattell
opened more psychology labs, thought psychology should be more scientific than Wundt
Stimulus generalization
opposite of stimulus discrimination; make same response to a group of similar stimuli (e.g. fire alarms may sound different but same response)
Disruptive behaviour disorders (2 disorders)
oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder; indicated by patterns of behaviour that violate rules, norms, or the rights of others
path from optic nerve to visual association areas of cortex
optic nerve --> optic chiasm --> striate cortext --> visual association area of cortex
Synapse gap
or just synapse, the space between 2 neurons where they communication
Descriptive statistics (+types)
organize data by showing it in a meaningful way; do not allow conclusions to be drawn beyond the sample; percentiles, frequency distributions, graphs, measures of central tendency, variability
Taxonomies
organized categorization systems, by statistical techniques for personality
Secondary (elaborative) rehearsal
organizing and understanding material to transfer to LTM
Type theory
originally dominated personality theory (Hippocrates), many placed into type categories based on physical appearance; including using phrenology and somatotypes
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
originally to determine mental illness, now for personality; - more clinical than CPI; - 550 T/F/unsure questions (e.g. "I would like to ride a horse"); - discriminates between disorders; - high validity because highly discriminatory items and 3 validity scales (lying, carelessness, faking)
Word Association Test
originally used with free association techniques; word called out, subject says next word in mind
confounding variables
other variables that could differentially effect the DV; unintended IVs (calorie count could possibly cause a difference in spelling test scores)
Gate Control Theory of Pain
pain is a process rather than simple unpleasant sensation, pain perception is related to interaction of large and small nerve fibers that run to and from spine; pain perception influenced by many factors including cognition
Anxiety disorders (group 7; types)
panic attack, generalized anxiety disorder, specific anxiety disorders: panic disorder, agoraphobia, phobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder
Schizophrenia (types)
paranoid, disorganized, catatonic, undifferentiated, residual
Cluster A personality (odd or eccentric disorders)
paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal
current thinking of perception
partially inate/sensory, partially learned/conceptual
Self-presentation
particularly positive self-presentation is influencial on behaviour, we act in ways that align with our attitudes or in ways that will be accepted by others; self-monitoring; impression management
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
pathway that runs to and from CNS
Brenda Milner
patient "HM" lesion of hippocampus, remembered things before surgery, STM intact, but could not store new LTMs (anterograde amnesia)
psychoanalysis
patients are seen 4-5 times a week and for many years － Initially: hypnosis - Then: free association - Transference, countertransference
transference
patients react to the therapist like they react to their parents
Gain-loss theory
people act in order to obtain gain and avoid loss; people favour situations that start out negative and end positive, even compared to completely positive situations
Peter principle
people are promoted at work until they reach a position of incompetence in which they remain
process of becoming
people in the process of realizing themselves - The individual is motivated by social needs and feelings of inferiority that arise when the current self does not match the self-ideal
Social learning theory
people learn through their culture. They learn acceptable and unacceptable behaviours through culture
Equity theory
people most comfortable in situations which rewards and punishments are equal, fitting, or logical; - overbenefited people feel guilt, - random/ illogical punishments create anxiety
Implicit theories (personality)
people often make assumptions about the dispositions of an individual based on the actions of that person
gestalt psychology
people see the world as comprised of organized whole top-down processing
Persona
person's outer mask, mediator to external world; masks in cultures
George Kelley
personal constructs determine personality and behaviour
Costa and McCrae
personality changes little after age 30
Internal locus of control
personality characteristic, causes one to view events as outcome of own actions; too much breeds self-blame
External locus of control
personality characteristic, causes one to view events as result of luck or fate; too much breeds helplessness
John Garcia
preparedness, that certain associations are learned more easily than others; animals programmed to make certain connections; Garcia effect - nausea associated with food
Higher-Order conditioning
previous CS now a UCS (e.g.*bell > [ light > food > ] salivation)
Second-Order conditioning
previous CS now a UCS (e.g.*bell > [ light > food > ] salivation)
Positive transfer
previous learning helps learning of another task later
Negative transfer
previous learning makes learning a new task more difficult
Basic types of drives
primary/instinctual (hunger or thirst), secondary/ acquired (money or other learned reinforcers), exploratory (seek novelty or explore)
lateral inhibition
process that allows eye to see contrast and prevents repetitive information sent; once a receptor is stimulated, others nearby are inhibited
Punishment
promotes extinction of undesirable behaviour, negative stimulus presented after behaviour to decrease likelihood of reoccurrence - Skinner thinks it is not effective in long run
Abnormal theory (Rational-Emotive Theory)
psychological tension created when (a)ctivating even occurs, and client has certain (b)eliefs about the event, leading to (c)onsequence of emotional disruption
Community psychology
psychology taken into community (community centres or schools) rather than individuals go to clinics and universities; emphasizes respect, recognizes logistics that keep needy people from seeking help
Psychological Bulletin
published bimonthly by APA; various papers ranging from literature reviews to quantitative reviews
Aversive conditioning
punishment to decrease likelihood of a behaviour ex: drug Antabuse to treat alcoholism
Timbre
quality/characteristic of sound from complexity of sound wave
Sexual and gender identity disorders (group 11; types)
range from fetishes to arousal problems to gender discomfort; desire, arousal, orgasmic, and sexual pain disorders
Inductive reasoning
reasoning that leads to general rules inferred from specifics "Most PhD student studied hard for GRE, if I do the same I may be able to get in to a good program"
Deductive reasoning
reasoning that leads to specific conclusion that must follow from information given "All coats are blue --> she is wearing a blue coat --> Her coat must be blue"
Free recall
recall without any cue
3 steps of sensation
reception, sensory-transduction, and travel of electrical information
path from receptor to optic nerve
receptor --> horizontal cell --> bipolar cell --> amacrine cell --> ganglion cell
Tay-Sachs disease
recessive, genetic deficiency of hexosaminidase A; symptoms that resemble psychological disorders (e.g. schizophrenia or dementia)
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
recessive, infant disease, excess amino acids, inborn error of metabolism
Antidepressants (+types)
reduces depressive symptoms, by taking opposite action of antimanics; depression appears to be from abnormally low levels of monoamines; increase production and transmission of various monoamines; - Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), - Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), - Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs); - at least 6 weeks to begin working; often used in treatment either because of fast relief from symptoms so client can attend therapy, or because of unsuccessful psychotherapy
Negative Reinforcement
removal of a negative event that increases likelihood of a particular response; while punishment introduces a negative event to decrease likelihood of a response
Dark adaptation
result of regeneration of retinal pigment
State-dependent memory
retrieval is better if in the same emotional or physical state as encoding - depressed individuals cannot easily recall happy memories - alcoholics often remember details of their last drinking session only when under the influence of alcohol
Extinction
reversal of conditioning, dissociating behaviour from a cue - Repeatedly withholding reinforcement or disassociating the behavior from a cue
Lewis Terman
revised Binet scale to Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale; also studied gifted children, those with higher IQs better adjusted
Positive Reinforcement
reward or positive event that increases likelihood of a particular response
Fixed interval schedule
rewards after a certain period of time rather than number of behaviours; can be argued that it does little to motivate an animal's behaviour
Variable interval schedule
rewards delivered after differing time periods; second most effective strategy in maintaining behaviour
Process schizophrenia
schizophrenia develops gradually, lower rate of recovery
Reactive schizophrenia
schizophrenia develops suddenly in response to a particular event, higher rate of recovery
diathesis-stress theory
schizophrenia results from a physiological predisposition (abnormal brain chemistry) paired with an external stressor
John B. Watson
school of behaviourism
Aptitude
set of characteristics indicative of one's ability to learn
Differential reinforcement of successive approximations
shaping; Skinner rewarded rats first for being near lever then for touching it, reward for behaviours that brought them closer to the desired one (e.g. pressing lever)
Types of classical conditioning
simultaneous, higher-order/second-order, delayed forward, trace forward, backward
David Rosenhan
studied effect of diagnostic labels on perception of behaviour; experiment of normal pseudopatients feigned disorders, once in hospital, individuals acted normally, but behaviours construed as fitting the diagnosis anyway
Stuart Valins
studied environmental influences on behaviour; architecture matters. students in long-corridor dorms more stressed and withdrawn than those in suite-style
M. Rokeach
studied racial bias and belief similarity, people prefer to be with like-minded people more than like-skinned; racial bias decreases as attitude similarity between people increases
Eric Kandel
studied sea slug Aplysia, which have few, large, easily identifiable nerve cells (chose to study this for this reason) learning and memory evidenced by changes in synapses and neural pathways
Richard Lazarus
studied stres sand coping, - differentiated between problem-focused coping (changing stressor) and emotion-focused coping (changing response)
Lee Ross
studied subjects who were first made to believe a state and then later told it was false. subjects continued to believe the state if they had processed it and devised their own logical explanation for it
Sandra Bem
studies androgyny; created Bem Sex Role Inventory
Health psychology
studies biological, behavioural and social impacts on health and illness; Important finding: increased stress leads to higher likelihood of sickness, social support is associated with better health outcomes
Parallel play
study development; 2-3 yrs, 2 children standing next to each other playing in similar styles by independently
Symbolic play
study development; usually 1-2 yrs, involves pretend roles, imagination, objects to represent other things; apparent they can understand representation of one object for another
Hawthorne effect
study how to increase worker productivity at Hawthorne Works, reported anything they did increased productivity; because performance changes when people are being observed
Dichotic presentation
study selective attention, often asked to shadow one message to ensure the other message is not consciously attended to
Longitudinal design
studying the same objects at different points in the lifespan and provides better, more valid results than most other methods - costly, time commitment
Hawthorne effect
subjects alter behaviour because they are being observed
J.A. Swet's Theory of Signal Detection (TSD)
subjects detect stimuli not only because they can but also because they want to Added in motivation as a factor - explain why subject respond inconsistently partly motivated by rewards and costs in detection
Recall task involving order of items on a list
subjects more easily state the order of two items far apart on the list than two items close together - Comparing 7 & 597 vs. comparing 133 vs. 136
Fugue
suddenly fleeing to a new location, forgetting true identity, and/or establishing a new identity
Matina Horner
suggested females shun masculine-type successes not because of fear or failure or lack of interest, but they fear success and its negative repercussions (i.e. resentment and rejection)
Elizabeth Loftus and Allan Collins
suggested hierarchical semantic networks, people group related items; the more closely related items, the more quickly subject can link them (e.g. Answer T/F quicker to "a canary is a bird" than "a toaster is a bird")
Alfred Adler (personality typology; +types)
suggested personality typology based on personal activity and social interest; ruling-dominant type (choleric; high-low), getting-learning type (phlegmatic; low-high), avoiding type (melancholic; low-low), and socially useful type (sanguine; high-high)
Problem space
sum total of possible moves that one might make to solve a problem
therapy (existential theory)
talking therapy, deep questions relating to perception and meaning of existence
Escape conditioning
teach to performance a desired behaviour to get away from a negative stimulus
Scaffolding learning
teacher encourages independent learning, only provides assistance when needed
Zeigarnik effect
tendency to recall pursued but incomplete tasks better than completed ones - Students who suspend their study, during which they do unrelated activities (such as studying unrelated subjects or playing games), will remember material better than students who complete study sessions without a break
Social loafing
tendency to work less hard in a group as a result of diffusion of responsibility; guarded against when each individual is closely monitored
Ulric Neisser
termed icon for brief visual memory
Hypotheses
test relationships then to form concepts
cross validation
testing the criterion validity of a test on a 2nd sample, after you demonstrated validity using an initial sample
Two-way ANOVA
tests the effects of two independent variables or treatment conditions at once
within subject
tests the same person at multiple time points and looks at changes within that person
analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)
tests whether at least 2 groups co-vary - can adjust for preexisting differences between groups
One-way ANOVA
tests whether the means on one outcome or dependent variable are significantly different across groups - height or level of anxiety from anxiety scale
predictive value
the degree to which an independent variable can predict a dependent variable
generalizability
the degree to which the result from an experiment can be applied to the population and the real world
cohort effect
the effect that might result when a group is born and raised in a particular time period
visual field
the entire span that can be perceived or detected by the eye at a given moment
Undergeneralization
the failure to generalize a stimulus
sensation
the feeling that results from physical stimulation
Primacy and recency effects
the first and last few items learned are easiest to remember. first items are due to the benefit of most rehearsal and exposure. last item is easy to remember because there has been less time for decay
population
the group the researcher wished to generalize her results to
Null hypothesis
the hypothesis that no real differences or pattern exist
Lamarckian evolution
the idea that characteristics acquired during lifetime passed to future generations
phrenology
the idea that the nature of a person could be known by examining the shape and contours of the skull Brain - seat of the soul
Fight or flight
the internal physiological changes that occur in an organism in response to a perceived threat (increase in HR or respiration)
homeostasis
the internal regulation of body to main equilibrium (decrease in HR after the perceived threat is no longer present)
eros
the life instinct, including sex and love
mode
the most frequently occurring value
Socrates
the original philosophic mentor who pondered the abstract ideas of truth, beauty and justice
Alleles
the pair up of possible dominant and recessive gene variations for each characteristic
id
the part of mind that contains the unconscious biological drives and wishes. - At birth: mental life is composed solely of the id and its biological drives (sex and aggression) - with development, the id also includes unconscious wishes
superego
the part of mind that imposes learned or socialized drives. - not something one is born with, but develops over time - influenced by moral and parental training
ego
the part of mind that mediates between the environment and the pressures of the id and the superego
receptive field
the part of the world that triggers a particular neuron
reuptake
the process after a neurotransmitter has done its job, it is reabsorbed by the presynaptic cell
Sensory transduction
the process in which physical sensation is changed into electrical message that the brain can understand - it is at the heart of the senses
statistics
the process of representing or analyzing numerical data
prototypes
the representative or usual type of an event or object
test-retest reliability
the same test is administered to the same group of people twice; estimates the inter-individual stability of test scores over time
Social Psychology
the study of how people relate to and influence each other
personality
the study of why people act the way that they do and why different people act differently
diffusion of responsibility
the tendency that the larger the group, the less likely individuals in the group will act or take responsibility - result of deindividuation (Kitty Genovese care)
continuation/good continuation
the tendency to create a whole or detailed figure based on our expectation rather than what is seen
proximity
the tendency to group together items that are near each other
symmetry
the tendency to make figures out of symmetrical images
Field theory
the total influences upon individual behavior
genotype
the total of all genetic material that an offspring received (23 pairs or 46 total chromosomes) - an individual's complete genetic make up, include both dominant and recessive genes
independent variable (IV)
the variable whose effect is being studied and is manipulated by experimenter (ex: breakfast type, protein content)
Paired-associate learning
the way behaviourists explain memory; one item learned with, then cues the recall of, another
M. Fischbein and I. Ajzen
theory of reasoned action
therapy (Gestalt Theory)
therapist engages in a dialogue with client rather than leading toward a goal; client learns from dialogue, and together focus on here-and-now experience rather than talking about the past
Charles Spearmen
there is a general factor in intelligence "g"
John Atkinson
those who set realistic goals with intermediate risk feel pride with accomplishment, and want to succeed more than they fear failure - however less likely to set unrealistic or risky goals or to persist when success is unlikely
Trace conditioning
type of forward conditioning; CS presented and terminated before UCS presentation
factorial analysis of variance
used when an experiment involves more than one independent variable - can separate the effects of different levels of different variables - can isolate main effects - can identify interaction effects ex: studying effect of brain lesion on problem solving independent variable 1 - lesion independent variable 2 - type of problem dependent variable - success with problem We have: with and without lesion, simple and complex task 2x2 design gets 4 different combinations of evaluation main effect: effect of lesion on problem solving and effect of type of task on problem solving interaction effect: do people with lesions do better on simple tasks than people without lesion do on complex tasks
Nonequivalent control group
used when equivalent one cannot be isolated
chi-square test
used when n-cases in a sample are classified into categories or cells - tell us whether the groups are significantly different in size - look at the pattern or distributions, not difference between mean - ex:intro psych class categorized into race - can analyze categorical/discrete data - can be used on small samples - can assess the goodness of fit of distribution or whether the pattern is what would be expected
Paired-associate learning
used when studying foreign languages, we pair that language word with English word
Nomothetic approach
uses large numbers of people to study commonalities of personality
Shaping
uses operant conditioning to change behavior, - reinforced for behaviors that come closer and closer to desired action
Aversion therapy
uses operant principle of negative reinforcement to increase anxiety, - anxiety-reaction created where there was none; - usually to treat addiction and fetishes
Modeling
uses social learning principles, - exposes client to more adaptive behaviors
Representativeness heuristic
using shortcut about typical assumptions rather than relying on logic; basis of stereotypes - 6 feet tall beautiful women --> we think she's more likely to be a model than lawyer
Specific anxiety disorders (treatment)
usually treated with behavioural therapies that expose patient to anxiety-provoking stimulus to change response (i.e. systematic desensitization and flooding)
interest testing
usually used to assess an individual's interest in different lines of work
mode
value of most frequent observation in a set of scores
placebo effect
when subject behave differently just because they thing that they have received the treatment substance or condition
Demand characteristic
when subjects act in ways they think experimenter wants or expects
social desirability
when subjects do and say what they think puts them in a favorable light ex: reporting they are not racist even if they really are
single-blind experiment
when subjects do not know whether they are in the treatment or control group, but the researchers know
Selective attrition
when subjects that drop out are different than those that remain; no longer random
object relations therapy
when the therapist uses the patient's transference to help him/her resolve problems that were the result of previous relationship by correcting the emotional experience in the therapist-patient relationship
Axon hillock
where soma and axon connect
Content validity
whether content covers a good sample of construct being measured
Concurrent validity
whether scores on a new measure correlate with other measures known to test the same construct; cross validation process
Face validity
whether test items look like they measure the construct
Construct validity
whether test really taps abstract concept being measured
Contact (Groups)
with opposing party decreases conflict, we fear what we do not know`
gender and depression
women are twice as likely as men to become depressed
Wolfgang Kohler
worked with chimpanzees and insight in problem solving, chimps could perceive the whole situation to create new solutions rather than by trial and error; chimps had to use tools or create props to retrieve rewards
Aristotle
world's first professor, studied based on order and logic, disagreed with Plato, believed that truth can be found in physical world
Kay Deaux
－ women's success at "male" tasks attributed to luck, － while men's success attributed to skill; Suggesting - gender is a social construct that colours interpretations; - women attribute successes to luck more than men indicating they have lower self-esteem
Walter Cannon
- coined "fight or flight", - proposed idea homeostasis
T-test
- compares means of 2 different groups to see if the two groups are truly different - analyze differences between means on continuous data - particularly useful with small n - cannot test for difference between more than 2 groups
Schizoid personality disorder
A, odd or eccentric; detachment, small range of emotion
Paranoid personality disorder
A, odd or eccentric; distrust, suspicion
Schizotypal personality disorder
A, odd or eccentric; eccentricity, distorted reality
Conservation
Piaget, Concrete Operational, 3/4, 7-12 yrs; knowing changes in shape are not changes in volume
Sucking reflex
Piaget, Sensorimotor, 1/4, 0-2 yrs; elicited by placing object in mouth
Head-turning reflex
Piaget, Sensorimotor, 1/4, 0-2 yrs; elicited by stroking cheek
Dendrites
neuron branches, receive impulses, branching patterns change throughout life
William Labov
"Black" English, Ebonics, has its own complex internal structure, not simply bad English
Jean Piaget (moral development; +stages)
"Moral Judgment of the Child" hypothesized 3 stages; 4-7 (imitates rule-following behaviour, does not question), 4-11 (understands rules and follows), 12+ yrs (abstract thining to rules, can change if all parties agree)
IQ Binet's equation
(Mental age/chronological age)/100 Highest age = 16
Language acquisition milestones
1 year speaks first word(s), 2 years > 50 spoken words, usually 2 then 3-word phrases, 3 years 1000-word vocabulary but has grammatical errors 4 years grammar errors are random exceptions
3 personality theories
1) dispositionist 2) situationist 3) interactionists
2 basic types of statistics
1. Descriptive 2. Inferential
2 types of ability tests
1. aptitude tests 2. achievement tests
Penfield, W.
Canadian neurosurgeon who used electrodes and electrical stimulation techniques to "map" out different parts of the brain during surgery
Breland, K. and Breland, M.
Discovered and studied instinctual drift
Pavlov, I.
Discovered the basic principles of classical conditioning
Forgetting curve
Ebbinghaus, sharp drop in savings immediately after learning then levels off downwards; but some psychologists doubt generalization from nonsense syllables
Rosenthal effect
Experimenter bias; researchers see what they want to see; minimized in double-blind
Freud, A.
Founder of ego psychology
Logotherapy
Frankl; focuses on person's will to meaning
Oral stage
Freud, 1/5, birth-18mos; oral pleasure (sucking, eating, biting)
perceptual development
James Gibson increasing ability through development to make finer discriminations among stimuli;
hypnosis
Jean Charcot and Pierre Janet
Martin Seligman
Learned helplessness
Vector (life space)
Lewin; life space; pushes person in the direction of + valence, away from - valence
Erikson, E.
Outlined eight stages of psychosocial development overing the lifespan
Efferent fibers
PNS fibers that run away from CNS (to cause effect the brain wants)
Afferent fibers
PNS fibers that run towards CNS
Somatic nervous system
PNS, interacts with external environment by controlling voluntary movements of striated muscles
neobehaviouralism
Pavlov's classical counterconditioning principles to create new responses to stimuli
abnormal theory (Client-centered theory)
People who lack congruence between real selves and conscious self-concept develops psychological tension; incongruence occurs when feelings or experiences are inconsistent with acknowledged of self (e.g. perfect self-concept shaken by any failure)
Recognition
Requires subjects to recognize things learned in the past Multiple choice test
radical behavioralism
Skinner's operant ideas that behaviour is related only to consequences
Supernormal sign stimulus
Tinbergen, artificial stimuli that exaggerate naturally occurring sign stimulus or releaser, more effective than natural
Purposive behaviour
Tolman; learning is acquired through meaningful behaviour towards a goal; sign learning
existential theory (originator)
Victor Frankl
Alpha levels
a level of <0.05or <0.01 means that chance that seemingly significant errors are due to random variation rather than to true systematic variance is less than 5% or 1%
Free-recall learning
a list of items is learned, and then must be recalled in any order with no cue.
regression
a return to an earlier stage
Fitness
ability to reproduce and pass on genes
Abnormal theory (Behavior theory)
abnormal behaviour is the result of learning and conditioning
Parasomnias
abnormal movements, behaviours, emotions, perceptions during sleep; usually between transitions of wake to non-REM or wake to REM; somnambulism, sleep terrors, etc.
Negative symptoms
abnormally absent; includes flat affect or restrictions in thought, speech, or behaviour
Positive symptoms (schizophrenia)
abnormally present; delusions, perceptual hallucinations, nonsensical or disorganized speech, disorganized behaviour
Flat affect
absence of appropriate emotion
Projection
accusing others of having one's own unacceptable feelings
Objective self-awareness
achieved through: self-perception, high-self-monitoring, internality, self-efficacy; experiments facilitate this by having subjects perform tasks while looking in a mirror; deindividuation works against it
Factors that make a list easier to learn and retrieve
acoustic dissimilarity, semantic dissimilarity, brevity, familiarity, concreteness, meaning, importance to subject
Nature vs. nurture
addressed by twin studies experiences; genetics examined by comparing between monozygotic (identical twins) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins, fraternal rather than siblings due to more similar environment and developmental stages; environment examined by compring identical twins separated at birth
therapy (Psychopharmacology)
aim to affect neurotransmitters; commonly dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine (monoamines)
stratified sampling
aims to match demographic characteristics to population (i.e. 50% female, etc)
Shared psychotic disorder
aka folie a deux; when two people have shared delusions
Disorganized (schizophrenia)
aka hebephrenic schizophrenia; indicated by disorganized speech and behaviour, and flat affect
Bipolar disorder
aka manic depression; indicated by depressive symptoms that alternate with manic symptoms; equally prevalent in genders
Releasing stimuli
aka releasers or sign stimuli, Lorenz, continued by Tinbergen, elicits fixed action patterns from another individual in the same species
Inferential statistics
allow generalization from sample to population statistics (sample), parameters (population): use statistics to estimate parameters
Role playing
allows client to practice new behaviours and responses
ciliang muscles
allows lens to bend in order to focus on image of the outside world onto the retina
Projective tests (+types)
allows own answer: expression of conflicts, needs, impulses; - content interpreted by administrator, some more objective than others; - Rorschach Inkblot Test, - Thematic Apperception Test, - Rosenzweig Picture-Frustration (P-F) Study, - Word Association Test, - Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank, - Draw-A-Person Test
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
ambiguous story cards, people project own "needs"
Glutamate
an amino acid, most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter.
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
an amino acid, most abundant inhibitory neurotransmitter
Item analysis (reliability)
analyses how a large group responded to each item on the measure; weeds out problematic questions with low discriminatory value; increases internal consistency
Inclusive fitness
animals invest in the survival of not only their own genes but also the genes of their kin
Eating disorders (group 12; types)
anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa
Erotomanic delusion
another person is in love with the individual
Cluster B personality (dramatic, emotional or erratic disorders)
antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic
Social phobia
anxiety around social or performance situations
Specific phobia
anxiety in response to a stimulus (e.g. flying, heights, needles, or driving)
Generation-recognition model
anything one might recall is easily recognized - multiple-choice test is easier than essay test
continuous data
anything that is measured such as height or depression score on a depression scale
Activational hormones
anytime during adulthood, short periods, often transient or reversible (current/recent circulation); - menstrual cycle (estradiol, progesterone, luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)); - LH and FSH in females regulate ovum development and trigger ovulation, in males regulate development of sperm and testosterone production; - oxytocin facilitates birth, breast feeding, pair bonding (mother-child or romantic)
Anna Freud
applied Freud ideas of child psychology and development
Flooding or implosive therapy
applies classical conditioning to relieve anxiety, - repeatedly exposed to anxiety-producing stimulus so eventually the overexposure leads to lessened anxiety
Social support network
area of study that combines social and clinical ideas, for mental health
Cortical association areas
areas on cortex that correspond to certain functions; - the larger the area, the more sensitive and highly accessed the function - Damage to a particular area would result in certain dysfunction
Syntax
arrangement of words into sentences as prescribed by a particular language
Carol Gilligan
asserted that Kohlberg's moral development theory was biased toward males, dominated by rules, where women's morality focuses more on compassion
Vocational tests
assess extent interests and strengths match those found by professionals in a particular job field
counterbalancing
assigning half of the subjects to low-protein 1st and the other half to high-protein 1st. all subjects will still experience both levels, just in different orders
Female menstrual cycle (hormones)
associated with changes in hormone levels throughout the month - estradiol, progesterone, luteinizing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone
Illusory correlation
assuming 2 unrelated things are related
False consensus bias
assuming most other people think as you do
dissociative Identity disorder
assumption of 2+ identities that control behavior in different situations; formerly multiple personality disorder
Trait hierarchy
at the top a cardinal trait (always consistent), then central traits, then secondary traits (may conflict)
Logical reasoning errors (types)
atmosphere effect, semantic effect, confirmation bias
Navigation cues
atmospheric pressure, infrasound, magnetic sense, sun compass, star compass, polarized light,
achievement tests
attempt to assess what one knows or can do now; can test adequacy of learning content & skill
Postsynaptic cell
beginning of neuron (dendrites)
Middle ear
begins with tympanic membrane (ear drum) stretched across auditory canal, - ossicles located behind ear drum - vibrations hit ear drum causes ossicles to vibrate (malleus-incus-stapes)
Impression management
behaving in ways that might make a good impression
Sex-typed behaviour
behaviour stereotypical for gender, low prepubescence, highest young adulthood, then lowers again
Altruism
behaviour that solely benefits another, - similar to group mentality, - will help if benefit outweighs cost or expect to be repaid
Edward Tolman
behaviourist, valued both behaviour and cognition; purposive behaviour and sign learning; rats in mazes formed cognitive maps rather than blindly attempting various routes like stimulus-response suggests; also expectancy-value theory of motivation: performance = expectation x value
Courting
behaviours that precede sexual acts that lead to reproduction, to attract and isolate a mate
Displacement activities/irrelevant behaviours
behaviours that seem out of place, illogical, and no particular survival function (e.g. scratching your head while thinking)
lens
behind cornea
Self-efficacy
belief that one can effectively perform a task
Inoculation theory
beliefs are more vulnerable if never faced challenge
Anton Mesmer
believed healing of physical ailments came from manipulation of bodily fluids; animal magnetism (mind control of one person over another) responsible for patient recoveries; used technique of mesmerism (hypnotism)
abnormal theory (Psychopharmacology)
believed some emotional disturbances at least partly caused by biological factors
Hindsight bias
believing after the fact that you knew something all along
Nodes of Ranvier
between myelin sheath, help send impulse down axon
Bulimia nervosa
binge eating with harmful ways to prevent weight gain (e.g. induced vomiting or laxative use)
Depth perception cues (list)
binocular disparity (two slightly different angles), apparent size, interposition (overlap to show which object closer), linear perspective (parallel lines seem to converge with distance), texture gradient (texture/fine detail changes from different distances), motion parallax (perceived different pace of movement through displacement of objects over time)
Star compass
birds many birds can use star patterns and movements as navigational cue
Robert Zajonc
birth order vs. intelligence; the older, the more intelligent; the more children, the less intelligent; the greater spacing, the more intelligent
Dichotomous thinking
black and white thinking (e.g. "if I don't score 100% I have no future")
Hermaphrodite or intersex individual
born with both female and male genitals, most likely female fetus exposed to excessive testosterone
R. C. Tyron
bred "maze bright" and "maze full" rats to demonstrate heritability of behaviour
Inbreeding
breeding within same family, evolutionary controls prevent this (e.g. swan facial markings of same family)
photons
brightness
Fechner's law (+equation)
built upon Weber's law; strength of a stimulus must be significantly increased to produce a slight difference in sensation; S (sensation strength) = k log R (log of original intensity)
Inferior colliculus
bumps on the brainstem, controls auditory reflexes
Superior colliculus
bumps on the brainstem, controls visual reflexes
Gyri
bumps seen on cortex surface
E.R. Kandel
by studying sea slug Aplysia, similar ideas to Donald Hebb involving synaptic and neural pathway changes in memory; young chicks brains are altered with learning and memory
standard error of mean
calculates how off the mean might be in either direction
Tardive dyskinesia
can result from long-term use of neuroleptics or psychotropics; characterized by involuntary, repetitive movements of tongue, jaw, or extremities
Long-term memory
capable of permanent retention, most learned semantically for meaning, measured by recognition, recall, and savings Subject to encoding specificity principle, but not primacy/recency effects
interval variables
capable of showing order and pacing because equal spaces lie between the values. - do not include real zero - ex: temperature
Idiographic approach
capture individual's unique, defining characteristics
cones
cells concentrated in the center of the retina, sensitive to color and day light
receptor cells
cells on retina responsible for sensory transduction through chemical alteraction of photopigments
fovea
center of retina, greatest visual acuity
Ventricles
chambers filled with cerebrospinal fluid that insulate brain from shock
positive correlation
change in value of one of the variables tends to be associated with a change in the same direction of the value of the other variable; as the value of one variable increases, the value of the 2nd variable tends to increase as well in a linear fashion
postsynaptic potentials
changes in a nerve cell's charge as the result of stimulation 2 forms: excitatory postsynaptic potential and inhibitory postsynaptic potential
Sublimation
channelling threatening drives into acceptable outlets
Type A personality
characterized by drive, competitiveness, aggressiveness, tension, hostility; found - most common in middle to upper class men
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
characterized by obsessions or compulsions that are time-consuming, distressing, and disruptive; typical obsessions might be about locking the door, or becoming contaminated; typical compulsions might be checking behaviour, counting, or hand washing
Personality disorders (group 16; +types)
characterized by rigid, pervasive, culturally abnormal personality; A (odd or eccentric), B (dramatic, emotional or erratic), C (anxious or fearful)
Pheromones
chemicals detected by vomeronasal organ, acts as messengers between animals, primitive form of communication, can transmit states such as fear or sexual receptiveness
Neurotransmitters
chemicals that stimulate nearby cells
Play therapy
child clients; during play a child may convey emotions, situations, or disturbances conveyed might otherwise go unexpressed
Arnold Gessell
child developmentalist, nature provided "blueprint" through maturation and environment filled in details
John Watson's behaviouristic approach to development
children passively molded by environment and behaviour by imitation of parents
Telencephalon
consists of limbic system, hippocampus, amygdala, cingulate gyrus
Comparative psychology
closely related to ethology, different species are compared in order to learn about their similarities and differences. Draw from animal studies to gain insight into human functioning
Facial Action Coding System (FACS)
code facial expressions for emotion; can determine whether a smile is genuine (happiness engages the upper cheek) or fake (eyes and whole face are less involved)
Jean Piaget
cognitive development in children; The Language and Thought of the Child, Moral Judgment of the Child, Origins of Intelligence in Children
Leon Festinger
cognitive dissonance theory
Walter Mischel and Nancy Cantor
cognitive prototype approach
Schachter-Singer theory
cognitive theory of emotion; similar to James-Lange theory, emotions are the product of physiological reactions, but interpretation of the physiological arousal is determined by the cognition we attach to a situation, leading to emotion
Aaron Beck
cognitive therapy; problems arise from maladaptive ways of thinking; therapy to reformulating illogical cognition rather than searching for a life-stress cause; Beck Depression Inventory
Learned optimism
cognitive training against learned helplessness
Icon
coined by Neisser, --> brief visual memory that lasts about one second
hue
color,, dominant wavelength of light
cohort-sequential design
combines longitudinal and cross-sectional approach
Hindbrain
consists of myelencephalon, metencephalon, and reticular formation
between subject
compares 2 groups of people at the same time point
quasi-experimental design
compares 2 groups of people like an experiment, but this is used when it is not feasible or ethical to use random assignment ex: smoker vs. cancer
Split-half reliability
comparing an individual's performance on 2 halves of the same test to reveal internal consistency; internal consistency can be increased by item analysis
competition
competition for scare resources usually causes conflict in a group - Sherif's Robber's cave experiment
Monoamines
comprise two classes of neurotransmitters, indolamines and catecholamines
descriptive statistics
concerned with organizing, describing, quantifying, & summarizing a collection of actual observations
domain-referenced testing (criterion-referenced testing)
concerned with the question of what the test taker knows about a specified content domain. performance on such a test is described in terms of what the test taker knows or can do. ex: driver's ed test (only matters that you have personally mastered the rules of the road, not how you did in comparison to your peers)
cones vs. rods
cones see better than rods because they are fewer cones per ganglion cells than rods per ganglia cells
Acceptance
conformity; change actions and beliefs to conform
Compliance
conformity; go along publicly but not privately
Corticospinal tract
connections between brain and spine
Topographic model of mental life
conscious elements were openly acknowledged forces and unconscious elements (drives and wishes) were many layers below consciousness - Freud's greatest contribution to psychology
personal constructs
conscious ideas about the self, others and situations
criticism (existential theory)
considered too abstract for severely disturbed individuals
histogram
consist of vertical bars in which the sides of the vertical bars touch - useful for discrete variables that have clear boundaries - interval variables in which there is some order
reliability
consistency with which a test measures whatever it is that the test measures -high reliability = test measures are dependable, reproducible, & consistent -we would expect that a person would score about the same when retested on the same test or a comparable form of that test. -in practice, no test is perfectly reliable -SEM
Philip Zimbardo
continued Milgram's study, --> deindividuated individuals more willing to administer higher levels of shock; --> prison simulation experiments found normal subjects could easily be transformed into sadistic prison guards; --> also found antisocial behaviour positively correlates with population density, broken-down cars in NYC destroyed in 10 minutes while in Palo Alto untouched for three days
Selective breeding
contrived breeding mates intentionally paired to increase chances of producing offspring with particular traits
Basal ganglia
control large voluntary muscle movements, Their degeneration is related to motor dysfunction in Parkinson's and Huntington's
Pituitary gland
controlled by hypothalamus, regulation of hormones in the body - The "master gland" of the endocrine/hormone system
Eye parts
cornea lens ciliang muscle retina optic nerve receptor cells rod cones fovea optic chiasm horizontal cells bipolar cells amacrine cells ganglion cells striate cortext visual association areas
goal of therapy (Cognitive Theory)
correct maladaptive cognitions
hit
correctly sensing a stimulus
Cell membrane
covers whole neuron, selective permeability, sometimes lets ions (positive charge) through
Donald Campbell and Donald Fiske
created multitrait-multimethod technique to determine validity of tests
Franz Joseph Gall
created phrenology
Internal-External Locus of Control Scale
created to determine whether a person feels responsible for things that happen (internal) or no control over events in life (external)
Factitious disorder (group 9)
creating physical complaints through fabrication or self-infliction to assume sick role for attention
Seymour Epstein
critical of personality trait theory
Walter Mischel
critical of personality trait-theory and personality tests; felt situations (not traits) decide actions
Hans Eysenck
criticized effectiveness of psychotherapy after analyzing studies that indicated psychotherapy was no more successful than no treatment at all; other studies contradict this
Seymour Epstein and Walter Mischel
criticized trait and type theories that both assume behaviour is stable across situations and people fail to take circumstances into account; - studies show that people often act different in different situations; consistency paradox
Hazel Markus
cross-cultural research; Eastern countries value interdependence over independence; for example, in Japan, individuals likelier to demonstrate conformity, modesty, and pessimism; where in the U.S., likelier to show optimism, self-enhancement, and individuality; some criticizes generalizations about cultures
linear perspective
cue that is gained by features we are familiar with, such as 2 seemingly parallel lines that converge with distance
apparent size
cut that gives us clues about how far away an object is if we know about how big the object should be
Antagonists
decrease effects of a neurotransmitter (e.g. botox is an acetylecholine antagonist that decreases muscle activity)
Stroop effect
decreased speed of naming color of ink if incongruous to word itself
Delirium, dementia, and amnestic and other cognitive disorders (group 2)
delirium and dementia related to Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and alcoholism)
Electroconvulsive shock therapy (ECT)
delivers electric current to brain to induce convulsions; effective for severely depressed patients
R.M. Cooper and John Zubek
demonstrated the interaction between heredity and environment, - bright rats performed better than dull only when both sets raised in normal conditions, - both groups performed well in enriched environment (lots of food and activities), - both performed poorly in impoverished environment
Substance-related disorders (group 4)
dependence and abuse of various substances
Excitatory postsynaptic potential
depolarization, + from outside allowed into cell, increase firing
Rorschach Inkblot Test
describe what is seen in each of 10 inkblots; scoring is complex; validity questionable
Episodic memory
details, events, discrete knowledge
Meissner's corpuscles
detect flutter, touch or contact; superficial
Free nerve endings
detect pain and temperature
Merkel cells
detect pressure and texture; superficial
Ruffian corpuscles
detect stretch
Pacinian corpuscles
detect vibration, displacements of skin
Size of two-point threshold for touch
determined by density and layout of nerves in skin
Schizophrenia (etiology)
diathesis-stress theory; physiological predisposition (excess dopamine) paired with external stressor
cross-sectional design
different subjects of different ages are compared - faster, easier
Insomnia
difficulty falling/staying asleep
Ivan Pavlov
digestion, classical conditioning
Mental disorders due to a general medical condition (group 3)
direct physiological result of a medical problem (e.g. depression due to hypothyroidism)
therapy (Cognitive Theory)
directed therapy helps expose and restructure maladaptive thought and reasoning patterns, - generally short-term, - therapist focuses on tangible evidence of client's logic (what client says and does)
Pick's disease
disease of the frontal and temporal lobes of the brain characterized by changes in personality
DSM IV disorder groups (16)
disorders often diagnosed in 1. childhood/adolescence; 2. delirium, dementia, other cognitive disorders; 3. mental disorders due to a general medical condition; 4. substance-related disorders; 5. schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders; 6. mood disorders; 7. anxiety disorders; 8. somatoform disorder; 9. factitious disorder; 10. dissociative disorders; 11. sexual and gender identity disorders; 12. eating disorders; 13. sleep disorders; 14. impulse control disorders (not elsewhere classified); 15. adjustment disorders; 16. personality disorders
Fundamental attribution error
dispositional attribution; tendency for others to think actions are caused more by personality than situation (e.g. lie because he is a liar, not because of the situation)
Retroactive interference
disrupting information that was learned after new items were presented
Proactive interference
disrupting information that was learned prior to new items were presented
Forebrain (division)
divided into diencephalon and telencephalon
dependent variable
does not control, but examines how independent variable affects it
predictive validity
does test performance predict FUTURE success as history major?
Foot-in-the-door phenomenon
doing a small favour makes people more willing to do larger ones later
Kenneth and Mamie Clark
doll preference studies
Draw-A-Person Test
draw a person of each sex and tell a story about them
Arbitrary inference
drawing conclusion without solid evidence (e.g. "Boss hates me because he never asks me to play golf")
Antabuse ®
drug that changes metabolism of alcohol, resulting in severe nausea and vomiting when combined; countercondition alcoholics
Antimanics
drugs for bipolar disorder, mania appears to be from excessive monoamines; inhibit monoamines such as norepinephrine and serotonin (ex. Lithium)
Automatic processing
effortless task due to higher organization process － When a task is effortlessly done because the task is subsumed under a higher organization process
3 components of model of mental life
ego id superego
R.E. Petty and J.T. Cacioppo
elaboration likelihood model
Reaction formation
embracing feelings or behaviours opposite to true threatening feelings one has
Clinical psychology
emerged after WWII, psychology research to a practical field
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
emergency theory; Emotions and bodily reactions occur simultaneously In emotional situations, our body is cued to react in the brain (emotion) and in the body (biological response) Ex: We tremble and feel scared in response to anger
Karen Horney
emphasized culture and society over instinct; suggested neuroticism expressed as movement toward, against, and away from people
Gordon Allport
emphasized idiographic approach to personality theory, as opposed to nomothetic; conscious motives governed by proprium or propriate function; lexical approach (5000 possible traits), determined trait hierarchy of cardinal, central, secondary traits
Presynaptic cell
end of a neuron (terminal buttons)
Circadian rhythms
endogenous rhythms that revolve around a 24 hour time period
Delusions
erroneous or distorted thinking
Social comparison
evaluating one's own actions, abilities, opinions, and ideas and comparing to others; - since others are generally familiar people (own social group), used for argument against mainstreaming; --> when children with difficulties in classes with normal children, may result in lower self-esteem
random sample
every population member has an equal chance of being selected for the sample
Nature vs. nurture
evolutionary psychology vs. social constructionism whether psychological phenomena are the result of inborn, genetic factors or the result of cultural and society influences
Mimicry
evolved form of deception, ex: harmless snakes may mimic coloration and pattern of more poisonous ones to escape predation
convergent validity
ex: social adeptness is related to intelligence, then in order for your test of social adeptness to have construct validity, people who score high on your test of social adeptness should also score high on tests of intelligence
Compensation
excelling in one area to make up for shortcomings in another
Hypersomnia
excessive sleepiness
Victor Frankl
existential psychology; Man's Search for Meaning - people innately seek meaningfulness in their lives, perceived meaninglessness is root of emotional difficulty; logotherapy
Sunk cost
expense incurred and cannot be recovered; because money already spent is irrelevant to the future, best to ignore these when making decisions but we often do not
Learned helplessness
experience can change people's personalities; after a series of events one feels helpless or out of control, negative or pessimistic explanatory style develops; gives up in general, exhibits helpless disposition; countered with learned optimism
Stanley MIlgram (study)
experiment where participants ordered to give "painful electric shocks" to a "learner" when incorrect, explored how people respond to orders; conditions that facilitated conformity: remoteness of victim, proximity of commander, legitimate-seeming commander, conformity of other subjects; conformed 66% of the time; raised ethical issues; also explained actions of Nazi war criminals
Muzafer Sherif
experiment, people's descriptions of the autokinetic effect were influenced by others' descriptions; also win/lose game-type competition can trigger conflict in groups, Robbers' cave experiment
Cross fostering experiments
experiments that attempt to separate effects of heredity and environment, sibling mice separated at birth and placed with different parents or situations; later differences in aggression attributed to experience rather than genetics
Factors that a speaker has to most likely change a listener's attitude
expert and/or trustworthy, similar to listener, acceptable to listener, overheard rather than obviously influencing, anecdotal, emotional, or shocking, part of a debate rather than one-sided argument
Post-traumatic stress disorder
exposure to trauma that results in decreased ability to function and recurrent thoughts and anxiety about the incident; often linked to war veterans or victims of violence
Brain evolution
extension of the spine, developed from base to the front
Julian Rotter
external and internal locus of control
Saccades
eye movements from one fixation point to another
miss
failing to detect a present stimulus
Narcolepsy
falling asleep uncontrollably during routine daily activity
Sleep spindles
fast frequency bursts of brain activity, inhibits processing to keep tranquil state
William James
father of experimental psychology, in America doing what Wundt was in Germany, combining physiology and philosophy; informally investigating psychological principles but did not have an official lab until later; wrote principle of psychology wrote about stream of consciousness, and functionalist ideas that contrasted with structuralist discrete conscious elements
Herbert Spencer
father of the psychology of adaptation, .also founder of sociology; used principles from Lamarckian evolution, physiology and associationism to understand people - idfferent species or races were elevated because of the greater number of associations that their brains could make
Myelin sheath
fatty, insulating sheath on some axons for faster conduction of axon impulses
Agoraphobia
fear of a situation that might arise panic symptoms, and escape would be difficult; usually fear and avoidance of being outside the home or in crowds
castration anxiety
fear of castration
Carl Gustav Jung
felt Freud over-emphasized sexual instinct; analytic psychology (metaphysical and mythological components - collective unconscious and unconscious archetypes; autobiography (Memories, Dreams, Reflections)
Anima
female elements of a man
Zygote
fertilized egg cell, two separate sets of 23 chromosomes (from each parent) come together for 23 pairs, diploid
Zygote
fertilized ovum via fallopian tube goes through 3 stages of gestation (prenatal development): germinal, embryonic, fetal
Convergent thinking
find the one solution to a problem (e.g. math)
Depressive realism
finding of depressed people tend to be more realistic than nondepressed
Antipsychotics
first drugs for psychopathology; - usually to treat positive symptoms of schizophrenia (delusion and hallucination) by blocking dopamine receptors and inhibiting dopamine production (ex. Chlorpromazine (Thorazine®), and haloperidol (Haldol®))
Norman Triplett
first official social psychology experiment on social facilitation; cyclists performed better when paced by others
Sir Francis Galton
first to use statistics and created correlation coefficient; wrote Hereditary Genius, used Darwinian principles to promote eugenics
Sulci
fissures seen on cortex surface
Assimilation
fitting new information into existing ideas
Scripts
ideas about the way events typically unfold "When people go to movies, they stay in their' seats and is quite"
John Horn and Raymond Cattell
fluid intelligence declines with old age while crystallized intelligence does not
Phenomenological view (personality)
focuses on individual's unique self and experiences
Overjustification effect
follows from self-perception theory; tendency to assume we must not want to do things we are paid or compensated to do
median
for even number of values in the set, take the average of the two middle value
menarche
for female, the onset of the menstrual cycles, occurs during puberty
Spearman r correlation coefficient
for ranks; determining the line that describes a linear relationship
Hermann Ebbinghaus
forgetting curve; lists of nonsense syllables to study STM
anterograde amnesia
forgetting of events that occurred after the trauma
retrograde amnesia
forgetting of events that occurred before the trauma
Interference theory
forgetting theory, competing information blocks retrieval (study: memorize list, one group sleeps while other group solves riddles for same amount of time - slept is likelier to remember more)
Decay (or trace) theory
forgetting theory, memories fade with time
Cretinism
form of mental retardation caused by iodine deficiency
Sexual selection
form of natural selection, not the fittest that win but those with greatest chance of being chosen as a mate (best fighters, most attractive, etc)
*Schizophrenia (description)
formerly dementia praecox, renamed by Eugene Bleuler as "split mind" from reality; symptoms may be positive or negative
Eleanor Maccoby and Carol Jacklin
found few sex differences existed that could not be explained by simple social learning; - most consistent difference that seems independent of social influence is that females have greater verbal ability and males have greater visual/spatial ability --> attributed to internal biological or hormonal difference but still debated
Alice Eagly
found interaction between gender and social status, how easily an individual might be influenced
Graphs (types)
frequency polygon (continuous variables), histogram/ bar graph (discrete)
Nightmare
frequent disruption of sleep because of nightmares
Sleep terror
frequent disruption of sleep because of screaming or crying
Intelligence
frequently debated definition and types; the capacity to use knowledge to improve achievement in an environment
Life event stress
frequently results from large, sudden changes or problems
Generalized anxiety disorder
frequently treated with anxiolytics
Wernicke's syndrome
from thiamine deficiency, memory problems and eye dysfunctions Organic disorders that result from years of heavy drinking
Korsakoff's syndrome
from vitamin B deficiency, loss of memory and orientation, often make up confabulations Organic disorders that result from years of heavy drinking
Leonard Berkowitz
frustration-aggression hypothesis
Self
full individual potential; Buddha, Jesus and mandala in cultures
Dispositional attribution
fundamental attribution error; tendency for others to think actions are caused more by personality than situation (e.g. lie because he is a liar, not because of the situation)
Semantic memory
general knowledge of the world
Psychodynamic theory
general term that refers to theories that emphasize role of unconscious (including individual or analytical)
Humanistic theory
general term that refers to theories that emphasize the positive, evolving free will in people (such as client-centered, Gestalt, or existential); optimistic about human nature; "Third Force"
Overextension
generalizing names for things, often done through chaining characteristics rather than logic (e.g. any furry thing is a "doggie")
Mirrors
generally make people more self-aware; small mirror - not so self-aware since its common, large mirror - very self-aware since we see a view of ourselves as others see us
Recall (+types)
generate information on their own; cued and free
Huntington's disease
genetically inherited progressive degeneration of thought, emotion, and movement
top-down processing
gestalt psychology
Prominent posturing (catatonia)
gestures, mannerisms, or grimacing
nominal variables
give descriptive names No order or relationship among the variables other than to separate them into groups ex: male-female
alternate-form method
given 2 different forms of a test that are taken at 2 different times
Sound localization
gives us information about sound origin; high-frequency localized by intensity differences, low-frequency localized by phase differences; binaural cues and spectral cues (pinna) - ex: hear one ear first, or different intensity can tell origin of sound
interactionists
in the forefront a combination of stable, internal factors and situations
goal of therapy (Gestalt Theory)
goal is exploration of awareness and full experiencing of the present; - success is connecting client with present existence
goal of therapy (Rational-Emotive Theory)
goal is for (e)ffective rational beliefs to replace previous self-defeating ones, then client's thoughts, feelings, and behaviours can coexist
goal of therapy (existential theory)
goal is to increase sense of being and meaningfulness, to alleviate neurotic anxiety
Morphology/ morphological rules
grammar rules' how to group morphemes
frequency distribution
graphic representation of how often each value occurs
receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve
graphical representations of a subject's sensitivity to a stimulus
Chunking
grouping items can increase STM capacity
Risky shift
groups take greater risks than individuals
Solomon Asch
had subjects listen to "opinion" of others of which lines were equal, subjects conformed to clearly incorrect opinion of others 33% of the time; unanimity seemed to be influential
Olfaction
hair receptors in nostrils send message to olfactory bulb at base of brain, smell strongly connected to memory and taste
Psychotic disorder (group 5; +types)
hallucinations or delusions are present; schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, delusional disorder, shared psychotic disorder
frequency polygon
has plotted points connected by lines - used to plot variables that are continuous (categories without clear boundaries)
Stimulus-seeking individuals
have a great need for arousal
ratio variables
have order, equal intervals and a real zero ex: age
Abraham Maslow
hierarchy of needs
therapy (Rational-Emotive Theory)
highly directive; therapist leads client to (d)ispute previously applied irrational beliefs
research design
how a researcher attempts to examine a hypothesis - different questions call for different approaches - some approaches are more scientific than others
countertransference
how a therapist feels about his/her patients; analyst's transfer of unconscious feelings or wishes (central figures in analyst's life) onto patient
external validity
how generalizable the results of an experiment are
motion parallax
how movement is perceived through the displacement of objects overtime and how this motion takes place at seemingly different paces for nearby or faraway objects Ex: boat far away seem to move more slowly than nearby ships moving at same rate
variance and standard deviation
how much variation there is among n number of scores in a distribution
Genetic drift
how particular genotypes selected out or eliminated from a population over time
constancy
how people perceive objects int he way that they are familiar with them, regardless of changes in the actual retinal image ex: book --> square
Reliability (+types)
how stable measure is; test-retest, split-half
Mere-exposure effect
how stimuli are rated, the more we see/experience something, the more positively we rate it
Variability
how the score are spread out overall
bimodal
if there are 2 values that are tied for being the most frequently occurring observation; data has 2 modes (different because mean and median can only have a single value) -if all values in a distribution occur with equal frequency, then there is no mode
what would happen if you converted every score in a distribution to a z-score?
if you have a distribution of z-scores and calculate the mean & SD, the mean of the distrib. of z-scores will always = ZERO and the SD will always = 1. -this is true regardless of whether the distribution is normal or not and regardless of the mean and the SD of the original distribution
Ellen Langer
illusion of control
Identification
imitating a central figure, such as a parent
Echopraxia (catatonia)
imitating gestures of others
Semantic priming
in a word recognition task, presentation of a related item before the next item; decreases reaction time because it activates node of the second item in semantic hierarchy － Pairing GRE with TEST vs. pairing GRE with lobster
Third Force
in psychotherapy, in reaction to psychoanalysis and behavioralism
fixation
inability to move on to the next stage
Amnesia
inability to recall information relating to trauma
resting potential
inactivated state of a neuron
placebo
inactive substance or condition disguised as a treatment substance or condition, used to form control group
Disorganized behaviour
inappropriate dress, agitation, shouting
Personalizing
inappropriately taking responsibility (e.g. "our failed project was all my fault")
Catecholamines
include dopamine, lack of dopamine linked with Parkinson's, excess dopamine is linked with schizophrenia, dopamine is also involved in feelings of reward and therefore addiction
Indolamines
include serotonin, lack of serotonin is linked with depression
Rational-Emotive Theory
includes elements of cognitive, behavioural, and emotion theory; intertwined thoughts and feelings produce behavior
Alfred Adler
individual psychology; people motivated by inferiority; 4-type theory of personality: choleric (dominant), phlegmatic (Dependent), melancholic (withdrawn), and sanguine (healthy)
psychoanalytic theory
individual's mental life consists of a constant push-pull between the competing forces of the id, superego and environment. - each areas struggles for acknowledgement and expression - how well a persons' ego handles this determines his mental health
John Bowlby
infants motivated to attach to mothers for positive (wanting closeness) and negative (avoiding fear) reasons; emphasized mother-infant attachment during sensitive period to prevent character/stability problems
Manic symptoms
inflated self-esteem, decreased sleep, talkativeness, flight of ideas, intense goal-directed activity, excessive pleasure-seeking
Kinesthetic sense or proprioception
information from receptors in joints and muscles that senses body positioning
Collective unconscious
inherited from ancestors, common to all and contains archetypes
Gray matter
inner core of spine, cell bodies and dendrites
passionate love
intense longing for the union with another and a state of profound physiological arousal biophysiological, can be positive(when love is reciprocal) and negative (when love is unrequited)
Biological clocks
internal rhythms that keep animal in sync with environment; circadian, circannual, lunar, tidal rhythms
Self-serving attributional bias
interpreting own actions and motives ina positive way, blaming situations for failures and taking credit for successes; think self as better than average
Mediation
intervening mental process that occurs between stimulus and response, It reminds us of what to do or how to respond based on ideas or past learning
Dissociative disorders (group 10; +types)
involve disruption of memory or identity; formerly psychogenic disorders; retrograde and anterograde amnesia, fugue, identity disorder, depersonalization
Hypochondriasis
irrational concern about having a serious disease
pathological gambling
irresistble impulse to gamble
mental set
it impacts why we see what we expect to see
criticism (individual theory)
it is best used with normal people in search of growth
Increase in likelihood to conform (factors)
it is majority opinion, majority has unanimous position, majority has high status majority or individual is concerned for her own status, situation in public, not previously committed to a position, low self-esteem, scores high on authoritarianism
Saltatory conduction
jumping from one node of Ranvier to the next due to insulation by myelin sheath
Rationalization
justifying behaviour/feelings that cause guilt
Rehearsal (+types)
key to transferring items to LTM; primary (maintenance) rehearsal, secondary (elaborative) rehearsal
Serial learning/recall (memory effects)
learned and recalled in order; primacy and recency effects; serial-position U-curve demonstrates savings effect
Martin Seligman
learned helplessness
Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart
learning and recall depend on depth of processing; from most superficial phonological (pronunciation) to deep semantic level, the deeper the easier to learn and recall
Instrumental learning
learning happens through trial, error and accidental success animals then acts based on previous successes
Goal of therapy (psychoanalytic theory)
lessen the unconscious pressures on the individual by making as much of it conscious as possible - allow the ego to be a better mediator of forces
Visual pathway
light, receptors, horizontal cells, bipolar cells, amacrine cells, ganglion cells (make up optic nerves, one to each eye), optic chiasm (half fibers from each optic nerve cross over to other eye for full picture), striate cortex, visual association areas
Grant Dahlstrom
linked Type A personality to heart disease and other health problems
Endorphins
linked to pleasure and analgesia; can be endogenous (opioid peptides) or exogenous (morphine or heroin) Exogenous endorphine are highly addictive
retina
loacted on the lack of eye, receives light images from lens. Composed of about 132 million photo receptor cells and other cell layers that process information
Slippery slope
logical fallacy; small, insignificant first step in one direction will lead to greater steps with a significant impact
Semantic effect
logical reasoning error, believing in conclusions because of what you know or think to be correct rather that what logically follows from the information given
Atmosphere effect
logical reasoning error, conclusion influenced by the way information is phrased
Confirmation bias
logical reasoning error, remembering and using information that confirms what you already believe
Diencephalon
made of thalamus and hypothalamus
Charles Darwin
made the concept of evolution scientifically plausible by asserting that natural selection was at its core
Confabulations
made up events to fill in memory gaps
Central Nervous System (CNS)
made up of brain and spinal cord
Phenotype
made up of external characteristics (eye color, size, etc)
Peripheral nervous system (subsystems)
made up of somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system (subsystems)
made up of sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system
Mood disorders (group 6; types)
major depressive disorder, dysthymic disorder, bipolar disorder
dopamine
major player in the physiology of various disorders - too much dopamine activity is believed to cause schizophrenia
Animus
male elements of a female
Central Tendency (types and distribution differences)
mean (standard error of mean), median mode; normal and platykuric: equal; positively skewed: mode, med, mean; negatively skewed: mean, med, mode; bimodal: equal mean and med, 2 modes
Standard normal distributions
mean is 0, and SD=1 This with Z-score allow you to compare one person's score on two different distributions
measures of central tendency
mean, median, mode all provide estimates of the average score
Lie detector tests
measure arousal of sympathetic nervous system, stimulated by lying and anxiety
Achievement tests
measure how well you know a subject, measure past learning
Aptitude tests
measure innate ability to learn (debatable), - to predict later performance
Criterion-referenced tests
measure mastery in a particular area (e.g. final exam)
F-scale or F-ratio
measure of fascism or authoritarian personality
External validity (+types)
measure the extent to which test measures what it intends to; concurrent, construct, content, face
DSM (description & history)
mental disorders, diagnostic criteria, official numerical codes, first published 1952, for clinical, research and educational use; 4th edition 1994, text revision 2000, DSM V 2013
Disorders often diagnosed in childhood/adolescence (group 1; types)
mental retardation, learning disorders, developmental disorders, attention-deficit and disruptive behaviour disorders, tic disorders, elimination disorders
Sociotechnical systems
method of work design, acknowledges interaction between people and technology in the workplace
criticism (psychoanalytic theory)
methodology - theory developed from single case studies - which is not scientific
Mesencephalon
midbrain; contains tectum and tegmentum
median
middle value when observations are ordered from least to most or from most to least -if you have even number of data points, you must add the 2 middle-most #s and divide by 2.
Frequency distributions (+variables)
might show how often different variables appear; nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio (real zero)
Immanuel Kant
minds were active, not passive
Absolute threshold
minimum amount of stimuli that can be detected 50% of the time
Accommodation
modification of cognitive schemata to incorporate new information
Kenneth Spence
modified Hull's Performance = drive x habit theory
Divergent thinking
more than one possibility exists in a situation (e.g. chess or creative thinking)
Down syndrome
most common cause of mental retardation, results from trisomy of chromosome 21; older women have a greater chance of having a baby with Down syndrome
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
most commonly used for adults 16+ - organized by subtests with subscales and identify problem areas; current is WAIS-IV
binocular disparity
most important depth cue - eye vies objects from two slightly different angles, which allows us to create a 3D picture
Catalepsy (catatonia)
motor immobility or waxy figure
DSM (axes)
multiaxial assessment, across five axes; (I) clinical disorders and other conditions (group 1-15); (II) personality disorders (group 16); (III) General medical conditions; (IV) Psychosocial and environmental problems; (V) Global assessment of functioning
Mesomorph
muscular, athletic means energetic, aggressive
5 theories about working of perception
nativist theory, structural theory, gestalt psychology, current thinking, perceptual development
Hearing of owls
navigate at night but do not use echolocation, like humans localize sound direction and distance by binaural cues (compare intensities, arrival times), but better at determining elevation of sound source due to asymmetrical ears
Cognitive triad
negative views about the self, the world, and the future; causes depression
Correlational relationships
neither purely descriptive nor purely inferential can only show relationship, not causality - positive and negative correlation
double-blind experiment
neither the researcher nor the participants know which groups received the IV or which level of the IV
double-blind experiment
neither the subject nor the experimenter know whether the subject is assigned to the treatment or the control group
Endorphins
neuromodulators that reduce or eliminate pain perception
Learn the shape of different distributions
normal curve negatively skewed distribution positively sknewed distribution bimodal distribution platykuric distribution
Intelligence
not IQ, It is unlikely IQ captures all facets of it
Repression or denial
not allowing threatening material into awareness
Bayley Scales of Infant Development
not intelligence tests; measure sensory and motor development of infants to identify mental retardation; poor predictors of later intelligence
Curvilinear relationship
not simple and linear, looks like a curved line - ex: arousal and perfomance - high A --> low P - Low A --> low P - medium A --> high P
criticism (Gestalt Theory)
not suited for low-functioning or disturbed clients
Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)
not to diagnose depression but assess severity of depressive symptoms; used by researcher or clinician to track course of depressive symptoms
Goodenough Draw-A-Man Test
notable for cross-cultural application and simple directions - to make the best picture of a man, scored based on detail and accuracy, not artistic talent
Walter Dill Scott
one of the first to apply psychology to business, specifically in advertising; also involved in helping military implement psychological testing to aid with personnel selection
Z-scores
number of SD a score is from the mean For normal distribution - (-3 to +3)
mean
numerical halfway point between the highest and the lowest score. add all scores and divide by # of scores -most sensitive to extreme scores
Pearson r correlation coefficient
numerically calculating and expressing correlation r range -1 to +1, 0 = no relationship
J. Rodin and E. Langer
nursing home residents with plants to care for have better health
John Dewey
one of America's most influential philosophers; synthesize philosophy and psychology; reflex arc; denied structuralism, that animals respond to disjointed stimulus and response chains; instead functionalism, constantly adapting to environment rather than processing isolated stimuli
phantom limb pain
occurs when amputee feel sensations of pain in limbs that have been amputated and no longer exist
deindividuation
occurs when individual identity or accountability is de-emphasized - may be the result of mingling in a crowd, wearing uniforms, or otherwise adopting a larger group identity
Rebound effect
occurs when people deprived of REM sleep, compensate by spending more time in REM sleep later in the night
Thyroid stimulating hormone
of pituitary, activates thyroid
Vasopressin
of pituitary, regulate water levels in body and therefore BP
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
of pituitary, stress hormone, increases androgen and cortisol production
American Psychologist
official APA journal, published monthly; archival, current issue, theoretical, and practical articles from all psychology
Auditory system to auditory cortex
olivary nucleus, inferior colliculus, medial geniculate body
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
on the verge of retrieval
All-or-none law
once minimum threshold is met, intensity always the same regardless of amount of stimulation
Grandiose delusion
one has special talent or status
Schizophrenia (prognosis)
one with a history of good social and interpersonal skills likelier to recover than antisocial individual
situationists
only circumstances determine behavior
Diana Baumrind
parenting style and personality development; authoritarian (demanding, unaffectionate, strict) led to withdrawn and unhappy, permissive (affectionate, not strict) led to happy but lacking self- control/reliance, authoritative (affectionate, firm but fair) help understand/accept norms of society and led to self-reliant, confident, assertive, friendly, happy, high-functioning kids
Echolalia (catatonia)
parroting
Attraction (in order of importance)
people who are near us (propinquity), physically attractive, attitudes similar to our own, like us back (reciprocity); opposites do not attract
dispositionist
people who emphasize internal determinants of behavior
Hierarchy of needs
people work their way up hierarchy toward self-actualization by satisfying needs at the previous level: physiological needs, hunger, thirst, shelter, warmth safety, security, stability, lack of fear belonging, love, acceptance esteem, and recognition self-actualization
structuralist theory
perception = the sum of all sensory input bottom-up processing
nativist theory
perception and cognition are large inate
Nonsensical or disorganized speech
perhaps use of neologisms
Estrus
period in which a female is sexually receptive (usually used to describe non-human mammals)
Delusional disorder
persistent delusions of various types: erotomanic, grandiose, jealousy, persecutory, somatic
Obsession
persistent thoughts
Shadow
person's dark side, often projected onto others; devils and evil spirits in cultures
brightness
physical intensity
Amplitude
physical intensity of sound wave - determines loudness
Plato
physical world not all that could be known, presence of universal forms and innate knowledge, abstract and unsystematic
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
physiological responses cause emotion - We feel scared BECAUSE we tremble
Johannes Muller
physiologist, existence of "specific nerve energies", taught Wilhelm Wundt
Lexical approach
picking all possible traits out of dictionary
Infrasound
pigeons can hear extremely low-frequency sounds (e.g. emitted by surf) that travel great distances as a navigational cue
Atmospheric pressure
pigeons sensitive to pressure changes in altitude as navigational cue
Sun compass
pigeons and bees can compensate for daily solar movements for navigational cue
Magnetic sense
pigeons and bees have magnetic sensitivity, allows them to use earth`s magnetic forces as navigational cue
Outer ear
pinna and auditory canal which vibrations move down the canal to middle ear
Melanie Klein
pioneered object-relations theory and psychoanalysis with children
Hermann von Helmholtz (audition)
place-resonance theory; different parts of basilar membrane respond to different frequencies
Schizoaffective disorder
schizophrenic symptoms accompanying a depressive episode
Population & related
population --> sample/subgroup --> representative and unbiased --> achieved through random sampling --> if it's not feasible, use convenience sampling instead or stratified sampling
Androgynous
possessing both male and female qualities
Consistency paradox
possibility that a person may behave inconsistently, presents problems for labelling people as one internal disposition
Phrenology
practice of examining head and skull shape to discern personality
Mental set
preconceived notion of how to look at a problem
Robbers' cave experiment
prejudice, showed group conflict most effectively overcome by need for cooperative attention to a higher superordinate goal; 2 groups of 12-year-old boys, 3 phases of group dynamics: in-group phase (bonding with own group), friction phase (groups met and became competitive), and integration phase (work together for a common goal); formation of in/out-groups, and strategies for conflict resolution
H-Y antigen
presence during development causes a fetus to develop into a male (absence cause the fetus to develop into a female)
Adjustment disorders (group 15)
presence of an identifiable stressor (e.g. divorce) that results in emotional difficulty and decreased function
Social facilitation
presence of others enhance or hinder performance
Robert Zajonc
presence of others helps with easy tasks but hinders complex tasks
Amino acids
present in fast-acting, directed synapses
Fromm and Reichamn
schizophrenogenic mother
Primary prevention
prevent documented psychosocial problems through contact with an at-risk group; proactive intervention; e.g. prenatal health care, Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE), and Head Start
Reproductive isolating mechanisms (+types)
prevent interbreeding between two different (but closely related / genetically compatible) species, four types: 1) behavioral isolation, 2) geographic isolation, 3) mechanical isolation, 4) isolation by season
LTM not subject to
primary and recency effects
Pleasure principle
primary process; human motivation to seek pleasure and avoid pain; id
Morton Deutsch
prisoner's dilemma, trucking company game to illustrate struggle between cooperation and competition
Interference types
proactive interference causes proactive inhibition, retroactive interference causes retroactive inhibition
Algorithms
problem solving strategy, considers every possible solution to arrive at correct one, time consuming
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
problems with attention, behaviour, and impulsivity; frequently treated with stimulants (e.g. Ritalin® and Adderall®)
Self-monitoring
process by which people pay close attention to their actions, often change behaviours to be more favourable
Cross validation
process in testing concurrent validity
Reading and writing (language learning)
processed in same brain regions as producing and understanding speech, but slight differences suggested by alexia and agraphia while having no speech problems In other word, people who are unable to read (alexia) or write (agraphia) have no problem understanding speech
Neal Miller
proved experimentally that abnormal behaviour can be learned
Oligodendrocytes
provide myelin in central nervous system
Schwann cells
provide myelin in peripheral nervous system
goal of therapy (Client-centered theory)
provide trusting atmosphere for client to self-direct growth and tap his own "vast resources", - evidence of growth includes a congruent self-concept, positive self-regard, internal locus-of-evaluation, and willingness to experience
Assertiveness training
provides tools and experience that client can use to be more assertive
therapy (individual theory)
psychodynamic approach in which unconscious feelings do play a role - examination of a person's lifestyle and choices (motivations, perceptions, goals, and resources)
Noam Chomsky
psycholinguistics; transformational grammar; language acquisition device (LAD)
Conversion disorder
psychological problems converted to bodily symptoms; generally relate to voluntary movement and may be manifested as "paralysis"; formerly known as "hysteria" by Freud
abnormal theory (analytical theory)
psychopathology is a signal that something wrong in makeup of psyche, clues about how one could be more aware
Phobia
recognized, unreasonable, intense anxiety symptoms and avoidance of a stimulus; specific and social
Flashbulb memories
recollections that seem burned into memory, especially traumatic ones
Panic disorder
recurrent panic attacks, persistent worry about another attack; often accompanied by mitral valve heart problem
Abuse
recurrent use despite substance-related problems or danger
Neuroleptic drugs
reduce dopamine activity by blocking receptors; reducing schizophrenic symptoms (e.g. antipsychotic chlorpromazine); can cause Parkinsonès-like symptoms since they decrease dopamine activity
Reactance
refusal to conform, may occur as result of blatant attempt to control; will not conform if forewarned that others will try to change them
Anorexia nervosa
refusing to eat enough to maintain healthy weight; excessive concern about obesity
statistically significant
reject the null hypothesis if significance level = or is less than 5%; if greater than 5%, then NOT statistically significant & must ACCEPT the null hypothesis -doesn't tell us anything about whether or not the research is poorly designed, or whether or not the results are trivial or meaningless.
trait
relatively stable characteristics of behavior that a person exhibits (trait is stable, state is more of temporary feeling or characteristics)
Acetylcholine
released at neuromuscular junction to cause contraction of skeletal muscles, also involved in parasympathetic nervous system
oxytocin
released from the pituitary and facilitates birth and breast feeding also involved in pair bonding (mother to child or romantic partners)
stratified random sample
relevant subgroups of the population are randomly sampled in proportion to its size
Primary (maintenance) rehearsal
repeating material to hold in STM
compulsion
repetitive behaviors or mental acts
Concepts
represents relationship between two things
behavioral isolation
reproductive isolating mechanism courtship or display behavior of a particular species allows an individual to identify a mate within its own species
geographic isolation
reproductive isolating mechanism different species breed in different areas to prevent confusion or genetic mixing
mechanical isolation
reproductive isolating mechanism different species have incompatible genital structures
isolation by season
reproductive isolating mechanism potentially compatible species mate during different seasons
Harry Harlow
researched development with rhesus monkeys in terms of social isolation, maternal stimulation, contact comfort, and learning to learn
abnormal theory (existential theory)
response to perceived one's meaninglessness is neurosis or neurotic anxiety (as opposed to normal or justified anxiety)
Terman
revised Binet-Simon test for U.S. which became known as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence test
existential theory
revolves around philosophical issues particularly the issue of meaning; - one`s greatest struggles are being vs. nonbeing, and meaningfulness vs. meaninglessness; - will to meaning
correct rejection
rightly stating that no stimulus exists
Undoing
ritualistic activity to relieve anxiety about unconscious drives
Dreams
safe outlets for unconscious material and wish-fulfillment, valuable for analysts; manifest content provides information about latent content
Door-in-the-face
sales tactic, persuader ask for more than they would ever get and then "settle" for less
representative sample
sample is a miniature version of the population
socially useful type
sanguine high in activity and high in social contribution, healthy
false alarm
saying that you detect a stimulus that is not there
Stages of memory
sensory, short term, long term
Navigation of bees
scouting bees look for food and nesting sites; can use landmarks as simple location cues, also sun, polarized light, and magnetic fields as aids
Self-monitoring
scrutiny of own behaviour, motivation to act appropriately rather than honestly, ability to mask true feelings
Reality principle
secondary process; guided by ego and responds to environment by delaying gratification
Self-handicapping
self-defeating behaviour that allows one to dismiss or excuse failure
Daryl Bem
self-perception theory
Charles Osgood
semantics (word meanings), semantic differential charts
Hermann von Helmholtz
sensation; hearing and color vision, foundation for modern perception research
rods
sensitive to dim light, used for night vision - concentrated on sides of retina, important for peripheral vision
Echoic memory
sensory memory for auditory sensations
Role
set of behaviour norms that seem suitable for a person
libido
sexual force
Reciprocity of disclosure
sharing secrets/feelings facilitates emotional closeness
Displacement
shifting unacceptable feelings/actions to a less threatening recipient
Richard Nisbett
showed that we lack awareness for why we do what we do
Twin studies
shows heritability of personality about 40-50%, identical twins separated at birth; "Jim" twins had wives and dogs with same name, and same habits; differences shows environmental impact
ANOVA/analysis of variance
similar to T-test, but can measure more than 2 groups
Adolescent educational and career aspirations
similar to parental educational and career aspirations
Serial-anticipation learning
similar to serial learning but asked to recall one item at a time
Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank
similar to word association, finish incomplete sentences
Dyssomnias
sleep abnormalities; hypersomnia, narcolepsy, etc.
Associations between pictures and words
slower between pictures than words; pictures must be put into words before associations made
Roger Brown
social, developmental, linguistic psychology found children's understanding of grammar rules develops as they make hypotheses about how syntax works and then self-correct with experience
William Sheldon
somatotypes personality theory
Navigation of animals
some use map-and-compass navigation (landmarks and sun or stars), some have true navigational abilities and can point toward their goal with no landmarks and from any position (e.g. captured birds eventually arrive at their usual goal anyway); birds and bees are expert navigators
Excitation-transfer theory
sometimes attribute excitement or physiological arousal about one thing to something else (e.g. bungee jumping on first date)
Q-sort/measure
sorting cards into a normal distribution; each has a different statement on it about personality; to one end is "least like self", other is "most like self", and middle is neutral; factor analysis to reduce viewpoints into a few factors
Telegraphic speech
speech without articles or extras like a telegram (e.g. "Me go")
Gamete
sperm or ovum, haploid (23 single chromosomes)
Alpha waves
stage 0 & 1 non-REM sleep, low-amplitude and fast-frequency waves
Theta waves
stage 1 & 2 non-REM sleep (with sleep spindles), lower-amplitude and slower frequency waves
Delta waves
stage 3 (less sleep spindles) & 4 non-REM sleep, high-amplitude and low-frequency, deepest level of sleep
operational defenitions
state how the researcher will measure the variables (ex: a good breakfast is a breakfast high in protein)
meta-analysis
statistical procedure that can be used to make conclusions on the basis of data from different studies -combining results of studies to come up with a more general conclusion
Statistical regression
step beyond correlations; allows not only identification of relationship between 2 variables, also make predictions
Sexual dimorphism
structural differences between sexes, arisen through both natural and sexual selections
bottom-up processing
structuralist theory
Objective tests (+types)
structured, do not allow own answers; more objective than projective tests; not completely objective because most self-reported; - Q-sort, - Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), - California Personality Inventory (CPI), - Myers-Brigg Type Indicator (MBTI), - Internal-External Locus of Control Scale (LOCS)
B.F. Skinner
studied Thorndike and Watson; Skinner box, operant conditioning; Walden Two and beyond freedom and dignity - control of human behaviour
Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenmean
studied Type A personality
Big Five
superfactors, 5 dimensions that encompass all of personality; superordinate traits or facets; O-dimension (openness to experience, intellectual curiosity), C-dimension (conscientiousness), E-dimension (extroversion, enthusiasm), A-dimension (agreeableness), N-dimension (neuroticism, nervousness)
Gustation
sweet, bitter, sour, salty, umami (meaty/savory); saliva mixes with food so flavour can flow to taste receptors (taste buds or papillae) on tongue
Dysthymic disorder
symptoms of MDD (i.e. lower mood) are present more days than not for more than 2 years, but never an actual depressive episode
split-half reliability
take only 1 test, which is divided into equal halves. scores on one half are correlated with the scores on the other half
Non-REM sleep (4 stages of sleep)
takes about half an hour; (0) prelude to sleep, neural synchrony; alpha waves; person is relaxed and drowsy, closes eye; (1) Eyes begin to roll. alpha waves give way to irregular theta waves; loses responsiveness to stimuli, experiences fleeting thoughts (2) theta wave stage, characterized by sleep spindles; muscle tension and gradual decline in HR, respiration, temperature; (3) 30 min after falling asleep; delta waves and fewer sleep spindles; (4) delta waves >50% of the time; deepest level of sleep when HR, respiration, temperature, and blood flow to brain reduced and growth hormones secreted; when awoken here, will feel groggy and confused
standard deviation (calculation)
tell you the average extent to which scores were different from the mean - if average standard deviation is large, then scores were highly dispersed
Physiological zero
temperature sensed as neither warm nor cold
Working memory
temporary memory needed to perform the task that someone is working on at that moment
Short-term memory
temporary, seconds or minutes, largely auditory, items coded phonologically, 7+/- 2 capacity, chunking, subjective to interference and inhibition
Actor-observer attributional divergence
tendency for person doing the behaviour to have different perspective on situation than observer
Barnum effect
tendency of people to accept and approve of the interpretation of their personality that you give them; it is relatively simple to generate a "report" from stereotyped statements; these reports are readily accepted as accurate -form of pseudovalidation (false validation) -ex: horoscopes
Barnum effect
tendency to agree with and accept provided personality interpretations
Clustering
tendency to group similar items in memory whether learned together or not, often into conceptual or semantic hierarchies
Oversimplification
tendency to make simple explanations for complex events - people hold onto original ideas about cause even when new factors emerge
minimum principle
tendency to see what is easiest or logical to see
Orienting reflex
tendency to turn toward an object that touched you
compassionate love
the affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply entwined, achieved via mutual trust, respect, and commitment
mental age
the age level of a person's functioning according to the IQ test
Thanatos
the death instinct, including self-destructive behavior
Ethology
the study of animal behaviors, especially innate behaviors that occur in a natural habitat
Developmental psychology
the study of changes and transitions that accompany physical growth or maturation
closure
the tendency to complete incomplete figures
dependent variable (DV)
the variable expected to change due to variations in the independent variable (ex: spelling test performance)
Boys who reach puberty sooner
these boys shown to be psychologically and socially advantaged
Halo effect
thinking if someone has a good quality then he has only good qualities
Ingroup/outgroup bias
those in a group think their members have more positive qualities and fewer negative than members in another group even if qualities are the same; basis for prejudice
Tri color/component theory
three types of receptors in retina: cones that respond to red, blue, or green Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz
Absolute refractory period
time after a neuron fires which it cannot respond to stimulation
Relative refractory period
time after absolute refractory period, neuron can fire but needs a much stronger stimulus
Sensitive or critical periods
times when a developing animal is particularly vulnerable to the effect of learning (e.g. birds learning their species' song, if reared in isolation cannot develop normal song later. and imprinting)
Goal of therapy (Behavior theory)
to change behaviour to be more desired or adaptive; successful in treating phobias, fetishes, OCD, sexual problems, and childhood disorders (especially nocturnal enuresis)
Psychopharmacology (goal of therapy)
to provide relief from symptoms of psychopathology
goal of therapy (individual theory)
to reduce feelings of inferiority and to foster social interest and social contribution in patients
Middle Ages
understanding the mysterious world temporarily because a question for church, then philosophy was reclaimed by scholars
Cognitive prototype approach
to show personality traits exist in a person, show person exhibits those traits in a variety of situations; cognitive behaviour (e.g. formulation of and attention to prototypes) is examined in social situations; - consistency of behaviour is result of cognitive processes, rather than result of personality traits
criticism (analytical theory)
too mystical or spiritual
Cutaneous/tactual senses
touch, pain, cold, warmth
Meninges
tough connective tissues that cover/protect brain and spinal cord
T-score
transformation of a z-score, mean is 50 and the SD is 10 - T=10(Z)+50
Axon
transmits impulses of neuron, bundles of these are nerve fibers (white matter); the wider nerve fiber, the faster its conduction
control group design
treating both groups equally in all respects except that the cereal for one group (control group) contains no protein whereas the cereal for the other group (experimental group) has 10 grams of protein injected into it. -how to rule out confounding variables (keeping calorie content)
criticism (Behavior theory)
treating symptoms rather than underlying problem
Evidence-based treatment
treatment for mental health problems shown to produce results in empirical studies; many argue only this is ethical; others argue controlled experiments not like real treatments, less useful and applicable
Culturally competent interventions
treatment/prevention programs that recognize and tailor to cultural differences; therapists beginning to be trained in customs and norms of various cultures to minimize Eurocentric bias and assumptions
Family therapy
treats family as a whole as client
Parkinson's
tremors with declining neurological functioning; caused by deficient dopamine activity, boost dopamine by drug such as levodopa
Schizophrenogenic mother
type of mother who "causes" children to become schizophrenic
catharsis/abreaction
unconscious material always looking for a way to discharge repressed emotion
Subliminal perception
unconsciously perceiving a stimulus, such as the unattended message in dichotic presentation or tachistoscopic presentations
abnormal theory (individual theory)
unhealthy individuals are too much affected by inferior feelings to pursue the will to power - make excuses or have a "yes,but" mentality - if they do pursue goals, these are likely to be self-serving and egotistical
Embryonic stage
until end of 2nd month, organ formation
Terminal threshold
upper limit above which stimuli can no longer be perceived (lowest pitch can heard = absolute threshold)
Amphetamines
use increase dopamine activity, produces schizophrenic-like paranoid symptoms
Psychopharmacology
use of medication to treat mental illness, do not cure but some are effective at alleviating symptoms; often used with therapy
Simulations
use perceptual cues to make artificial situations seem real
goal of therapy (analytical theory)
use unconscious messages to become more aware and closer to full potential
Raymond Cattell
used factor analysis in data reduction of Allport's 5000 traits; identified 16 bipolar source traits (e.g. relaxed-tense) that seemed to underlie all; 16 personality factors tested in personality questionnaire
Hans Eysenck
used factor analysis to identify underlying traits of 2 personality-type dimensions (introversion-extraversion and stable-unstable [neuroticism]); - two dimensions formed a cross and four quadrants of phlegmatic, melancholic, choleric, sanguine
percentiles
used most commonly on standardized test
Stereotaxic instruments
used to implant electrodes into animals' brains in experiments
Reaction TIme/Latency
used to measure cognitive processing Response speed for all types of tasks declines with age
aptitude tests
used to predict what one can accomplish through training; used to predict future performance (intelligence/IQ tests)
Anxiolytics
used to reduce anxiety or to induce sleep; increases effectiveness of GABA (inhibitory); high potential for causing habituation and addiction; Ex. barbiturates and benzodiazepines such as diazepam (Valium®) and alprazolam (Xanax®)
Mating of bees
very few drones (male bees) produced, only for mating with queen, same mating areas used year after year even though no bee survives from one year to the next, unknown how they know to gather there
Thomas Szasz
viewed schizophrenic world as simply misunderstood or artistic; felt they should not be treated
Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk
visual cliff apparatus
Communication of bees
von Frisch, once a scouting bee locates a promising food source, returns to hive and conveys the location through movements; round or waggle dance, the longer the dance the farther the food, the more vigorous display the better food; performed on vertical sheets of the hive where the angle is a vertical line and direction of bee orients when dancing is the same angle as between sun and food sources; also communicates potential nesting sites
Residual (schizophrenia)
watered-down schizophrenia with few positive symptoms, if any
waves
wavelengths
Reciprocal socialization
when 2 parties adapt to or are socialized by each other (e.g. parents and children)
Instinctual drift (example)
when animal replaces a trained or forced response with a natural or instinctive response Ex: a dog with the nature to bark at visitors thinking they are intruders might have been taught to sit quietly when a guest enters through reward and punishment. Under stress, however, it may disregard the learned behavior and barking at the guest.
Self-fulfilling prophecy
when one's expectations draw out (in a way, cause) the expected behaviour
Acquiescence
when people agree with opposing statements; giving tacit agreement
Availability heuristic
when people think there is a higher proportion of one thing in a group than there really is because examples of that one thing come to mind more easily; e.g. read a list, half celebrity names, half random, may think more celebrities than random because easier to remember
reception
when receptors for a particular sense detect a stimulus
Illusory correlation
when relationship inferred when there is none ex: many people think there is a relationship between physical and personality characteristics, when evidence show there is none
A test with zero reliability has how much validity?
zero. reliability is a precondition for validity (but not vice versa).
Learning
relatively permanent or stable change in behaviour as the result of experience