GRE Psych

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ordinal scale

-Ranks -observations are ranked in terms of size or magnitude -ex: order of finish in horse race

Palmar reflex

Piaget, Sensorimotor, 1/4, 0-2 yrs; hand grasping elicited by placing object in hand

Object permanence

Piaget, Sensorimotor, 1/4, 0-2 yrs; knowing an object exists even when no longer seen

Circular reactions

Piaget, Sensorimotor, 1/4, 0-2 yrs; repeated behaviour intended to manipulate environment

Moro reflex

Piaget, Sensorimotor, 1/4, 0-2 yrs; throwing out of arms/legs elicited by loud/frightening noises

Representation

Piaget, Sensorimotor, 1/4, 0-2 yrs; visualizing or putting words to objects

Darley, J., Latane, B.

Proposed that there were two factors that could lead to non-helping: social influence and diffusion of responsibility

Reciprocal interaction

constant exchange of influences between people, constant factor in our behaviour

Terminal buttons

contain synaptic vessels that hold neurotransmitters

Stern

developed an equation to compare mental age to chronological age which came to be known as IQ

Kohler, W.

developed theory of isomorphism

Allan Paivio

dual code hypothesis

Agnosia

dysfunction in certain cortical association area difficulty processing sensory information

Apraxia

dysfunction in certain cortical association area inability to organize movement

Alexia

dysfunction in certain cortical association area inability to read

Agraphia

dysfunction in certain cortical association area inability to write

Somatic delusion

e.g. believing a part of the body is ugly of misshapen

Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory

empirical-keying or criterion-keying approach; to determine of subject is like a particular group or not

figure and ground relationship

the relationship between the meaningful part of a picture and the background

Insight

new perspective on old problem "A-ha!"

Neonate

newborn, many reflexive behaviours

criticism (Client-centered theory)

no use of diagnostic tools because Rogers believed client-centered therapy applied to any problem

White matter

outer covering of spine, nerve fibers, axon bundles, myelin sheathing

range

overall range or spread - most basic measure of variability - subtracts the lowest value from the highest value in a data set

Grammar

overall rules of relationship between morphemes and syntax for a certain language

Overregularization

overapplication of grammar rules (e.g. "I founded my toy" or plural vs. non plural)

Hyperphagia

overeating with no satiation of hunger; leads to obesity; damage to ventromedial region of hypothalamus

Base-rate fallacy

overestimating the general frequency of things we are most familiar with

interposition

overlap of objects shows which objects are closer

California Personality Inventory (CPI)

personality measure for "normal" / less clinical groups than MMPI, by Harrison Gough

Myers-Brigg Type Indicator (MBTI)

personality test from Jung's theory; - 93 questions 2 answers each; - 4-letter personality type, each letter 1 of 2 possible opposing characteristics: - Introverted vs. Extraverted, - Sensing vs. Intuition, - Feeling vs. Thinking, and - Judgment vs. Perception

Sleeper effect

persuasive communication from a source of low credibility may become more acceptable later; perhaps memory+discounting cue is severed over time, later recalling a source is less available, or differential decay: impact of cue decays faster than message

getting-learning type

phlegmatic low in activity and high in social contribution, dependent

Eidetic imagery

photographic memory, more common in children and rural

light

photons and waves

Blooming and pruning

process in which neural pathways are connected and then some die out (children go through these process)

Selective attention

process of tuning in to something specific while ignoring background stimuli

Ectomorph

skinny, fragile means inhibited, intellectual

Empirical-keying or criterion-keying approach

the approach to construct assessment instruments, involves selection of items that can discriminate between various groups; responses determine if he is like a particular group or not; e.g. Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory

Harold Kelley

the attributions we make about our actions or those of others usually accurate; we base this on consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus of the action

Applied psychology

the branch of psychology that uses principles or research findings to solve people's problems

Metacognition

The process of thinking about your own thinking, knowing what solving strategies to apply and when, or knowing how to adapt thinking to new situations

McCollough effect

afterimages due to fatigued receptors. - eyes have partially oppositional system for seeing colors. If one side is overstimulated and fatigued, it can no longer respond and is overshadowed by its opposite ex: dark afterimage after staring at a white light

Cooperative learning

students working on a project in small groups

Latent learning

takes place without reinforcement, knowledge not immediately expressed, e.g. learning while watching chess

Extinction (classical conditioning)

Disassociate car from vet by taking dog on frequent car trip to the park

Learning curve

Ebbinghaus, when learning something new, rate of learning usually changes over time; can be positively or negatively accelerated

Overshadowing

In classical conditioning, the inability to infer a relationship between a stimulus and response due to the presence of a more prominent stimulus

Preparedness

John Garcia Certain associations are learned more easily than others - Nausea & food can be paired easily, but light and nausea cannot be paired

Conditioned Response (CR)

Response that CS elicits after conditioning; UCR and CR will be the same (e.g. salivation)

Simultaneous Conditioning

UCS and CS presented at the same time

Drive-reduction theories

born with certain physiological needs, will be tension if not satisfied; when it is, return to state of homeostasis and relaxation

Avoidance conditioning

how to avoid something undesirable

Observational learning

learning by watching

Donald Hebb

medium amount of arousal best for performance

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

not-so-neutral stimulus, elicits response without conditioning (e.g. salivation)

B. F. Skinner

operant conditioning

Spontaneous recovery

reappearance of an extinguished response, even without further conditioning after the child's tantrum behaviour has been extinguished, the child may suddenly throw a tantrum again

Fixed ratio schedule

reinforcement delivered after a consistent number of responses; vulnerable to extinction

Kurt Lewin

theory of association

Delayed conditioning

type of forward conditioning; CS begins before UCS, lasts until the UCS is presented

State dependent learning

what a person learns in one state is best recalled in that state

Superstitious behaviour

"learning" that a specific action causes an event, when in reality the two are unrelated

object-relations theory

"objects" relationships: real others and one's internalized image of others;

Steps in neural transmission

(1) resting potential, neuron negatively charged, cell membrane does not let ions in; (2) presynaptic cell releases neurotransmitters from terminal buttons; (3) postsynaptic receptors in postsynaptic cells detects neurotransmitter and open ion channels; (4) excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) or inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) are changed in a nerve cell's charge as result of stimulation (5) action potential starts when a cell becomes stimulated with enough positive ions and fires (and "all-or-none" law) (6) AP travels down axon, salutatory conduction; (7) at the terminal buttons, neurotransmitters released to the next cell; Now neuron is the presynaptic cell for the next connection (8) absolute refractory period; (9) relative refractory period; (10) reuptake of neurotransmitter or deactivation by enzymes

Alzheimer's disease

(Not book definition) an irreversible, progressive brain disorder, characterized by the deterioration of memory, language, and eventually, physical functioning

Free association

- "Joseph Breuer" the central process in which a patient reports thoughts without censure or guidance - Freud: because unconscious material is always looking for a way out, the patient can uncover and express repressed material through free association

Client-centered theory

- Carl Rogers - Person centered/Rogerian theory - humanistic --> it has an optimistic outlook on human nature; - individual have an actualizing tendency that directs them out of conflict and toward full potential, - best accomplished in atmosphere that fosters growth

abnormal theory (Gestalt Theory)

- abnormality derived from disturbances of awareness, - client may not have insight or fully experience present situation (choosing not to acknowledge certain aspects)

Inner ear

- begins with oval window which is tapped by stapes, - vibration activates cochlea, - cochlear fluid activate hair-cell receptors on basilar membrane (traveling wave) and organ of corti for hearing; - vestibular sacs (also respond to hair movement) sensitive to tilt for balance; - receptors cells activate nerves to form electrical message

Rapid Eye Movement sleep

- comprises 50% of total sleep at birth, decreases to 25% - 20% sleep time spent in this type of sleep - Interspersed with non-REM every 30-40min - where dreams are experience - characterized by neural desynchrony - also known as paradoxical sleep --> physiological signs resemble waking state but muscle tone decreases to point of paralysis with sudden twitch (esp. In face and hands) - lasts 15 minutes at beginning of sleep cycle to one hour at the end -Rebound effect

therapy (Client-centered theory)

- directed by client who decides how often to meet and what to discuss; - therapist is nondirective, providing a self-exploration, safe and trusting atmosphere for client; - provide empathy, unconditional positive regard, genuineness/congruence

Dominant and recessive gene

- dominant gene always beat out recessive gene - recessive gene is not manifested unless it is paired with another recessive gene - combination of dominant and recessive genes determines what he/she looks like

variance (calculation)

- figure out how much each score differs (deviates) from the mean by subtracting the mean from each score - square each of these deviation values (to get rid of negative value) - add all these squared deviations to get the sum of square - divide sum by the number of scores you had(n)

Kurt Lewin

- founder of social psychology,; - applied Gestalt ideas to social behaviour; - conceived field theory - life space, valence, vector, barrier

phenotypic expression

- how one looks and sometimes acts - partially determined by heredity or genotype, but can also be influence by environment

estrogen

- increase in female during puberty causes genitals to matures and secondary sex characteristics to develop

androgens (example)

- increase in males during puberty causes genitals to matures and secondary sex characteristics to develop - example: testosterone

Field study

- naturalistic setting, - less control over environment than in lab; - generates more hypotheses than able to prove

Organizational hormones

- occur during specific periods in development, - permanent or long-lasting effects; - presence of H-Y antigen in development causes fetus to develop into a male, absence to female; - androgens in males and estrogen in females causes secondary sex characteristics; - menarche

theories for details of vision

- opponent-color/opponent-process - tri-color theory/component theory - opponent-process theory - lateral inhibition - color blindness - David Hubel and Torsten Wiese

Cerebral cortex (subsystem)

- outer half-inch of cerebral hemispheres; - sensory and intellectual functions; - split into frontal, occipital, parietal, temporal lobes; - 90% is neocortex (new in evolution, 6 layers cortex) - 10% < 6 layers and more primitive

Instinctual/innate behaviours

- present in all normal members of a species, - stereotypic in form throughout members even for the first time - independent of learning or experience

therapy (analytical theory)

- psychodynamic approach - because unconscious elements are addressed - in order to be more aware, unconscious material is explored through analyzing dreams, artwork, personal symbols

abnormal theory (psychoanalytic theory)

- repressed drives and conflict become manifested in dysfunctional ways - psychic determinism

Therapy (Behavior theory)

- short-term and directed; - thoughts, feelings and unconsciousness not addressed; - Therapist use counterconditioning techniques to help client learn new responses; - Techniques: systematic desensitization, flooding or implosive therapy, aversion therapy, shaping, modeling, assertiveness training, role playing

Experimental design

- takes place in controlled setting - must be able to control for: independent variable, dependent variable, and confounding variable

linear regression

- use correlation coefficients in order to predict one variable y from another variable x - let you define a line on graph that describes the relationship between x and y - when the least-square line or regression line is fit to the data - basically: use correlational data to make predictions based on a line fit with the least-squares method

Charles Darwin

- wrote Origin of Species and the Descent of Man - did not create the concept of evolution, but made it a scientifically sound principle by positing that natural selection was its driving force

ratio IQ

-(mental age / chronological age) X 100 -problem: after a certain age, chronological age increases while mental age does not (even if your mental age remains constant, your IQ will decrease with age)

deviation IQ (deviation quotient)

-1960 revision of Stanford-Binet (gets around problem of ratio IQ) -score that tells us how far away a person's score is from the average score for the particular age group the subject is a member of -deviation IQ = individual's standing among his or her same-aged cohort

MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)

-550 statements to which subjects respond true or false or cannot say -yield scores on ten clinical scales (such as depression) -has scales that can indicates whether the person is careless, faking responses, etc. -purpose: to aid in assessment of various clinical disorders -all scores are expressed as standard scores with a mean & standard deviation derived from standardization of samples

normal distribution

-68% will fall within 1 SD of the mean -96% will fall within 2 SDs of the mean -4% will fall beyond 2 SDs of the mean -symmetrical and has its greatest frequency in the middle, meaning that the mean, median, & mode are identical

f-ratio

-ANOVA -F ratio = between group variance estimate divided by the within group variance estimate -ex: if protein level doesn't make a difference, then we would expect an f-ratio close to 1 (mean scores on spelling test are about the same for each group, and should therefore be about the same as the difference between individuals within each group, regardless of the level of protein) -larger F-ratio = more statistically significant

interaction

-ANOVA -occurs whenever there is an interaction between the 2 independent variables; occurs whenever the effects of one IV are not consistent for all levels of the 2nd IV -gender is 2nd IV in the breakfast example (& high/low protein = other IV) -if someone were to ask you whether it was good to have a high-protein breakfast or a low protein breakfast before taking the test, you would have to answer "it depends on whether you're male or female" -helps ascertain whether IV influenced DV (spelling test score)

interval scale

-Equal intervals -uses actual #s (not ranks) -ex: temperature -arithmetic operations: addition/subtraction

ratio scaling

-Equal intervals + true zero point -unlike interval scales, there is a true zero point that indicates the total absence of the quantity being measured (ex: temperature of 0 doesn't mean that there is no temp, and therefore, could not be considered a ratio scale) -ex: income -arithmetic operations: All (add/subtract/multiply/divide)

correlational study

-IV is NOT manipulated -ex: go to classroom, give a spelling test and ask what each student had for breakfast

quasi-experiments

-IV is manipulated and subjects are NOT randomly assigned -lack sufficient control over variables; definitive statements on causal factors cannot be made

nominal (categorical) scale

-Names -labels observations so that observations can be categorized -ex: girl-boy, blue eyes-brown eyes

placebo effect

-a type of demand characteristic where a placebo has a beneficial effect on the subjects -possible remedy: control groups

MMPI-2 (revision of MMPI) (X)

-added content scales -formed using items derived from theoretical concerns rather than from empirical criterion-keying approach -ex: to form the low self-esteem content scale, the test authors selected items that ought to be related to low self-esteem (hence, the original clinical scales have been supplemented with content scales that were developed using a more theoretical approach)

Kulpe

-another contemporary of Wundt -disagreed with Wundt fundamentally on the idea that no thought could be formed without a mental image -Kulpe believed that there could be imageless thought

CPI (California Psychological Inventory)

-another personality inventory based on the MMPI -developed to be used with normal populations from age 13 and up -oriented to high school and college students -20 scales, including 3 validity scales used to assess test-taking attitudes -true-false items -measures personality traits like dominance, sociability, self-control, femininity -like the MMPI, all scores are expressed as standard scores with a mean & standard deviation derived from standardization of samples

correlation coefficents

-another type of descriptive statistic that measure to what extent, if any, 2 variables are related; 2 variables are related if knowing the value of 1 variable helps you predict the value of the other variable -help us understand the relationship & degree of association between 2 variables -allows us to mathematically specify how well we can predict the value of the 2nd variable given the corresponding value of the 1st variable -range from -1.00 to +1.00 (if it's +1.3 then a mathematical error has been made) -if you have a perfect correlation, then given a value of 1 variable, you can predict, with absolute certainty, the value of the 2nd variable. -as it moves closer to 0, the less sure you become about your prediction -if 2 variables have a correlation of 0, knowing the value of the 1st variable does not at all help you predict the value of the 2nd variable

matched-subjects design

-assume there is strong relationship between spelling test performance & intelligence. experimenter may want to make sure that both groups have roughly same intelligence level. could match subjects on the basis of the variable that he wants to control (intelligence). -12 subjects, 6 per group. high protein and low protein group. take subjects with 2 highest IQ scores and randomly assign each one into the 2 groups. the next 2 highest IQ subjects would also be randomly assigned to the 2 groups, and so on. -the pairing ensures that both groups are approximately equal on the matching variable (intelligence)

validity

-concerned with the extent to which a test actually measures what it purports to measure; all types of validity assessment examine the relationship between performance on the test in question and other independent and objective sources of info about the knowledge or behaviors of interest -reliability is a precondition for validity (but not vice versa)

Ebbinghaus

-contemporary of Wundt -showed that higher mental processes could be studied using experimental methodology -studied memory using nonsense syllables -showed that at least 1 of the higher mental processes could be studied empirically using good experimental methodology

nonequivalent group design

-control group is NOT necessarily similar to the experimental group since the researcher doesn't use random assignment -common in educational research bc you can't randomly assign subjects to different classes.

factor analysis*

-correlation is the cornerstone of this technique -attempts to account for the interrelationships found among various variables by seeing how groups of variables "hang together" -may be asked to do "armchair" factor analysis on GRE

demand characteristics

-cues in research situation that suggest to the subject what is expected of them -overall effects of the situation on a subject's behavior -if subjects have an idea of what is expected of them, the they will perform as expected -possible remedy: deception? -ex: placebo effect

standard deviation

-descriptive statistic; measure of variability or dispersion of scores -"average" scatter away from the mean (also the square root of the variance) -typical distance of scores from the mean - ex: variance = 36, SD = 6

range

-descriptive statistic; measure of variability or dispersion of scores -highest score minus the lowest score

variance

-descriptive statistic; measure of variability or dispersion of scores -how much each score varies from the mean -the square of the standard deviation -ex: SD = 5, variance = 25 -both SD and variance must be either 0 or a positive number, since there can be NO negative values to these measures of distance -MEAN CAN BE RELATIVELY HIGH AND YOU CAN STILL HAVE LITTLE RELIABILITY

projective tests

-different from personality inventories in 2 basic ways: 1. the stimuli in a projective test are relatively ambiguous 2. the test-taker is not limited to a small number of possible responses -test-taker is given the stimuli and asked to interpret what he or she sees, this means that the SCORING IS SUBJECTIVE, whereas the scoring of personality tests is more objective

Naturalistic observation (field study)

-does NOT have to look at relationship between at least 2 variables -researcher does not intervene at all in what is being studied -observes/measured behavior by what is occurring naturally

between-subjects design

-each subject is exposed to only ONE level of each IV -randomly assigned to groups and each group receives a different level of the IV (high protein vs. low protein) -equal in terms of any subject variables that may affect DV (ex: intelligence or motivation)... but these groups may differ on these variables due to chance

experimenter bias

-experimenter's expectations or attitudes that can affect results (by treating groups/subjects differently) -possible remedy: double-blinding

outliers

-extreme scores; affect each measure of central tendency differently -ex: outlier of 72: median and mode stay the same but the mean changes. -mean is most sensitive to extreme scores -if you have outliers in your data set and are interested in a representative score for any individual, it usually makes more sense to use the median instead of the mean as your measure of central tendency

Wundt

-founded 1st psychology lab -brought together earlier work in philosophy, physiology, and psychophysics to create psychology as a science -he believed that experimental psych has a very limited use: the methodology could not be used to study the higher mental processes such as memory, thinking, & language -proposed a sort of cultural psych to study the higher mental processes

scatterplot

-graphical representation of correlational data -"best-fitting straight line"

criterion validity

-has to do with how well the test can predict a person's performance on an established test of the same skill or knowledge area -does test performance indicate number of previous American History courses taken?

SEM (standard error of measurement) (X)

-how close a person's score is to their true score -an index of how much, on average, we expect a person's observed score to vary from the score the person is capable of receiving based on actual ability. -best SEM = 0. but since no test is perfect, this is not possible. -the smaller the test's SEM, the better -provides info about a test's reliability

construct validity

-how well performance on the test fits into the theoretical framework related to what it is you want the test to measure -ex: is test performance related to interest in history? -related types: convergent

z-score

-indicates the number of SDs your score is away from the mean -subtract the mean of the distribution from your score and divide the difference by the SD -negative z-scores fall below the mean -positive z-scores fall above the mean -ex: mean=20, SD=15, and your score=50, z-score = 2 (your score falls 2 SDs ABOVE the mean, bc it is a positive score) -in a normal distribution, 84% of scores will fall BELOW a score with a z-score of +1 -whenever you transform ALL the scores in a distribution into z-scores, the z-scores will always have a mean of zero and an SD=1. (doesn't matter that distribution was skewed or what the old mean an SD were... always 0 and 1).

significance testing

-inferential statistics -tool researchers used to draw conclusions about populations based upon research conducted on samples -researcher is trying to show that one hypothesis (the research or "ALTERNATIVE hypothesis") is supported by the data by showing other possible hypotheses (represented by the "NULL HYPOTHESIS") are inconsistent with the data collected. -experimental hypotheses are confirmed by disconfirming the null hypothesis (by showing that it is NOT supported by the data) -the null hypothesis = population mean is the same as the sample mean (example on pg. 289) -if the 2 groups differ on the DV measured, the difference could reflect a real difference, or a difference due to chance, or random error.

Strong-Campbell Inventory

-interest testing (best known type) -organized like a personality inventory -like the MMPI, was developed using an empirical criterion-keying approach -given lists of interests and asked to say whether they like or dislike the interest listed. -based partly on Holland's model of occupational themes

Wechsler tests

-major group of intelligence tests -NOT organized by age levels (like Stanford-binet) -have all items of a given type grouped into subsets -arranged in order of increasing difficulty within each subset -2 broad subscales: 1. verbal: based on info, vocab, and similar skills 2. performance: derived from tests of manipulative skill, eye-hand coordination, & speed -Wechsler developed 3 major IQ tests 1. WPPSI (Wechsler Preschool & Primary Scale of Intelligence 2. WISC (Wechsler intelligence scale for children) 3. WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) (WAIS III is current version used)

within-subjects design (repeated measures design)

-matching subjects on every variable at the same time -using SAME subjects in both groups -subject's own performance is the basis of comparison -each subject exposed to more than 1 condition (high protein on day 1, low protein on day 2), allowing the researcher to separate the effects of individual differences in intelligence from the effects of the IV, the level of protein in the breakfast -problem with this design: ppl may just do better on the 2nd test bc they are more familiar with the test format or they may do worse bc of boredom; to avoid this, use "COUNTERBALANCING"

IQ

-measure of intelligence aptitude using an equation comparing mental age to chronological age. -IQ = (mental age / chronological age) X 100 -IQ of 100 means that a person's mental age is = to their chronological age

Ear parts

-outer ear (pinna and auditory canal) - middle ear (tympanic membrane, ossicles, stapes) - inner ear (oval window, cochlea, basilar membrane, organ of corti, vestibular sac)

TAT (thematic apperception test)

-projective test -20 simple pictures depicting scenes that have ambiguous meanings (ex: boy staring sadly at violin) -asked to tell a story about what is happening, including events leading up to what is happening and to provide an ending. -like ink blot test, there is no standardized measure for scoring -scoring is qualitative

Rorschach Inkblot Test

-projective test -presented in specific order and have specific instructions to describe what it is that the blots remind the subject of -considers what person saw/spontaneous remarks that they may have made

Blacky pictures

-projective test for children -cartoon pictures with a dog named Blacky -based on psychoanalytic theory: each picture of him is meant to correspond to a particular stage of psychosexual development -asked to tell stories about the picture she or he is shown

Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank

-projective test of sentence completion -sentence stems and asked to complete them -theory is that the person will fin in the blanks with whatever is on their mind

Binet & Simon

-published the 1st intelligence test (Binet-Simon test) -purpose of test was to assess the intelligence of French schoolchildren to ascertain which children were too mentally retarded to benefit from ordinary schooling -Binet introduced concept of mental age (age level at which a person functions intellectually, regardless of actual chronological age)

sample size (X)

-related to significance levels -the larger the sample size, the smaller the difference between the groups has to be significant -if you use really large sample sizes & you can get a statistically significant result, the difference between the groups on the DV measure might be so small as to make the results trivial

inferential statistics

-researchers generalize beyond actual observations -making an inference from the sample involved in the research to the population of interest, and providing an estimate of popular characteristics -allow us to use a relatively small batch of actual obervations to make conclusions about the entire population -

personality inventory

-self-rating device usually consisting of somewhere between 100 and 500 statements; subject is asked to determine if given statements apply to them -although these structured tools are quite reliable, the truthfulness of responses is not guaranteed -perceived social acceptability of a response is a problem

Cattell

-studied under Wundt -introduced mental testing to the U.S.

t-test*

-t-tests are used to compare the means of 2 groups -use when you have 2 groups

Hawthorne effect

-tendency of people to behave differently if they know they're being observed -possible remedy: control group design (observe both the control group and experimental group)

content validity

-test's coverage of the particular skill or knowledge area that it is supposed to measure -ex: does the test measure various facets of American History? (does it have questions regarding American History?)

chi-square test

-tests the equality of 2 frequencies or proportions -use when individual observations are names or categories -work with "CATEGORICAL" rather than numerical data -ex: male or female -"NOMINAL" since it involves classifying/naming -wind up with frequencies or proportions -individuals asked whether they are dems or repubs, data might be given in numbers (80 people) or frequencies (53%)

ANOVA

-used to compare means of MORE than 2 groups -estimate how much group means differ from each other by comparing the between-group variance to the within-group variance using the F ratio -used to determine if there is any interaction between 2 or more IVs -2 types: interaction & factorial design

empirical criterion-keying approach

-used to develop MMPI -tested thousands of questions and retained those that differentiated between patient and nonpatient populations, even if the item didn't seem to have anything to do with abnormality -examined responses of patient groups with different diagnoses. -each criterion group's responses formed the basis of a particular clinical scale, so that if a new patient answered questions in the same way that say, the depressive group did, that patient would receive a high depression score

face validity

-whether or not the test items appear to measure what they are supposed to measure -does the test look like it measures KNOWLEDGE of American History? (if the test is on european history, then its lacking face validity)

hyperpolarized

...

relationship between presynaptic cell/postsynaptic cell

...

random sampling

...every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen for the sample

4 basic types of measurement scales

1. nominal 2. ordinal 3. interval 4. ratio

2 ways that test results can be interpreted

1. norm-referenced testing 2. domain-referenced testing

significance tests

1. t-test 2. anova 3. chi-square test

3 methods used to establish reliability of a test

1. test-retest 2. alternate-form method 3. split-half reliability -in all of these methods, a correlation coefficient is then calculated using the pairs of scores -high positive correlation (greater than or = to .80) indicates a high level of reliability

what happens if the scores in a distribution are all the same? how about very spread out?

1. there is no variability 2. the variability is high

3 basic types of research

1. true experiments 2. quasi-experiments 3. correlational studies -all 3 look at the relationship between at least 2 variables

Adolescence

13-19 years; onset of puberty; adrenal and pituitary glands secrete hormones: androgen (boys) and estrogen (girls) for secondary sex characteristics and growth spurt

Sleep hours for infants and elderly respectively

16 hours of sleep a day, 6 hours

Motor development

1st 2 years of life largely by internal, maturational factors, - but interacting with infants with attention and affection fosters physical, emotional, and intellectual growth; - neglected children show higher incidences of mental retardation, mortality, and poorer physical development

Elaine Hatfield

2 basic types of love: passionate love and compassionate love

Germinal stage

2 weeks, zygotes moves down fallopian tube, grows into 64 cells, implants self into uterus wall

levels of IV

3 levels of IV if we give one group a low-protein breakfast and the other a high-protein breakfast, and one group a no-protein breakfast

Testosterone

3 months after conception; testes secrete, formation of male reproductive system, while absence for female

Lawrence Kohlberg (+stages)

3 stages moral development, preconventional/premoral, conventional/morality of conformity, postconventional/morality of self-accepted principles; - analyzing responses of children to 9 hypothetical moral dilemmas; e.g. Heinz dilemma

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

31 cards (1 blank and 30 pictures) with interpersonal scenes (2 people facing each other); - subject tells story about each which reveals aspects of personality; - often measure need for achievement; - interpreting terms include needs, press, personology

Percentages under normal distribution based on SDs (from mean to end)

34.13%, 13.59%, 2.02%, 0.26% and +3 99.74% +2 97.72% +1 84.13% 0 50.00% -1 15.87% -2 2.28% -3 0.26%

Fetal stage

3rd month until birth, quantitative growth and "quickening" (initial movement perceived/felt by mother)

Jean Piaget (cognitive; +stages)

4 cognitive developmental stages; sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational; - humans experience interaction between internal maturation and external experience leading to adaptation, through assimilation and accommodation; - language development determined by current cognitive stage

Sleep cycles

4-6 complete ones, each about 90 minutes, early in the night most time in stage 3 and 4, 2 and REM sleep predominate later

Sigmund Freud (+stages)

5 stages of personality development, oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital; - driving force of humans and their development is of sensual gratification / biological needs; - advancement of stages affects personality; - parental over or under-indulgence at a stage may result in fixation; - later, life stressors may result in regression

criterion of significance (alpha level)

5%; reject null if they are sure that observed differences are not due SOLELY to chance; reject the null hypothesis if significance level = or is less than 5%

H-Y antigen

6 weeks after conception: presences causes testis, absence causes ovaries

Erik Erikson (+stages)

8 life span developmental stages, each has its own unique psychosocial conflict to resolve; (1; birth-18mos) trust vs. mistrust to trust, (2; 18mos-3 yrs) autonomy vs. shame and doubt to independence, (3; 3-6 yrs) initiative vs. guilt to purpose, (4; 6-puberty) industry vs. inferiority to competency, (5; teen) identity vs. role confusion to sense of self, (6; young adult) intimacy vs. isolation to love, (7; mid age) productivity vs. stagnation to productivity and caring, (8; old age) ego integrity vs. despair to wisdom and integrity

Erik Erikson

8 stages of psychosocial development; noted for completeness from infancy through old age; coined "identity crisis" of adolescence

Glial cells

A type of cell that help support neurons; oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells

Sympathetic nervous system

ANS, controls arousal mechanisms (blood circulation, pupil dilation, threat and fear response) - Lie detector test relies on the premise -->lying activates the sympathetic nervous system and cause things like (increase heart rate, blood pressure, respiration)

Parasympathetic nervous system

ANS, recuperation after arousal (decrease HR, BP, respiration)

Cognitive Theory (originator)

Aaron Beck

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

Act only on serotonin most frequently prescribed because fewer side effects than tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs); Ex. fluoxetine (Prozac®), paroxetine (Paxil®), sertraline (Zoloft®)

Strange situation

Ainsworth; infant (8mos-2 yrs) playing with mother then replaced by a stranger, while researchers watch through one-way mirror; found infants overall had stranger anxiety (cried when stranger entered) and separation anxiety (cried when mothers left); different response to return of mother: securely attached (ran and clung) vs. avoidant (ignored or avoided) vs. ambivalent; securely attached more readily explore environment

Soma

Aka cell body. largest central portion, and make up gray matter, has a nucleus that directs neuron's activity

Rational-Emotive Theory (originator)

Albert Ellis

individual theory

Alfred Adler - Adlerian theory - people are viewed as creative, social and whole as opposed to Freud's more negative and structural approach - process of becoming - Healthy individuals: --> peruse goals in spite of feelings of interiority, --> has a "will to power" or a quest for feelings of superiority --> pursue goals that are outside of himself and beneficial to society

Parallel distributive processing

Allan Collins and Ross Quillian - People make decisions about the relationship between items by searching their cognitive semantic hierarchies. - The farther apart in the hierarchy, the longer it will take to see a connection

Dual code hypothesis

Allan Paivio, items better remembered if encoded both visually and semantically (icons/images+understanding)

Proprium or propriate function

Allport; his version of the ego, believed it acted relatively consistently based on traits developed through experience

Stanley Hall

America's first Ph.D. in psychology from Harvard; coined the term "adolescence", started American Journal of Psychology, founded American Psychological Association

Schema

An organized bunch of knowledge gathered from prior experiences that includes ideas about specific events or objects and the attributes that accompany them. - New events and objects are categorized based on how well they match the existing attributes of schema Ex: birds have wings and can fly --- but knowing that penguin is also a bird, schema of bird changes

Carl Gustav Jung

Analytical theory, Freud's student, broke from Freud because Freud place too much emphasis on the libido

6 periods

Ancient Greeks, middle ages (500-1600), scientific revolution (1600-1700), Enlightenment (1700-1800) The brink of psychology (1800-1900), The saga continues (1900s)

Bem Sex Role Inventory

Androgynous individuals have higher self-esteem, lower anxiety, more adaptability than their highly masculine or feminine counterparts

Names from 1800-1900

Anton Mesmer Franz Joseph Gall J. Spurzheim Charles Darwin Sir Francis Galton Gustav Fechner Johannes Muller Wilhelm Wundt Herbert Spencer William James Hermann von Helmholtz Stanley Hall John Dewey Edward Titchener James Cattell Dorothea Lynde Dix

Paul Ekman

Argued that human have 6 basic emotions: sadness, happiness, fear, anger, surprise, disgust drew conclusion from cross-cultural studies, individuals could recognize facial expressions corresponding to those six; FACS coding

Sheldon, W.

Attempted to relate somatotype (body type) to personality type

Antisocial

B, dramatic, emotional or erratic; disregard for rights of others, absence of guilt

Borderline personality disorder

B, dramatic, emotional or erratic; instability in relationships and emotions, impulsivity

Narcissistic personality disorder

B, dramatic, emotional or erratic; need for admiration, idea of superiority

Histrionic personality disorder

B, dramatic, emotional or erratic; shallow or excess emotion, attention-seeking

behavior theory (originators)

B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov, Joseph Wolpe

Kelly, G.

Based personality theory on the notion of "individual as scientist"

Bandura, A.

Behaviorist theorist known for his social learning theory; did modeling experiment using punching bag ("Bobo" doll)

Dollard, J. and Miller, N.

Behaviorist theorist who attempted to study psychoanalytic concepts within a behaviorist framework; also known for their work on approach-avoidance conflicts

Self-perception theory

Bem; alternative explanation to cognitive dissonance; - when people are unsure of beliefs, they take cues from own behaviour (rather than aligning beliefs to match actions) - $1000 to work on Saturday

Frustration-aggression hypothesis

Berkowitz; there is a relationship between frustration in achieving a goal (no matter how small) and show aggression

White Matter

Bundles of axon Nerve fiber

Dependent personality disorder

C, anxious or fearful; dependence and clinginess to others

Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

C, anxious or fearful; excessive orderliness and control, perfectionism, rigid conformity to rules and moral codes

Avoidant personality disorder

C, anxious or fearful; social inhibitions hypersensitivity, perceptions of inadequacy

Backward Conditioning

CS presented after UCS (e.g. food, then light); proven ineffective; accomplishes only inhibitory conditioning, harder time pairing CS with UCS later even with forward conditioning

Emergency Theory

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion. Emotions and bodily reactions occur simultaneously In emotional situations, our body is cued to react in the brain (emotion) and in the body (biological response) Ex: We tremble and feel scared in response to anger

analytical theory

Carl Gustav Jung - the psyche was directed toward life and awareness (rather than sex). - In each personal the psyche contains conscious and unconscious elements (personal and collective unconscious) -

David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel

Cells in the visual cortex are so complex and specialized that they respond only to certain types of stimuli (e.g. some only respond to vertical lines, some to right angles)

Conflict (psychoanalytic theory)

Central to human nature, between different drives vying for expression (particularly conscious and unconscious

Semantic differential charts (Researcher)

Charles Osgood, Allow people to plot meanings of words on graphs - people with similar backgrounds and interests plotted words similarly - indicating words have similar connotations for cultures/subcultures

Language acquisition device (LAD)

Chomsky, Human have innate ability to learn language (to adopt generative grammar rules of the language they hear); - children made small errors based on grammar rules rather than large structural errors; - seems they only need exposure to a language to easily use LAD, not through imitation, memory, or conditioning; genetic interpretation - children who learn different languages progress similarly

Transformational grammar

Chomsky, differentiates between surface structure (way words are organized; 3 different sentences) and deep structure (what it means; could mean the same thing) - Surface structure: the way that words are organized - Deep structure: underlying meaning of sentence

doll preference studies

Clark; demonstrated negative effects that group segregation had on African-American children's self-esteem, they thought white dolls were better

Dementia

Cognitive problems (memory, spatial tasks, or language) that result from a medical condition; may be result of Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Huntington's, or Pick's disease DSM-IV-TR: Memory impairment; 1 or more of the following (aphasia, apraxia, agnosia, disturbance in exective functioning); can have behavioral disdurbances

Mischel, W.

Critic of trait theories of personality

Olds, J., and Milner, P.

Demonstrated existence of pleasure center in the brain using "self-stimulation" studies in rats

Kandel, E.

Demonstrated that simple learning bx in sea snails (Aplysia) is associated with changes in neurotransmission

visual cliff apparatus

Depth perception is innate - animals and babies avoided "cliff" regardless of glass

dualism/ mind-body problem

Descartes, mind is a nonphysical substance that is separate from the body

Allen Newell and Herbert Simon

Designed first Computer Simulation Models called LOGIC THEORIST, then revamped it and called it GENERAL PROBLEM SOLVER

Trucking company game

Deutsch; 2 companies can choose to cooperate and agree on high fixed prices, or compete with lower prices, but lack of complete trust will choose to compete; prisoner's dilemma in economic terms

Prisoner's dilemma

Deutsch; if 2 criminals detained separately, best strategy is for neither to talk, but it is a gamble that requires trust, so most spill the beans; in economic terms is the trucking company game

Helmholtz, H.

Developed Young-_______ trichromatic theory of color vision; developed place-resonance theory of pitch perception

Stevens, S. S.

Developed ______ law as an alternative to Fechner's Law

Yerkes, R. and Dodson, J.

Developed ______-______ Law which states that performance is best at intermediate levels of arounsal

Fechner, G.

Developed ________ Law, which expresses the relationship between the intensity of the stimulus and the intensity of the sensation

Berkeley, G.

Developed a list of depth cues that help us to perceive depth

Heider, F.

Developed balance theory to explain why attitudes change; also developed attribution theory and divided attributions into two categories: dispositional and situational

Festinger, L.

Developed cognitive dissonance theory, also developed social comparison theory

Alfred Binet

Developed concept of IQ and first intelligence test (Binet Scale)

Petty, R., Cacioppo, J.

Developed elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (central and peripheral routes to persuasion)

Wolpe, J.

Developed method of systematic desensitization to eliminate problems

Hering, E.

Developed opponent process theory of color vision

Skinner, B.F.

Developed principles of operant conditioning; _______ Box (rats)

Bem, D.

Developed self-perception theory as an alternative to cognitive dissonance theory.

Wilson, E. O.

Developed sociobiology

Janis, I.

Developed the concept of groupthink to explain how group decision making can sometimes go awry

Craik, F. and Lockhart, R.

Developed the levels-of-processing theory of memory as an alternative to the stage theory of memory

Gibson, E. and Walk, R.

Developed the visual cliff apparatus, which is used to study the development of depth perception

Guilford, J.

Devised divergent thinking test to measure creativity

Smith, E.,Shoben, E., and Rips, L.

Devised the semantic feature-comparison model of semantic memory

Collins, A. and Loftus, E.

Devised the spreading activation model of semantic memory

E. H. Weber

Differential threshold

Chomsky, N.

Distinguished between the surface structure and deep structure of a sentence; studied transformational rules that could be used to transform one sentence into another

Stress-inoculation training

Donald Meichenbaum prepares people for foreseeable stressors

opponent-color/opponent-process theory

Edward Hering 2 types of color-sensitive cells - Cones that respond to blue-yellow - Cones that respond to red-green - If one color is stimulated, the other is inhibited (we don't see redish-green) ex: when you stare at red for a long time, you see a green afterimage

Hierarchical semantic network

Elizabeth Loftus & Allen Collins - The more closely related two items are, the more closely they are located in the hierarchy, and the more quickly a subject can link them

illusion of control

Ellen langer Belief that you can control things that you actually have no influence on. - The driving force behind manipulating the lottery, gambling and superstition

Cognitive Theory

Emphasizes conscious thought patterns (rather than emotions or behaviours), - interpretation of an experience rather than the experience itself; - Beck Depression Inventory

Bekesy,G.

Empirical studies led to traveling wave theory of pitch perception which, at least partially, supported by Helmholtz's place-resonance theory

Gestalt Theory

Encourage people to stand apart from beliefs, biases and attitudes derived from the past - goal is to fully experience and perceive the present in order to become a while and integrated person

Sherrington, C.

English physiologist who first inferred the existence of synapse

von Frisch, K.

Ethologist who studied communication in honey bees

Tinbergen, N.

Ethologists who introduced experimental methods into field situations

Lorenz, K.

Ethologists who studied unlearned, instinctual bxs in the natural environment

Elimination disorders

Ex. Nocturnal enuresis, bed wetting, usually treated with behaviour modification

Tic disorders

Ex. Tourette's syndrome is indicated by motor and vocal tics

Developmental disorders

Ex. autism, indicated by severe problems with social skills, communication, and interests

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)

Ex. phenelzine (Nardil®)

M.E. Olds

Experiment shows that there is electrical stimulation of pleasure centers in the brain used as positive reinforcement, this is evidence against drive-reduction theory

Cognitive dissonance theory

Festinger; it is uncomfortable for people to have beliefs that do not match actions; people are motivated to back actions up by changing beliefs; the less act is justified by circumstance, the more we feel need to justify it by aligning attitude with the behaviour

Theory of reasoned action/planned behaviour

Fischbein and Ajzen; people's behaviour in a given situation is determined by attitude about situation and social norms; perceived behavioural control, attitude toward behaviour, behavioural intentions, subjective social norms; grounded in various attitude theories (learning, expectancy-values, consistency, attribution);

Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI)

For children 4-6

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-R)

For children 6-16

Macoby, E. and Jacklin, C.

Found support for gender differences in verbal ability

Miller, G.

Found that the capacity of short-term memory is seven (plus or minus two) items

Broca, P.

French anatomist who identified the part of the brain primarily associated with producing spoken language (_____'s Area)

Anal stage

Freud, 2/5, 18mos-3 yrs; pleasure by control and release of feces

Phallic stage

Freud, 3/5, 3-6 yrs; pleasure from self-stimulation of genitals; boys develop Oedipus complex, girls Electra complex; both resolve conflict by identifying with same-sex parent

Latency stage

Freud, 4/5, adolescence; repressed sexuality; identification with same-sex friends; focus on school and growing up

Genital stage

Freud, 5/5, adolescence-adulthood; hormones reawaken sexual instincts; love now nonfamilial

Oedipus complex

Freud, Phallic, 3/5, 3-6 yrs; boys in love with mother, jealous of father; suppress lust by castration anxiety, then identify with father

Electra complex

Freud, Phallic, 3/5, 3-6 yrs; girls in love with father because of penis envy, angry with mother, then identify with mother

aggression

Freud; central force that must find a socially acceptable outlet

psychic determinism

Freud; pathological behaviour, dreams, unconscious behaviour (e.g. hysterical or neurotic women) are symptoms of underlying, unresolved conflict, which are manifested when the ego does not find acceptable ways to express conflict

Defense mechanism (+types)

Freud; way in which ego protects self from threatening unconscious material; - repression/denial, - rationalization, - projection, - displacement, - reaction formation, - compensation, - sublimation, - identification, - undoing, - countertransference - dreams

We are primarily motivated to maintain physiological or psychological homeostasis. Example theories and problem?

Fritz Heider's balance theory, Charles Osgood and Percy Tannenbaum's congruity theory, Leon Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory; what about individuals who often seek stimulation, novel experience, or self-destruction?

Gestalt Theory (originators)

Fritz Perls, Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka

Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall

Gate Control Theory of Pain

Girls (language learning)

Gender that learns faster and more accurately in language

Wernicke, C.

German neurologist who identified the part of the brain primarily associated with understanding spoken language (_______'s Area)

Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka

Gestalt ("whole") psychology, asserts perception is greater than the sum of its parts

Pragnanz

Gestalt idea that experience will be organized as meaningful, symmetrical, and simple whenever possible, includes closure, proximity, continuation, symmetry, size and color constancy, minimum principle (tendency to see what is easiest or logical)

Conformity (types)

Going along with real or perceived group pressure compliance, acceptance

Spine (subsystem)

Gray matter, white matter

James Stoner

Group polarization

Irving Janis

Groupthink

American Psychology Association (APA)

Hall; founded 1892; governing body of psychology; purpose to "advance psychology as a science, as a profession, and as a means of promoting human welfare"

Social isolation from rhesus monkeys

Harlow, the isolated monkeys --> - the lack of interaction and socialization hampered social development, - once brought together with others, males did not display normal sexual functioning and females lacked maternal behaviours

Learning to learn from rhesus monkeys

Harlow, monkeys became better at learning tasks as they acquired different learning experiences, eventually learned after only one trial

Contact comfort from rhesus monkeys

Harlow, study of attachment. mother-infant attachment, -infants attach to mothers through comforting experience rather than through feeding - infants placed with two surrogate mothers (wire with feeding bottle, and terrycloth with no bottle); infant spent most time with terrycloth mother especially when afraid, only approached wire mother to feed;

Henry Landsberger

Hawthorne effect

Attribution theory

Heider; how people infer causes of other's behaviour; attribute intentions and emotions to almost anything, even shapes on a screen; 3 elements: locus, stability, controllability

Balance theory

Heider; how people make feelings/actions consistent to preserve psychological homeostasis Kaplan:Relationship betwen P, O and X, dislike(-), like (+), balance if 1 or 3 +, imbalance if 0 or 2 + - too simplistic - Balance exists when all 3 fit together harmoniously, when there sin't balance, there will be stress, and a tendency to remove stress by achieving balance

place-resonance theory

Hermann von Helmholtz ; different parts of basilar membrane respond to different frequencies

Synaptic vessels

Holds neurotransmitters

RIASEC system

Holland divided ineterests into 6 types: 1. realistic 2. investigative 3. artistic 4. social 5. enterprising 6. conventional

Whorf, B.

Hypothesized that language determines how reality is perceived

Rene Descartes

I think therefore I am, figure out truth through reason and deduction; dualism/ mind-body problem

Type I and II errors

I when incorrectly reject null, thought significant but chance; II when incorrectly accept null, thought chance but significant

Mental retardation

IQ 70 or below; mild 70-55, moderate 55-40, severe 40-25, profound <25

true experiment

IV is manipulated AND subjects randomly assigned into groups

Luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

In females, regulate the development of ovum and trigger ovulation In males, regulate the development of sperm cells and the production of testosterone

Scientific approach

Includes: testable hypothesis, - reproducible experiment, - operationalized definition (observable and measurable)

Alfred Adler

Individual theory

Changes in Freud's view of layout of the mind

Initially: Freud preferred a topographic model of mental life Then: Mental life was structural, meaning that mental life has particular organization other than layers (ego, id, superego)

Changes in Freud's psychoanalytic theory

Initially: an individual's greatest conflict was that between the libido and the ego Then: the true conflict is that between Eros and Thanatos ("the aim of all life is death")

McGuire

Inoculation theory

independent variable

Interest in the effect of independent variable on the dependent variable - often manipulated by applying it in experimental or treatment condition and withholding it from control condition

Julian Rotter

Internal-External Locus of Control Scale

Sperry, R. and Gazzaniga, M.

Investigated functional differences between left and right cerebral hemispheres using "split-brain" studies

Bartlett, F.

Investigated the role of schemata in memory; concluded that memory is largely a reconstructive process.

Kahneman, D. and Tversky, A.

Investigated the use of heuristics in decision making ; studied the availability heuristic and the representativeness heuristic

Association between picture vs. words

It takes longer to make association between pictures than between words --> Pictures must be mentally put into words before associations can be made

Response bias

J.A. Swet's Theory of Signal Detection; interplay between response bias and stimulus intensity determines response (false alarm, hit, miss, correct rejection, receiver operating characteristic)

Theories of emotion x 3

James-Lange theory of emotion Cannon-Bard theory of emotion Schachter-Singer theory

Systematic desensitization

Joseph Wolpe, applies classical conditioning to relieve anxiety, - exposed to increasingly anxiety-provoking stimuli until anxiety is decreased - start from staring at a picture of snake and then eventually holding on

archetype

Jung, - universally meaningful concepts, passed through collective unconscious; - allow us to organize experiences with consistent themes and indicated by cross-cultural similarity in symbols, folklore, myths; - Common archetypes: persona, shadow, anima, animus, self

M.J.Lerner

Just world bias

Neo-Freudians

Karen Horney and Harry Stack Sullivan, accepted some of freud's ideas and reject others

Explicit memory

Knowing something and being consciously aware of knowing it, such as knowing a fact

Implicit memory

Knowing something without being aware of knowing it "HM" --> cannot remember anything he did

Preconventional/Premoral stage

Kohlberg, 1/3; (1) avoid punishment, (2) gain rewards; "if I steal I'll get in trouble"

Concentional/morality of conformity stage

Kohlberg, 2/3; (3) gain approval, (4) follow law and authority; "stealing is against the law"

Postconventional/morality of self-accepted principles

Kohlberg, 3/3; (5) grey areas, attentive to rights and social welfare, (6) abstract decisions on ethical principles; "unjust that money is an obstacle,more ethical to save wife"

Organic disorders that result from years of heavy drinking

Korsakoff's and Wernicke's syndrome

Encoding specificity principle

LTM is subject to... material is easier to be remembered if retrieved in same context as learning/storage

Theory of association

Lewin, grouping based on co-occurence in time and space; associate certain behaviours with certain rewards and cues Ivan Pavlov later proved experimentally

Life space

Lewin; collection of forces (valence, vector, barrier) on the individual, field of perception and action

Valence (life space)

Lewin; life space; + if person thinks region will reduce tension by meeting present needs, - if region with increase tension/ danger

Barrier (life space)

Lewin; life space; block locomotion between regions of person and psychological environment

criticism (Rational-Emotive Theory)

Like cognitive and behaviour theory, considered too sterile and mechanistic

Imprinting

Lorenz, -certain species (often birds) young attach to first moving object they see, - displayed by a "following response", - subjective to sensitive learning period - after that period this would not occur

*Fixed action patterns (example)

Lorenz, triggered by releasing stimuli, automatic and innate, instinctual, complex chains of behaviour; four defining characteristics: 1) uniform patterns, 2) performed by most members, 3) more complex than simple reflexes, 4) cannot be interrupted or stopped in the middle Ex:

Animal aggression

Lorez, certain aggression necessary for survival of species, instinctual rather than learned

Neural synchrony

Low-amplitude and fast -frequency alpha waves

Just world bias

M.J. Lerner The belief that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people - it is uncomfortable for people to accept that bad things happen to good people, so they blame the victim

Mean IQ

Mean of Americans is standardized to 100, with SD 15 or 16 depending on test; correlates most with IQ of biological parents and socioeconomic status

Stimulus-overload theory

Milgram; explains why urbanities are less prosocial than country people; they do not need any more interaction; e.g. emergency situations familiar to city people, novelty for town people will attract attention and help

Personality tests (2 types)

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and California Personality Inventory (CPI)

Echolocation

Most sophisticated type of perception generally replaces sight, marine mammals (dolphin) and bats, - emit high-frequency sounds and locate nearby objects from the echo; bats can fly through grids of thin nylon strings and can locate and eat small flying insects at 2/s

Computer simulation models

Newell and Simon, designed to solve problems like humans

Kernberg, O.

Object-relations theorist

Klein, M.

Object-relations theorist

Mahler, M.

Object-relations theorist

Winnicott, D.W.

Object-relations theorist

Myelencephalon

Of Hindbrain, aka medulla; Mainly controls for reflexes, but also controls sleep, attention, movement

Frontal lobe

Of cerebral cortex controls speech (Broca's area), reasoning, problem solving

Temporal lobe

Of cerebral cortex responsible for hearing, also Wernicke's area (related to speech)

Parietal lobe

Of cerebral cortex responsible for somatosensory system

Occipital lobe

Of cerebral cortex responsible for vision

Thalamus

Of diencephalon, channels sensory information to cerebral cortex

Hypothalamus

Of diencephalon, controls autonomic nervous system biological motivations (hunger, thirst) and pituitary gland

Metencephalon

Of hindbrain, has pons(connects brain parts to spine) and cerebellum(controls muscle coordination, balance, posture)

Tegmentum

Of mesencephalon, rest of reticular formation; Also involved in the sensorimotor system, analgesic effect of opiates

Tectum

Of mesencephalon, vision and hearing

Amygdala

Of telencephalon, controls emotional reactions such as fear and anger

Hippocampus

Of telencephalon, involves in memory - transfer STM into LTM, - new neurons can form in adult mammalian brain

Cingulate gyrus

Of telencephalon, links brain areas dealing with emotion and decisions

Limbic system

Of telencephalon, structures around the brainstem involved in 4Fs (fleeing, feeding, fighting, and fornicating)

Sigmund Freud

One of most important in clinical, abnormal, personality id, ego, superego; unconscious motivations; psychoanalysis; famous writings Interpretation of Dreams, Theory of Sexuality, Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Civilization and its Discontents

Natural selection

Only the fit survive - at the heart of evolution - it explains the evolution or genetic development of various species over time and explains the concept of genetic drift - favors inclusive fitness over individual fitness

Skinner, B.F.

Operant conditioning pioneers worked with pigeons and mice in operant chambers

Edward Hering

Opponent-color or opponent process

ordinal variables

Order variables need to be arranged by order (not necessarily equally spaced) ex: maranthon finishers

Hormones (type)

Organizational and activational

Freud, S.

Originator of psychodynamic approach to personality

Autonomic nervous system

PNS, interacts with internal environment, - Responsible for the "fight or flight" response, - It controls the involuntary functions including movement of smooth muscles, digestion, blood circulation, breathing

Frequency

Pace of vibration or sound waves per section - determines pitch - low frequency - low pitch - measured in hertz(Hz) from sound wave, ~1000Hz best heard by humans

Forward Conditioning (types)

Pairing of the CS and the UCS in which the CS is presented before the UCS delayed conditioning and trace conditioning

Allan Collins and Ross Quillian

Parallel distributive processing - People make decisions about the relationship between items by searching their cognitive semantic hierarchies. - The farther apart in the hierarchy, the longer it will take to see a connection

Extinction (operant conditioning)

Parents reduce temper in child by not giving into, reinforcing behavior

Arousal

Part of motivation. One must be adequately aroused to learn or perform

Classical conditioning

Pavlovian conditioning; teaching a response (relationship) to neutral stimulus by pairing with not-so-neutral stimulus

James Gibson

Perceptual development, optic array

Clark Hull

Performance = Drive x Habit; will do what has worked in the past to satisfy drive

Edward Tolman

Performance = Expectation x Value; expectancy-value theory; goals they expect they can meet and how important goal is

Rescorla, R.

Performed experiements which showed that contiguity could not fully explain classical conditioning; proposed contingency theory of classical conditioning

Watson, J.

Performed experiment on Little Albert that suggested that the acquisition of phobias was due to classical conditioning; school of Bxiorism founder; stimulus-response chains

Zimbardo, P.

Performed prison simulation and used concept of deindividuation to explain results

Clark, K., Clark, M.

Performed study on doll preferences in African-American children; the results were used in the 1954 Brown v. the Topeka Board of Education Supreme Court case.

Dissenter

Person who speaks out against majority

elaboration likelihood model

Petty and Cacioppo; model of persuasion suggests those involved in an issue listen to strength of arguments rather than more superficial factors

Maslow, A.

Phenomenological personality theorist known for developing a hierarchy of needs and for the concept of self-actualization

Lewin, K.

Phenomenological personality theorist who developed field theory

Rogers, C.

Phenomenological theorist who found empathy, congruence, and unconditional positive regards to be important aspects; person-centered

Cannon, W.

Physiologist who studied the autonomic nervous system, including "fight or flight" reactions; investigated homeostasis; and with Bard, proposed _______-Bard theory of emotions

Rochel Gelman

Piaget underestimated cognitive ability of preschoolers; can deal with ideas such as quantity in small sets of objects

Sensorimotor stage

Piaget, 1/4, 0-2 yrs; first reflexive behaviour cued by sensations, then circular reactions, object permanence, then representation

Preoperational stage

Piaget, 2/4, 2-7 yrs; egocentric understanding, rapidly acquiring words, inability to perform mental operations (causality or quantity)

Concrete Operational stage

Piaget, 3/4, 7-12 yrs; understanding of concrete relationships (math and quantity), development of conservation

Formal Operational stage

Piaget, 4/4, 12+ yrs; understanding abstract relationships (logic, ratio, values)

Babinski reflex

Piaget, Sensorimotor, 1/4, 0-2 yrs; fanning of toes elicited by touching bottom of foot

PET

Positron emission tomography scans glucose metabolism to measure activity in various brain regions

Heuristics

Problem solving strategies that use rules of thumb or short-cuts based on what has worked int eh past - Cannot guarantee a solution, but it is faster than algorithm

Gardner, H.

Proposed a theory of multiple intelligences that divides intelligence into seven different types, all of which are equally important; traditional IQ tests measure only two of the seven types

Lerner, M.

Proposed concept of belief in a just world

Paivio, A.

Proposed dual-code hypothesis

Broadbent, D.

Proposed filter theory of attention

Melzack, R. and Wall, P.

Proposed gate theory of pain

James, W. and Lange, C.

Proposed the James-Lange two-factor theory of emotions

Schachter, S. and Singer, J.

Proposed the Schachter-Singer two-factory theory of emotions

Thorndike, E.

Proposed the law of effect; used puzzle boxes to study problem solving in cats

Darwin, C.

Proposed theory of evolution and natural selection as its centerpiece

Sternberg, R.

Proposed triarchic theory that divides intelligence into three types: componential, experiential, and contextual

Wever, E. and Bray, C.

Proposed volley theory of pitch perception in response to a criticism of the freqency theory of pitch perception

Aronson, E., Linder, D.

Propsed gain-loss principle (an evaluation that changes will have more effect thatn an evaluation that remains constant)

Blood-brain barrier

Protects the brain by making it difficult for toxic substances to pass from the blood into the brain, since blood vessel cells in the brain are tightly packed

Adler, A.

Psychodynamic theorist best known for concept of inferiority complex

Jung, C.

Psychodynamic theorist who broke with Freud over the concept of libido; suggested that the unconscious should be divided into the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious, with archetypes being in the collective unconscious.

Horney, K.

Psychodynamic theorist who suggested that there were three ways to relate to others: moving toward, moving against, moving away from

Heinz dilemma

Question used in ethics and moral classes when trying to figure out what stage of Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development they are in. Woman is dying and needs expensive medication, husband cannot afford it, do you think he should steal or let wife die?

Beta waves

REM-sleep, low-amplitude and fast-frequency waves that characterize waking states

Cued recall

Recall begins with task Ex: fill-in-the-blank" test

Bottom-up processing

Recognizing an item or pattern from data or details (data driven)

Top-down processing

Recognizing an item or pattern guided by larger concepts

Swets, John A.

Refined ROC curves in signal detection theory

Scientific Revolution

Rene Descartes, John Locke, Thomas Hobbes

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

Revised Binet's version - used with children, organized by age level - Best known predictor of future academic achievement

Will to meaning

Rollo May individual constantly strives to rise above a simple behavioral existence and toward genuine and meaningful existence

Experimenter bias

Rosenthal effect; researchers see what they want to see; minimized in double-blind

Luria, A.

Russian neurologist who studied how brain damage leads to impairment in sensory, motor, and language functions

Lev Vygotsky and Alexander Luria

Russian psychologists, - development of word meanings are complex and altered by interpersonal experience (communicating with significant people in their lives to learn cultural habits); - also, language is a tool in developing abstract thinking (not only byproduct)

George Miller

STM capacity of 7±2

Cognition Theory of Emotion

Schachter-singer theory; emotions are the product of physiological reactions, cognitions are the link in the chain. interpretation of the physiological arousal is determined by the cognition we attach to a situation, leading to emotion Situation cause us to tremble --> we may feel fear or anger depending on the ideas we have about what emotions fits the situation

Types of verbal learning and memory tasks

Serial learning Serial-anticipation learning Paired-associate learning Free-recall learning

Endomorph

Sheldon, Somatotypes' short, plump means pleasure-seeking, social

Somatotypes (personality theory' +types)

Sheldon; personality based on body types, three physiques and corresponding personality types: endomorph, mesomorph, ectomorph

criticism (Cognitive Theory)

Similar to behaviour therapy, addresses how a person thinks, rather than why the thought patterns developed; removing symptoms may not cure problem

Operant conditioning

Skinner, instrumental conditioning; behaviour primarily influenced by reinforcement strategies, do what rewards, not what doesn't

Ancient Greeks

Socrates, Plato, Aristotle

Iconic memory

Sperling, sensory memory for vision, people could see more than they can remember, a partial report in an experiment involving random letters showed people forgot other letters by the time they wrote first ones down

Stanley Milgram

Stimulus-overload theory; also experiment where participants ordered to give "painful electric shocks" to a "learner" when incorrect, explored how people respond to orders; conditions that facilitated conformity: remoteness of victim, proximity of commander, legitimate-seeming commander, conformity of other subjects; conformed 66% of the time; raised ethical issues; also explained actions of Nazi war criminals

Group polarization

Stoner; group discussion generally serves to strengthen the already dominant point of view; explains risky shift

Donald Meichenbaum

Stress-inoculation training

Hovland, C.

Studied attitude change

Asch, S.

Studied conformity by asking subjects to compare the lengths of lines.

Gibson, J.

Studied depth cues (esp. texture gradients) that help us to perceive depths

Loftus, E.

Studied eyewitness memory and concluded that our memories can be altered by presenting new information or by asking misleading questions

Hubel, D. and Wiesel, T.

Studied feature detection in visual cortex and discovered simple, complex and hypercomplex cells

Witkin, H.

Studied field-dependence and field-independence using the rod and frame test

McGuire, W.

Studied how psychological inoculation could help people resist persuasion

Kohler, W.

Studied insights in problem solving

Rotter, J.

Studied locus of control

Kluver, H. and Bucy, P.

Studied loss of normal fear and rage reactions in monkeys resulting from damage to temporal lobes; also studied in amygdala's role in emotions

Ebbinghaus, H.

Studied memory using nonsense syllables and the method of savings

McClelland, D.

Studied need for achievement (nAch)

Milgram, S.

Studied obedience by asking subjects to administer electroshock; proposed stimulus-overload theory to explain differences between city and country dwellers

Bandura, A.

Studied observational learning

Newcomb, T.

Studied political norms

Schachter, S.

Studied relationship between anxiety and the need for affiliation

Milner, B.

Studied severe anterograde amnesia in H.M., a patient whose hippocampus and temporal lobes were removed surgically to control epilepsy

Garcia, J.

Studied taste aversion learning and proposed that some species are biologically prepared to learn connections between certain stimuli

Sperling, G.

Studied the capacity of sensory memory using the partial-report method

Zajonc. R.

Studied the mere exposure effect; also resolved problems with the social facilitation effect by suggesting that the presence of others enhances the emission of dominant responses and impairs the emission of nondominant responses

Hall, E.

Studied the norms for interpersonal distance in interpersonal interactions

Premack, D.

Suggested _______ Principle: that a more-preferred activity could be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity

Eagly, A.

Suggested that gender differences in conformity were not due to gender per se, but to differing social roles.

Spearman, C.

Suggested that individual differences in intelligence were largely due to differences in amount of a general factor called g

Bem, S.

Suggested that masculinity and femininity were two separate dimensions; concept of androgyny

McClelland, J. and Rumelhart, D.

Suggested that the brain processes information using parallel distributed processing (PDP)

t-scores

T-score distribution has a mean of 50 and an SD of 10. ex: t-score of 60 is 1 SD above the mean. -because of their "nice round numbers," t-scores are often used in test score interpretation

bystander effect

The Kitty Genovese care (murder witnessed by many people) Why people are less likely to help when others are present

Neuron

The basic unit of the nervous system Consist of: Dentrites, cell body (soma), axon hillock, axon, myelin sheath, nodes of Ranvier, Terminal buttons, cell membrane, synapse, glial cells

Authoritarianism

The disposition to view the world as full of power relationships - measured by the F-scale (Fascism scale); - these individuals are either highly domineering (if top dog of situation) or submissive (as if they are in presence of a more powerfulfigure); - also likely conventional, aggressive, stereotyping, and anti-introspective

Functional fixedness

The idea that people develop closed minds about the functions of certain objects. From this they cannot think of creative uses or think divergently "Bird cage can only used as birdcage" development of closed minds about the function of objects, difficult to think outside the box

Decision making

The process of working on solving a problem until an acceptable solution; -The process of reaching a solution is usually based on some sort of assumption: rational/irrational - Solution is usually found by relying on reasoning and/or emotion - Common techniques: Making list of pros and cons, flipping coins, divination, consulting

Henry Murray

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Bilingual children (language learning)

These children learn language slower

Law of effect

Thorndike, precursor of operant conditioning Cause-and-effect chain of behaviour; continue what rewards, stop what doesn't

Stickleback fish

Tinbergen, males develop red coloration on belly, which is the releasing stimulus for attacks; males attacked red-bellied crude models rather than the detailed but non-red models

Herring gull chicks

Tinbergen, peck at end of parents' bills which have a red spot on the tip, parents then regurgitates food for chicks; chicks pecked more at a red-tipped model bill than at a plain model bill; the greater the contrast between bill and red spot even when unnaturally strong; supernormal sign stimulus

Sign learning

Tolman; pursuing signs towards a goal; purposive behaviour

Prosody

Tone inflections, accents, and other aspects of pronunciation that carry meaning

Allport, G.

Trait theorist known for concept of functional autonomy; also distinguished between idiographic and nomothetic approaches to personality

Eysenck, H.

Trait theorist who proposed two main dimensions on which human personalities differ: introversion-extroversion and emotional stability-neuroticism

Cattell, R.

Trait theorist who used factor analysis to study personality

Cattell, R.

Trait theorist who used factor analysis to study personality. Divided intelligence into fluid and crystallized and looked at how they change throughout the lifespan

Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz

Tri-chromatic theory/tri-color/component theory

Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs)

Tricyclic chemical structure; ex. amitriptyline (Elavil®)

Sherif, M.

Used autokinetic effect to study conformity; also performed Robber's Cave experiment and found that having superordinate goals increased intergroup cooperation

Thurstone, L.

Used factor analysis to study primary mental abilities - factors more specific than g but more general than s

Luchins, A.

Used the water-jar problem to study the effect of mental sets on problem solving

Behaviourism

Watson, everything can be explained by stimulus-response chains, chains are developed by conditioning; only objective and observable elements important

Differential threshold

Weber, just noticeable difference; the minimum difference between two stimuli to be perceived as different intensities

Backward masking

When subjects are exposed to bright flash or new pattern before the iconic image fades, the 1st image will be erased

Benjamin Whorf

Whorfian hypothesis; from studying Hopi, language or how a culture says things influences perspective, used for argument for non-sexist language; however cultures that don't have certain colors can still recognize them, so unclear the extent language affecting our perceptions

Can a test have perfect reliability and very little validity?

YES. reliability is a precondition for validity (but not vice versa).

Holophrastic speech

Young children using one word (holophrases) to convey a whole sentence (e.g. "me" for "give that to me")

negative correlation

a change in value in 1 variable tends to be associated with a change in the opposite direction of another variable; as the value of 1 variable increases, the value of the other tends to decrease

Panic attack

a component of many different anxiety disorders, lasts for a discrete period of time often <10 min; overwhelming feelings of danger or need to escape, expressed as an intense fear of dying or "going crazy"; accompanied by sweating, trembling, pounding heart, etc.

Eugenics

a plan for selective human breeding to strengthen species

attitude

a positive, negative or neutral evaluation of a person, issue or object

Self-awareness

a state; temporary condition of being aware of how you are thinking, feeling or doing

Weber's law (+ equation)

a stimulus needs to be increased by a constant fraction of its original value to be noticed as different (K=ΔI/Io); applies to all senses but a limited range of intensities K(the constant fraction)=ΔI(increase in intensity needed for jnd)/I(original intensity)

Self-consciousness

a trait; how often one generally becomes self-aware; very, if you pay a lot of attention to your self

Stimulus discrimination

ability to discriminate between different but similar stimuli (door bell is different from phone ringing)

Type II error

accept the null hypothesis, when it's false; statistically significant result was obtained and the null hypothesis was accepted, even though it's false; probability of making this error is "BETA"

Incidental learning

accidental learning, unrelated items grouped together; opposite of intentional learning (e.g. dog associates car with vet)

Bogus pipeline

an instrument that measures physiological reactions in order to measure truthfulness of attitude self-reporting

Garcia effect

animals strongly and automatically connect nausea and food, especially strong in children; preparedness

Victor Vroom

applied expectancy-value theory to individual behaviour in large organizations (e.g. those lowest on totem pole have least motivation since little incentives)

Neil Miller

approach-avoidance conflict; state felt when a goal has both pros and cons, typically focus on pros when far from goal, cons when close to goal

Charles Osgood and Percy Tannenbaum's congruity theory

associative or dissociative attitudes on 7pt scale toward objects

Mary Ainsworth

attachment through use of strange situation; stranger and separation anxiety, securely attached vs. avoidant infants; work carried on by Mary Main

Domain-referenced tests

attempt to measure less-defined properties (e.g. intelligence), check for reliability and validity

confounding variable

attempts to eliminate/minimize these. - variables in the environment that might also effect the dependent variable and blue the effect of independent variable on the dependent variable

Reactance

attitude change in response to feeling that options are limited; e.g. dislike experiment and intentionally behaving unnaturally, or being set on a certain flavour of ice cream as soon as told it is sold out

Fritz Heider's balance theory

attitude change, based on balance of "sentiment" or liking relationships, if the net affect valence multiplies out to a positive result

Fritz Heider

attribution theory, balance theory

Cluster C personality (anxious or fearful disorders)

avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive

Reticular formation

base in hindbrain, rest in midbrain; oldest brain area; Controls alertness, thirst, sleep, involuntary muscles (i.e. heart)

personality typology (psychoanalytic theory)

based on personal activity and social interest - ruling-dominant type - getting-learning type - avoiding type - socially useful type

Genes

basic unit of heredity. made of DNA molecules, organized in chromosomes - Human nucleus cells contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. - Chromosomes in cells act as carriers for genes, and therefore for heredity

Polarized light

bees when sun is obscured by clouds, bees can use this navigational cue to infer sun positioning

Flower selection of bees

bees can see UV light, sees certain markers on flowers (honey guides) that people do not

Round dance

bees dance to indicate food is extremely nearby

Waggle dance

bees dance to indicate food is far away

Narcissism

believing you are better than you are or look better than you do; unrealistic self-esteem

normal distribution(+characteristic)

bell curve; larger the sample, greater chance of having a normal distribution

Autoshaping

by having an apparatus (e.g. lever), an animal controls its reinforcements (e.g. food) through behaviours (e.g. pressing), shaping its own behaviour

J. Spurzheim

carried Franz Joseph Gall on his work, even when others proved theory wrong

Rosenzweig Picture-Frustration (P-F) Study

cartoons in which one person is frustrating another; asked to describe how the frustrated person responds

First phrases spoken (language learning)

children use nouns first then verbs, usually one noun and one verb (e.g. "me want") or two nouns (e.g. "mommy shirt")

ruling-dominant type

choleric high in activity but low in social contribution, dominant

Monoamines (examples)

class of neurotransmitter that dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine belongs to

figure-ground reversal patterns

classic illusion; ambiguous figures, can be perceived as 2 different things depending on which part you see as figure and which part you see as the background

Ambiguous figures

classic illusion; figure can be perceived as 2 different things depending on how you look at them

prosopagnosia

classic illusion; inability to recognize faces, sees jumble of facial features

Robert Fantz

classic illusion; infants prefer relatively complex and sensical displaces

apparent motion

classic illusion; motion is inferred when there is none - use of flashlight or rapidly show still-frame pictures

impossible objects

classic illusion; objects that have been drawn and can be perceived but geometrically impossible

Purkinje shift

classic illusion; point of light viewed in darkness appears to shake or move due to our eye movement

moon illusion

classic illusion; shows context affects perception, on horizon visual cues make moon seem more distant than overhead sky, because we cannot correct for distance with no cues

autokinetic effect

classic illusion; single point of light viewed in darkness appears to shake or move due to our eye movement

pattern recognition

classic illusion; template matching and feature detection (e.g. look for letter o, look for rounded edges first, etc)

phi phenomenon

classic illusion; tendency to perceive smooth motion motion is inferred when there is none - use of flashlight or rapidly show still-frame pictures

ponzo illusion

classic illusion; two lines of equal length appear unequal; /=\ 2 horizontal line of equal length appear unequal because of 2 vertical lines that slant inward

muller-lyer illusion

classic illusion; two lines of equal length appear unequal; <--> vs. >--< inward facing arrowhead make a line appear shorter than outward facing arrow head

Ivan Pavlov

classical conditioning

cornea

clear protective coating on the outside of the eye

Empathy

client-centered therapist must appreciate rather than just observe client's perspective

Unconditional positive regard

client-centered therapist must maintain positivity regardless of choices, feelings or insights to facilitate a trusting and safe environment

Genuineness/congruence

client-centered therapist should speak and act genuinely, not maintain a professional reserve (feelings and experiences of the therapist should match)

Carl Rogers

client-centered therapy; client directs course of therapy, receives unconditional positive regard; humanistic; also first to record sessions for later study and reference

Continuous motor tasks vs. discrete motor tasks

continuous motions easier to learn, once started continues naturally - bike; discrete divided into parts and do not facilitate recall of each other - setting up chessboard

Thorndike (book)

credited with writing first educational textbook in 1903 to assess students and teaching

Karl von Frisch

dance of the honeybees, and also studied senses of fish

discrete data

data that has been counted rather than measured, usually limited to whole or positive values ex: group size, number of hospital visit, number of symptoms

Osmoreceptors

deal with thirst

Forgetting theories

decay (or trace) and interference theory

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness to a stimulus due to increasing familiarity

Reactive depression

depression resulting from particular events, similar to Martin Seligman's learned helplessness

Major depressive disorder

depressive episode by depressed mood, loss of interests, changes in weight or sleep, low energy, feelings of worthlessness, or thoughts of death; symptoms are present nearly every day for at least two weeks; females 2x likelier to be diagnosed; more common in developed countries

Shaping

differential reinforcement of successive approximations; Skinner rewarded rats first for being near lever then for touching it, reward for behaviours that brought them closer to the desired one (e.g. pressing lever)

Phonemes

discrete sounds that make up words but have no meaning (e.g. ee, p, sh); phonics is learning to read by sounding out phonemes

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

does not produce a specific response on its own (e.g. light or bell)

Leon Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory

drive to reduce cognitive dissonance, holding conflicting ideas simultaneously whether beliefs, attitudes, or actions

Psychopharmacology (criticisms)

drugs that take away symptoms do not provide interpersonal support

Broca's aphasia

dysfunction in certain cortical association area language disorder from damage to Broca's area, in left frontal lobe; can understand speech but has difficulty speaking (slow, laborious, omits words)

Wernicke's aphasia

dysfunction in certain cortical association area language disorder from damage to Wernicke's area, in left temporal lobe; can speak but doesn't understand how to correctly choose words (fluent but nonsensical)

Sleep disorders (group 13; types)

dyssomnias and parasomnias; insomnia, hypersomnia, narcolepsy, nightmare, sleep terror

Interaction between instinct and learning

e.g. rodents reared in isolation perform instinctual nest-building but much less efficient and successful than those exposed to learning opportunities

factorial design

each level of a given IV occurs with each level of the other IVs

Harry Stack Sullivan

emphasized social and interpersonal relationships; what one does is meant to elicit particular reactions

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)

employs principles from cognitive and behavioral theory

Skinner box

empty box (with a rat and a lever), later proved the influence of reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

every correct response is met with reinforcement; quickest but most fragile learning, as soon as rewards stop coming, the animal stops performing

Autonomic conditioning??? (still need example)

evoking responses of autonomic nervous system through training

John B. Watson

founded behaviouralism; studied conditioning, stimulus-response chains, objective, observable behaviours; humans ready to be trained by environment

Stanley Hall

founder of American Psychology Association (APA)

*Konrad Lorenz

founder of ethology, imprinting, animal aggression, releasing stimuli, fixed action patterns

Konrad Lorenz

founder of ethology; imprinting in ducklings; On Aggression

Nikolaas Tinbergen

founder of modern ethology models in naturalistic settings, stickleback fish and herring gull chicks

Wilhelm Wundt

founder of psychology, first official lab at U of Leipzig, also began first psychology journal; wrote principles of physiological psychology attempted to study and analyze consciousness; ideas forerunners of Edward Titchener

Edward Titchener

founder of structuralism, focused on the analysis of human consciousness; Through introspection, lab assistants objectively describe discrete sensations and contents of their minds; method soon dissolved

Gustav Fechner

founding experimental psychology from Elements of Psychophysics; first systematic experiment to result in mathematical conclusions; previously thought the mind could not be studied empirically

Phrase

group of words when put together function as a syntactic part of a sentence (e.g. "walking the dog")

Yerkes-Dodson effect

higher arousal for simple tasks (motivation), lower arousal for complex tasks (concentration); optimal arousal is an inverted U on a graph Y-axis: performance X-axis: arousal Difficult task --> upside-down U shape Simple task --> reaches peak then becomes horizontal

Educational psychology

how people learn in educational settings such as student and teacher attributes

perception

how we organize or experience sensation

texture gradient

how we see texture or fine detail differently from different distances

Validity (+types)

how well a test measures a construct; multitrait-multimethod technique determines validity; internal, external: concurrent, construct, content, face

Thomas Hobbes

human and animals are machines, sense-perception was all that could be known - can use science to learn people (like physics vs. machines)

Social exchange theory

humans interact in ways that maximize reward and minimize costs

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential

hyperpolarization, + let out, - compared to outside, decrease firing

George Sperling

iconic memory people could see more than they can remember

statistically significant

if it is significant, same finding can be generalized to the population use test of significant to reject null hypothesis

discriminate validity

in order to show that a test has construct validity, researchers also have to show that performance on the test is not correlated with other variables that the theory predicts that test performance should not be related to -ex: is test performance not related to test-taking experience?

Agonists

increase effects of a neurotransmitter (e.g. selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors [for depression] increase serotonin activity)

Sensitization

increased sensitivity to environment after exposure to a strong stimulus - Rubbing arm after pain?

Sham rage

incredible rage easily provoked when cerebral cortex is removed

Psychological abstracts

index published by APA, found at most major libraries; montly compilation of "nonevaluative summaries of the world's literature in psychology"; in each issue, article abstracts arranged by topic; hardcopy version of PsycINFO

Delirium

indicated by disturbed consciousness (awareness, attention, focus) and cognition (memory disorientation)

Paranoid (schizophrenia)

indicated by preoccupation with delusions or auditory hallucinations

Catatonic (schizophrenia)

indicated by psychomotor disturbance such as catalepsy, excessive motor activity, prominent posturing, echolalia, echopraxia

Learning disorders

indicated by school achievement or standardized scores at least 2 SDs below mean for age and IQ

Dependence

indicated by some combination of: continued use despite substance-related problems; need for increased amount; desire but inability to stop use; withdrawal; lessening of outside interests; much time getting, using, or recovering from substance

percentile

indicates the percentage of scores that fall at or below a given score (e.g. if your score is at the 90th percentile, 90% of the scores fall at or below your score)

Hedonism

individuals are motivated by what brings most pleasure and least pain

Token economy

individuals in the environment are motivated by secondary reinforcers; e.g. tokens in prisons, rehab, etc., cashed in for more primary reinforcers (e.g. candy, books, privileges)

Tachistoscope

instrument used to present visual material (words/images) to subjects for a fraction of a second, in cognitive or memory experiments

Edward Thorndike

instrumental learning in animals, - led to law of effect that successful behaviours are likelier to be repeated; - cats in puzzle boxes: eventually accidentally press escape door lever and be free, later the cat activates lever right away

Anne Anastasi

intelligence in relation to performance; pioneered development of psychometrics, "no intelligence is culture-free"

norm-referenced testing

involves assessing an individual's performance in terms of how that individual performs in comparison to others (to that test's norms) -ex: "Erika did better than 99% of 2nd graders tested" -derived from standardized samples; the samples should be large and representative of the population to whom the particular test will be administered -one problem with it: the population to whom the tests will be administered can, often does, change. If it changes, then the original standardization sample would no longer be representative of the population

Trichotillomania

irresistible impulse to pull out one's own body hair

pyromania

irresistible impulse to set fires

Kleptomania

irresistible impulse to steal

Impulse control disorders not elsewhere classified (group 14; types)

irresistible urge dictates behaviour, giving in lessens tension, though disruptive to overall functioning; kleptomania, pyromania, pathological gambling, trichotillomania

Crystallized intelligence

knowing a fact

Declarative memory

knowing a fact

Fluid intelligence

knowing how to do something

Procedural memory

knowing how to do something

size constancy

knowing that an elephant is big no matter how it might appear

Self-esteem

knowing you are worthwhile and in touch with strengths; 50% perceive selves accurately, 35% narcissistically

Katherine Nelson

language development begins with onset of active speech rather than during the first year of only listening

Sensory memory (+types)

last seconds, connects perception and memory, includes iconic and echoic memory

Where opponent-process and tri-chromatic theory works respectively

lateral geniculate body, retina

E. L. Thorndike

law of effect

Edward Thorndike

law of effect; precursor to operant conditioning

Abraham Maslow

leader of humanistic movement; hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslow

leader of humanistic psychology; examined normal or optimal functioning rather than abnormal; hierarchy of needs; people inherently strive for self-improvement

Age affects learning

learn 3-20, constant 20-50, drops 50+

Secondary Reinforcement

learned reinforce, often through society; money, prestige, rewards

Perceptual/conceptual learning (+example)

learning about something in general (history) for knowledge rather than learning-specific stimulus-response chains (e.g. Tolman's experiments with animals forming cognitive maps of mazes rather than simple escape routes)

Modeling (+example? and researcher)

learning and behaving by imitation; Albert Bandura's Bobo doll (children watching adults with blow up dolls)

Hermann Ebbinghaus

learning curve

bar graph

like a histogram except that the vertical bars do not touch - various columns are separated by space

Neuromodulators

like neurotransmitters but cause long-term changes in postsynaptic cell

Groupthink

likely to occur in a group with unquestioned beliefs, pressure to conform, invulnerability, censors, cohesiveness, isolation, strong leader; to minimize conflict and reach consensus without critical testing, analyzing, or evaluating

Chaining

linking a series of behaviours that result in reinforcement, one behaviour triggers the next (e.g. learning the alphabet)

Response learning

links together chains of stimuli and responses, learns what to do in response to particular triggers (leaving a building in response to fire alarm)

Morphemes

made of phonemes, smallest units of meaning in language, words or parts of words (e.g. boy, -ing)

Magnifying/minimizing

making too much or little of something (e.g. "it was luck that I did well")

Abnormal theory (Cognitive Theory)

maladaptive cognitions lead to abnormal behaviour or disturbed affect; - cognitive triad - types of maladaptive cognitions: arbitrary inference, overgeneralization, magnifying/minimizing, personalizing, dichotomous thinking

Klinefelter's syndrome

male with one Y and 2 X chromosomes, hypogonadism and reduced fertility; other physical and behavioural differences and problems with varying severity

John Locke

man mind is tabula rasa (blank slate) at first; knowledge not innate, from experience

Somatoform disorders (group 8; +types)

manifested by physical or bodily symptoms that cause reduced functioning; conversion disorder, hypochondriasis; formerly "psychosomatic" disorders

nature-nurture debate in terms of personality

many argue that there is no true gender differences - children are reinforced for stereotypical behaviors - prevailing pov -> interactionist

Undifferentiated (schizophrenia)

many schizophrenic symptoms not fitting a particular type

Personal unconscious

material from individual's own experiences, can become conscious

Meta-analysis

mathematically combines and summarizes overall effects or findings for a topic; best known for consolidating effectiveness of psychotherapy, can calculate overall effect size or conclusion drawn from a collection of studies; needed when conflicting results and different methods

test-retest reliability

measured by the same individual taking the same test more than once

Incidental learning

measured through presenting subjects with items they are not supposed to try to memorize, then test for learning

Electroencephalogram

measures brain wave patterns and have made it possible to study waking and sleeping states

Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)

measures cognitive triad and gauges severity of diagnosed depression; determines number of depressive symptoms, for research and clinical settings

Savings

measures how much info remains in LTM (information retention) by assessing how long it takes to learn something the second time

fMRI

measures oxygen flow in different brain areas, used most in cognitive psych to measure activity in different brain regions during certain tasks

Internal validity

measures the extent to which items in a measure "hang together" and test the same thing

Clark Hull

mechanistic behavioural ideas; motivation: performance = drive x habit; we do what we need and what worked best in the past; Kenneth Spence modified theory

avoiding type

melancholic low in activity and low in social contribution, withdrawn

Karl Lashley???

memories are stored diffusely in the brain

Screen memory

memories that serve as representations of important childhood experiences

Mnemonics

memory cues that aid learning and recall (e.g. OCEAN for the Big Five factors of personality...)

Donald Hebb

memory involves changes in synpases and neural pathways to make a memory tree

Frederick Bartlett

memory is reconstructive rather than rote, People are more likely to remember ideas/semantics more than details/grammar

Elizabeth Loftus

memory of traumatic events altered by event and by the phrasing of questions (e.g. "how fast were the cars going when they crashed" vs "what was the rate of the cars upon impact"); relevant in law-psychology such as witness testimony

Type I error

mistakenly reject null hypothesis; there is really no distance between the population values mentioned in the null hypothesis & a statistically significant result was obtained just by chance; true null hypothesis was rejected; 5% chance of making this error (same as alpha level); if null hypothesis is rejected, there are 5 chances out of 100 that the decision is wrong

Overgeneralization

mistaking isolated incidents for the norm (e.g. "no one will ever want to be with me")

Behavior theory

model based on learning; - application of classical and operant conditioning principles to human abnormal behavior, - change maladaptive behaviour through new learning; - radical behavioralism, - neobehaviouralism

Aggressive children at early age

moderate tendency to remain aggressive through later life

Enlightenment

most important question of the time: understanding the mind (supplanted understanding existence) immanuel Kant

Pluralistic ignorance

most in a group privately disagree but incorrectly believe most in group agree

Variable ratio schedule

most time to learn but least likely to be extinguished; reinforcements are delivered after different numbers of correct responses, ratio cannot be predicted

Premack principle

motivated to do what they do not want to do by rewarding themselves afterwards with something they like to do Eat dessert after eating unwanted vegetable

Drive-reduction theory

motivation to reduce internal tension, once satisfied, back to homeostasis/ relaxation; against M.E. Olds electrical stimulation of pleasure centres

Dorothea Lynde Dix

movement for better care for mentally ill through hospitalization

Eye movements and gaze durations

movements and durations indicate information processing while reading

Primary Reinforcement

natural reinforcement, without requirement of learning; food and water

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

naturally occurring response (e.g. salivation to food)

Henry Murray, David McClelland

need for achievement (nAch); need to pursue success or to avoid failure - goal is to feel successful

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

neutral stimulus once paired with UCS; no naturally occurring response, only with UCS pairing (e.g. light (CS) eventually produces salivation)

Partial Reinforcement Schedule (+types)

not all correct responses met with reinforcement; slower but more resistant; fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval; variable is best because it is unexpected, ratio gives better response since based on # of correct behaviours

PsycINFO database

online format of Psychological Abstracts; access all psychology abstracts catalogued under search

Hierarchy of bees

only one queen bee, which produces a chemical that suppresses ovaries in all other female bees, constantly tended to and fed, lays thousands of eggs in the spring; when eggs mature, scouts finds new site for old queen and her workers, a new queen emerges

Schizophrenia (onset)

onset between late adolescence and mid-30s; process vs. reactive

James Cattell

opened more psychology labs, thought psychology should be more scientific than Wundt

Stimulus generalization

opposite of stimulus discrimination; make same response to a group of similar stimuli (e.g. fire alarms may sound different but same response)

Disruptive behaviour disorders (2 disorders)

oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder; indicated by patterns of behaviour that violate rules, norms, or the rights of others

path from optic nerve to visual association areas of cortex

optic nerve --> optic chiasm --> striate cortext --> visual association area of cortex

Synapse gap

or just synapse, the space between 2 neurons where they communication

Descriptive statistics (+types)

organize data by showing it in a meaningful way; do not allow conclusions to be drawn beyond the sample; percentiles, frequency distributions, graphs, measures of central tendency, variability

Taxonomies

organized categorization systems, by statistical techniques for personality

Secondary (elaborative) rehearsal

organizing and understanding material to transfer to LTM

Type theory

originally dominated personality theory (Hippocrates), many placed into type categories based on physical appearance; including using phrenology and somatotypes

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

originally to determine mental illness, now for personality; - more clinical than CPI; - 550 T/F/unsure questions (e.g. "I would like to ride a horse"); - discriminates between disorders; - high validity because highly discriminatory items and 3 validity scales (lying, carelessness, faking)

Word Association Test

originally used with free association techniques; word called out, subject says next word in mind

confounding variables

other variables that could differentially effect the DV; unintended IVs (calorie count could possibly cause a difference in spelling test scores)

Gate Control Theory of Pain

pain is a process rather than simple unpleasant sensation, pain perception is related to interaction of large and small nerve fibers that run to and from spine; pain perception influenced by many factors including cognition

Anxiety disorders (group 7; types)

panic attack, generalized anxiety disorder, specific anxiety disorders: panic disorder, agoraphobia, phobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder

Schizophrenia (types)

paranoid, disorganized, catatonic, undifferentiated, residual

Cluster A personality (odd or eccentric disorders)

paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal

current thinking of perception

partially inate/sensory, partially learned/conceptual

Self-presentation

particularly positive self-presentation is influencial on behaviour, we act in ways that align with our attitudes or in ways that will be accepted by others; self-monitoring; impression management

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

pathway that runs to and from CNS

Brenda Milner

patient "HM" lesion of hippocampus, remembered things before surgery, STM intact, but could not store new LTMs (anterograde amnesia)

psychoanalysis

patients are seen 4-5 times a week and for many years - Initially: hypnosis - Then: free association - Transference, countertransference

transference

patients react to the therapist like they react to their parents

Gain-loss theory

people act in order to obtain gain and avoid loss; people favour situations that start out negative and end positive, even compared to completely positive situations

Peter principle

people are promoted at work until they reach a position of incompetence in which they remain

process of becoming

people in the process of realizing themselves - The individual is motivated by social needs and feelings of inferiority that arise when the current self does not match the self-ideal

Social learning theory

people learn through their culture. They learn acceptable and unacceptable behaviours through culture

Equity theory

people most comfortable in situations which rewards and punishments are equal, fitting, or logical; - overbenefited people feel guilt, - random/ illogical punishments create anxiety

Implicit theories (personality)

people often make assumptions about the dispositions of an individual based on the actions of that person

gestalt psychology

people see the world as comprised of organized whole top-down processing

Persona

person's outer mask, mediator to external world; masks in cultures

George Kelley

personal constructs determine personality and behaviour

Costa and McCrae

personality changes little after age 30

Internal locus of control

personality characteristic, causes one to view events as outcome of own actions; too much breeds self-blame

External locus of control

personality characteristic, causes one to view events as result of luck or fate; too much breeds helplessness

John Garcia

preparedness, that certain associations are learned more easily than others; animals programmed to make certain connections; Garcia effect - nausea associated with food

Higher-Order conditioning

previous CS now a UCS (e.g.*bell > [ light > food > ] salivation)

Second-Order conditioning

previous CS now a UCS (e.g.*bell > [ light > food > ] salivation)

Positive transfer

previous learning helps learning of another task later

Negative transfer

previous learning makes learning a new task more difficult

Basic types of drives

primary/instinctual (hunger or thirst), secondary/ acquired (money or other learned reinforcers), exploratory (seek novelty or explore)

lateral inhibition

process that allows eye to see contrast and prevents repetitive information sent; once a receptor is stimulated, others nearby are inhibited

Punishment

promotes extinction of undesirable behaviour, negative stimulus presented after behaviour to decrease likelihood of reoccurrence - Skinner thinks it is not effective in long run

Abnormal theory (Rational-Emotive Theory)

psychological tension created when (a)ctivating even occurs, and client has certain (b)eliefs about the event, leading to (c)onsequence of emotional disruption

Community psychology

psychology taken into community (community centres or schools) rather than individuals go to clinics and universities; emphasizes respect, recognizes logistics that keep needy people from seeking help

Psychological Bulletin

published bimonthly by APA; various papers ranging from literature reviews to quantitative reviews

Aversive conditioning

punishment to decrease likelihood of a behaviour ex: drug Antabuse to treat alcoholism

Timbre

quality/characteristic of sound from complexity of sound wave

Sexual and gender identity disorders (group 11; types)

range from fetishes to arousal problems to gender discomfort; desire, arousal, orgasmic, and sexual pain disorders

Inductive reasoning

reasoning that leads to general rules inferred from specifics "Most PhD student studied hard for GRE, if I do the same I may be able to get in to a good program"

Deductive reasoning

reasoning that leads to specific conclusion that must follow from information given "All coats are blue --> she is wearing a blue coat --> Her coat must be blue"

Free recall

recall without any cue

3 steps of sensation

reception, sensory-transduction, and travel of electrical information

path from receptor to optic nerve

receptor --> horizontal cell --> bipolar cell --> amacrine cell --> ganglion cell

Tay-Sachs disease

recessive, genetic deficiency of hexosaminidase A; symptoms that resemble psychological disorders (e.g. schizophrenia or dementia)

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

recessive, infant disease, excess amino acids, inborn error of metabolism

Antidepressants (+types)

reduces depressive symptoms, by taking opposite action of antimanics; depression appears to be from abnormally low levels of monoamines; increase production and transmission of various monoamines; - Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), - Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), - Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs); - at least 6 weeks to begin working; often used in treatment either because of fast relief from symptoms so client can attend therapy, or because of unsuccessful psychotherapy

Negative Reinforcement

removal of a negative event that increases likelihood of a particular response; while punishment introduces a negative event to decrease likelihood of a response

Dark adaptation

result of regeneration of retinal pigment

State-dependent memory

retrieval is better if in the same emotional or physical state as encoding - depressed individuals cannot easily recall happy memories - alcoholics often remember details of their last drinking session only when under the influence of alcohol

Extinction

reversal of conditioning, dissociating behaviour from a cue - Repeatedly withholding reinforcement or disassociating the behavior from a cue

Lewis Terman

revised Binet scale to Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale; also studied gifted children, those with higher IQs better adjusted

Positive Reinforcement

reward or positive event that increases likelihood of a particular response

Fixed interval schedule

rewards after a certain period of time rather than number of behaviours; can be argued that it does little to motivate an animal's behaviour

Variable interval schedule

rewards delivered after differing time periods; second most effective strategy in maintaining behaviour

Process schizophrenia

schizophrenia develops gradually, lower rate of recovery

Reactive schizophrenia

schizophrenia develops suddenly in response to a particular event, higher rate of recovery

diathesis-stress theory

schizophrenia results from a physiological predisposition (abnormal brain chemistry) paired with an external stressor

John B. Watson

school of behaviourism

Aptitude

set of characteristics indicative of one's ability to learn

Differential reinforcement of successive approximations

shaping; Skinner rewarded rats first for being near lever then for touching it, reward for behaviours that brought them closer to the desired one (e.g. pressing lever)

Types of classical conditioning

simultaneous, higher-order/second-order, delayed forward, trace forward, backward

David Rosenhan

studied effect of diagnostic labels on perception of behaviour; experiment of normal pseudopatients feigned disorders, once in hospital, individuals acted normally, but behaviours construed as fitting the diagnosis anyway

Stuart Valins

studied environmental influences on behaviour; architecture matters. students in long-corridor dorms more stressed and withdrawn than those in suite-style

M. Rokeach

studied racial bias and belief similarity, people prefer to be with like-minded people more than like-skinned; racial bias decreases as attitude similarity between people increases

Eric Kandel

studied sea slug Aplysia, which have few, large, easily identifiable nerve cells (chose to study this for this reason) learning and memory evidenced by changes in synapses and neural pathways

Richard Lazarus

studied stres sand coping, - differentiated between problem-focused coping (changing stressor) and emotion-focused coping (changing response)

Lee Ross

studied subjects who were first made to believe a state and then later told it was false. subjects continued to believe the state if they had processed it and devised their own logical explanation for it

Sandra Bem

studies androgyny; created Bem Sex Role Inventory

Health psychology

studies biological, behavioural and social impacts on health and illness; Important finding: increased stress leads to higher likelihood of sickness, social support is associated with better health outcomes

Parallel play

study development; 2-3 yrs, 2 children standing next to each other playing in similar styles by independently

Symbolic play

study development; usually 1-2 yrs, involves pretend roles, imagination, objects to represent other things; apparent they can understand representation of one object for another

Hawthorne effect

study how to increase worker productivity at Hawthorne Works, reported anything they did increased productivity; because performance changes when people are being observed

Dichotic presentation

study selective attention, often asked to shadow one message to ensure the other message is not consciously attended to

Longitudinal design

studying the same objects at different points in the lifespan and provides better, more valid results than most other methods - costly, time commitment

Hawthorne effect

subjects alter behaviour because they are being observed

J.A. Swet's Theory of Signal Detection (TSD)

subjects detect stimuli not only because they can but also because they want to Added in motivation as a factor - explain why subject respond inconsistently partly motivated by rewards and costs in detection

Recall task involving order of items on a list

subjects more easily state the order of two items far apart on the list than two items close together - Comparing 7 & 597 vs. comparing 133 vs. 136

Fugue

suddenly fleeing to a new location, forgetting true identity, and/or establishing a new identity

Matina Horner

suggested females shun masculine-type successes not because of fear or failure or lack of interest, but they fear success and its negative repercussions (i.e. resentment and rejection)

Elizabeth Loftus and Allan Collins

suggested hierarchical semantic networks, people group related items; the more closely related items, the more quickly subject can link them (e.g. Answer T/F quicker to "a canary is a bird" than "a toaster is a bird")

Alfred Adler (personality typology; +types)

suggested personality typology based on personal activity and social interest; ruling-dominant type (choleric; high-low), getting-learning type (phlegmatic; low-high), avoiding type (melancholic; low-low), and socially useful type (sanguine; high-high)

Problem space

sum total of possible moves that one might make to solve a problem

therapy (existential theory)

talking therapy, deep questions relating to perception and meaning of existence

Escape conditioning

teach to performance a desired behaviour to get away from a negative stimulus

Scaffolding learning

teacher encourages independent learning, only provides assistance when needed

Zeigarnik effect

tendency to recall pursued but incomplete tasks better than completed ones - Students who suspend their study, during which they do unrelated activities (such as studying unrelated subjects or playing games), will remember material better than students who complete study sessions without a break

Social loafing

tendency to work less hard in a group as a result of diffusion of responsibility; guarded against when each individual is closely monitored

Ulric Neisser

termed icon for brief visual memory

Hypotheses

test relationships then to form concepts

cross validation

testing the criterion validity of a test on a 2nd sample, after you demonstrated validity using an initial sample

Two-way ANOVA

tests the effects of two independent variables or treatment conditions at once

within subject

tests the same person at multiple time points and looks at changes within that person

analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)

tests whether at least 2 groups co-vary - can adjust for preexisting differences between groups

One-way ANOVA

tests whether the means on one outcome or dependent variable are significantly different across groups - height or level of anxiety from anxiety scale

predictive value

the degree to which an independent variable can predict a dependent variable

generalizability

the degree to which the result from an experiment can be applied to the population and the real world

cohort effect

the effect that might result when a group is born and raised in a particular time period

visual field

the entire span that can be perceived or detected by the eye at a given moment

Undergeneralization

the failure to generalize a stimulus

sensation

the feeling that results from physical stimulation

Primacy and recency effects

the first and last few items learned are easiest to remember. first items are due to the benefit of most rehearsal and exposure. last item is easy to remember because there has been less time for decay

population

the group the researcher wished to generalize her results to

Null hypothesis

the hypothesis that no real differences or pattern exist

Lamarckian evolution

the idea that characteristics acquired during lifetime passed to future generations

phrenology

the idea that the nature of a person could be known by examining the shape and contours of the skull Brain - seat of the soul

Fight or flight

the internal physiological changes that occur in an organism in response to a perceived threat (increase in HR or respiration)

homeostasis

the internal regulation of body to main equilibrium (decrease in HR after the perceived threat is no longer present)

eros

the life instinct, including sex and love

mode

the most frequently occurring value

Socrates

the original philosophic mentor who pondered the abstract ideas of truth, beauty and justice

Alleles

the pair up of possible dominant and recessive gene variations for each characteristic

id

the part of mind that contains the unconscious biological drives and wishes. - At birth: mental life is composed solely of the id and its biological drives (sex and aggression) - with development, the id also includes unconscious wishes

superego

the part of mind that imposes learned or socialized drives. - not something one is born with, but develops over time - influenced by moral and parental training

ego

the part of mind that mediates between the environment and the pressures of the id and the superego

receptive field

the part of the world that triggers a particular neuron

reuptake

the process after a neurotransmitter has done its job, it is reabsorbed by the presynaptic cell

Sensory transduction

the process in which physical sensation is changed into electrical message that the brain can understand - it is at the heart of the senses

statistics

the process of representing or analyzing numerical data

prototypes

the representative or usual type of an event or object

test-retest reliability

the same test is administered to the same group of people twice; estimates the inter-individual stability of test scores over time

Social Psychology

the study of how people relate to and influence each other

personality

the study of why people act the way that they do and why different people act differently

diffusion of responsibility

the tendency that the larger the group, the less likely individuals in the group will act or take responsibility - result of deindividuation (Kitty Genovese care)

continuation/good continuation

the tendency to create a whole or detailed figure based on our expectation rather than what is seen

proximity

the tendency to group together items that are near each other

symmetry

the tendency to make figures out of symmetrical images

Field theory

the total influences upon individual behavior

genotype

the total of all genetic material that an offspring received (23 pairs or 46 total chromosomes) - an individual's complete genetic make up, include both dominant and recessive genes

independent variable (IV)

the variable whose effect is being studied and is manipulated by experimenter (ex: breakfast type, protein content)

Paired-associate learning

the way behaviourists explain memory; one item learned with, then cues the recall of, another

M. Fischbein and I. Ajzen

theory of reasoned action

therapy (Gestalt Theory)

therapist engages in a dialogue with client rather than leading toward a goal; client learns from dialogue, and together focus on here-and-now experience rather than talking about the past

Charles Spearmen

there is a general factor in intelligence "g"

John Atkinson

those who set realistic goals with intermediate risk feel pride with accomplishment, and want to succeed more than they fear failure - however less likely to set unrealistic or risky goals or to persist when success is unlikely

Trace conditioning

type of forward conditioning; CS presented and terminated before UCS presentation

factorial analysis of variance

used when an experiment involves more than one independent variable - can separate the effects of different levels of different variables - can isolate main effects - can identify interaction effects ex: studying effect of brain lesion on problem solving independent variable 1 - lesion independent variable 2 - type of problem dependent variable - success with problem We have: with and without lesion, simple and complex task 2x2 design gets 4 different combinations of evaluation main effect: effect of lesion on problem solving and effect of type of task on problem solving interaction effect: do people with lesions do better on simple tasks than people without lesion do on complex tasks

Nonequivalent control group

used when equivalent one cannot be isolated

chi-square test

used when n-cases in a sample are classified into categories or cells - tell us whether the groups are significantly different in size - look at the pattern or distributions, not difference between mean - ex:intro psych class categorized into race - can analyze categorical/discrete data - can be used on small samples - can assess the goodness of fit of distribution or whether the pattern is what would be expected

Paired-associate learning

used when studying foreign languages, we pair that language word with English word

Nomothetic approach

uses large numbers of people to study commonalities of personality

Shaping

uses operant conditioning to change behavior, - reinforced for behaviors that come closer and closer to desired action

Aversion therapy

uses operant principle of negative reinforcement to increase anxiety, - anxiety-reaction created where there was none; - usually to treat addiction and fetishes

Modeling

uses social learning principles, - exposes client to more adaptive behaviors

Representativeness heuristic

using shortcut about typical assumptions rather than relying on logic; basis of stereotypes - 6 feet tall beautiful women --> we think she's more likely to be a model than lawyer

Specific anxiety disorders (treatment)

usually treated with behavioural therapies that expose patient to anxiety-provoking stimulus to change response (i.e. systematic desensitization and flooding)

interest testing

usually used to assess an individual's interest in different lines of work

mode

value of most frequent observation in a set of scores

placebo effect

when subject behave differently just because they thing that they have received the treatment substance or condition

Demand characteristic

when subjects act in ways they think experimenter wants or expects

social desirability

when subjects do and say what they think puts them in a favorable light ex: reporting they are not racist even if they really are

single-blind experiment

when subjects do not know whether they are in the treatment or control group, but the researchers know

Selective attrition

when subjects that drop out are different than those that remain; no longer random

object relations therapy

when the therapist uses the patient's transference to help him/her resolve problems that were the result of previous relationship by correcting the emotional experience in the therapist-patient relationship

Axon hillock

where soma and axon connect

Content validity

whether content covers a good sample of construct being measured

Concurrent validity

whether scores on a new measure correlate with other measures known to test the same construct; cross validation process

Face validity

whether test items look like they measure the construct

Construct validity

whether test really taps abstract concept being measured

Contact (Groups)

with opposing party decreases conflict, we fear what we do not know`

gender and depression

women are twice as likely as men to become depressed

Wolfgang Kohler

worked with chimpanzees and insight in problem solving, chimps could perceive the whole situation to create new solutions rather than by trial and error; chimps had to use tools or create props to retrieve rewards

Aristotle

world's first professor, studied based on order and logic, disagreed with Plato, believed that truth can be found in physical world

Kay Deaux

- women's success at "male" tasks attributed to luck, - while men's success attributed to skill; Suggesting - gender is a social construct that colours interpretations; - women attribute successes to luck more than men indicating they have lower self-esteem

Walter Cannon

- coined "fight or flight", - proposed idea homeostasis

T-test

- compares means of 2 different groups to see if the two groups are truly different - analyze differences between means on continuous data - particularly useful with small n - cannot test for difference between more than 2 groups

Schizoid personality disorder

A, odd or eccentric; detachment, small range of emotion

Paranoid personality disorder

A, odd or eccentric; distrust, suspicion

Schizotypal personality disorder

A, odd or eccentric; eccentricity, distorted reality

Conservation

Piaget, Concrete Operational, 3/4, 7-12 yrs; knowing changes in shape are not changes in volume

Sucking reflex

Piaget, Sensorimotor, 1/4, 0-2 yrs; elicited by placing object in mouth

Head-turning reflex

Piaget, Sensorimotor, 1/4, 0-2 yrs; elicited by stroking cheek

Dendrites

neuron branches, receive impulses, branching patterns change throughout life

William Labov

"Black" English, Ebonics, has its own complex internal structure, not simply bad English

Jean Piaget (moral development; +stages)

"Moral Judgment of the Child" hypothesized 3 stages; 4-7 (imitates rule-following behaviour, does not question), 4-11 (understands rules and follows), 12+ yrs (abstract thining to rules, can change if all parties agree)

IQ Binet's equation

(Mental age/chronological age)/100 Highest age = 16

Language acquisition milestones

1 year speaks first word(s), 2 years > 50 spoken words, usually 2 then 3-word phrases, 3 years 1000-word vocabulary but has grammatical errors 4 years grammar errors are random exceptions

3 personality theories

1) dispositionist 2) situationist 3) interactionists

2 basic types of statistics

1. Descriptive 2. Inferential

2 types of ability tests

1. aptitude tests 2. achievement tests

Penfield, W.

Canadian neurosurgeon who used electrodes and electrical stimulation techniques to "map" out different parts of the brain during surgery

Breland, K. and Breland, M.

Discovered and studied instinctual drift

Pavlov, I.

Discovered the basic principles of classical conditioning

Forgetting curve

Ebbinghaus, sharp drop in savings immediately after learning then levels off downwards; but some psychologists doubt generalization from nonsense syllables

Rosenthal effect

Experimenter bias; researchers see what they want to see; minimized in double-blind

Freud, A.

Founder of ego psychology

Logotherapy

Frankl; focuses on person's will to meaning

Oral stage

Freud, 1/5, birth-18mos; oral pleasure (sucking, eating, biting)

perceptual development

James Gibson increasing ability through development to make finer discriminations among stimuli;

hypnosis

Jean Charcot and Pierre Janet

Martin Seligman

Learned helplessness

Vector (life space)

Lewin; life space; pushes person in the direction of + valence, away from - valence

Erikson, E.

Outlined eight stages of psychosocial development overing the lifespan

Efferent fibers

PNS fibers that run away from CNS (to cause effect the brain wants)

Afferent fibers

PNS fibers that run towards CNS

Somatic nervous system

PNS, interacts with external environment by controlling voluntary movements of striated muscles

neobehaviouralism

Pavlov's classical counterconditioning principles to create new responses to stimuli

abnormal theory (Client-centered theory)

People who lack congruence between real selves and conscious self-concept develops psychological tension; incongruence occurs when feelings or experiences are inconsistent with acknowledged of self (e.g. perfect self-concept shaken by any failure)

Recognition

Requires subjects to recognize things learned in the past Multiple choice test

radical behavioralism

Skinner's operant ideas that behaviour is related only to consequences

Supernormal sign stimulus

Tinbergen, artificial stimuli that exaggerate naturally occurring sign stimulus or releaser, more effective than natural

Purposive behaviour

Tolman; learning is acquired through meaningful behaviour towards a goal; sign learning

existential theory (originator)

Victor Frankl

Alpha levels

a level of <0.05or <0.01 means that chance that seemingly significant errors are due to random variation rather than to true systematic variance is less than 5% or 1%

Free-recall learning

a list of items is learned, and then must be recalled in any order with no cue.

regression

a return to an earlier stage

Fitness

ability to reproduce and pass on genes

Abnormal theory (Behavior theory)

abnormal behaviour is the result of learning and conditioning

Parasomnias

abnormal movements, behaviours, emotions, perceptions during sleep; usually between transitions of wake to non-REM or wake to REM; somnambulism, sleep terrors, etc.

Negative symptoms

abnormally absent; includes flat affect or restrictions in thought, speech, or behaviour

Positive symptoms (schizophrenia)

abnormally present; delusions, perceptual hallucinations, nonsensical or disorganized speech, disorganized behaviour

Flat affect

absence of appropriate emotion

Projection

accusing others of having one's own unacceptable feelings

Objective self-awareness

achieved through: self-perception, high-self-monitoring, internality, self-efficacy; experiments facilitate this by having subjects perform tasks while looking in a mirror; deindividuation works against it

Factors that make a list easier to learn and retrieve

acoustic dissimilarity, semantic dissimilarity, brevity, familiarity, concreteness, meaning, importance to subject

Nature vs. nurture

addressed by twin studies experiences; genetics examined by comparing between monozygotic (identical twins) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins, fraternal rather than siblings due to more similar environment and developmental stages; environment examined by compring identical twins separated at birth

therapy (Psychopharmacology)

aim to affect neurotransmitters; commonly dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine (monoamines)

stratified sampling

aims to match demographic characteristics to population (i.e. 50% female, etc)

Shared psychotic disorder

aka folie a deux; when two people have shared delusions

Disorganized (schizophrenia)

aka hebephrenic schizophrenia; indicated by disorganized speech and behaviour, and flat affect

Bipolar disorder

aka manic depression; indicated by depressive symptoms that alternate with manic symptoms; equally prevalent in genders

Releasing stimuli

aka releasers or sign stimuli, Lorenz, continued by Tinbergen, elicits fixed action patterns from another individual in the same species

Inferential statistics

allow generalization from sample to population statistics (sample), parameters (population): use statistics to estimate parameters

Role playing

allows client to practice new behaviours and responses

ciliang muscles

allows lens to bend in order to focus on image of the outside world onto the retina

Projective tests (+types)

allows own answer: expression of conflicts, needs, impulses; - content interpreted by administrator, some more objective than others; - Rorschach Inkblot Test, - Thematic Apperception Test, - Rosenzweig Picture-Frustration (P-F) Study, - Word Association Test, - Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank, - Draw-A-Person Test

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

ambiguous story cards, people project own "needs"

Glutamate

an amino acid, most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter.

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

an amino acid, most abundant inhibitory neurotransmitter

Item analysis (reliability)

analyses how a large group responded to each item on the measure; weeds out problematic questions with low discriminatory value; increases internal consistency

Inclusive fitness

animals invest in the survival of not only their own genes but also the genes of their kin

Eating disorders (group 12; types)

anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa

Erotomanic delusion

another person is in love with the individual

Cluster B personality (dramatic, emotional or erratic disorders)

antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic

Social phobia

anxiety around social or performance situations

Specific phobia

anxiety in response to a stimulus (e.g. flying, heights, needles, or driving)

Generation-recognition model

anything one might recall is easily recognized - multiple-choice test is easier than essay test

continuous data

anything that is measured such as height or depression score on a depression scale

Activational hormones

anytime during adulthood, short periods, often transient or reversible (current/recent circulation); - menstrual cycle (estradiol, progesterone, luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)); - LH and FSH in females regulate ovum development and trigger ovulation, in males regulate development of sperm and testosterone production; - oxytocin facilitates birth, breast feeding, pair bonding (mother-child or romantic)

Anna Freud

applied Freud ideas of child psychology and development

Flooding or implosive therapy

applies classical conditioning to relieve anxiety, - repeatedly exposed to anxiety-producing stimulus so eventually the overexposure leads to lessened anxiety

Social support network

area of study that combines social and clinical ideas, for mental health

Cortical association areas

areas on cortex that correspond to certain functions; - the larger the area, the more sensitive and highly accessed the function - Damage to a particular area would result in certain dysfunction

Syntax

arrangement of words into sentences as prescribed by a particular language

Carol Gilligan

asserted that Kohlberg's moral development theory was biased toward males, dominated by rules, where women's morality focuses more on compassion

Vocational tests

assess extent interests and strengths match those found by professionals in a particular job field

counterbalancing

assigning half of the subjects to low-protein 1st and the other half to high-protein 1st. all subjects will still experience both levels, just in different orders

Female menstrual cycle (hormones)

associated with changes in hormone levels throughout the month - estradiol, progesterone, luteinizing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone

Illusory correlation

assuming 2 unrelated things are related

False consensus bias

assuming most other people think as you do

dissociative Identity disorder

assumption of 2+ identities that control behavior in different situations; formerly multiple personality disorder

Trait hierarchy

at the top a cardinal trait (always consistent), then central traits, then secondary traits (may conflict)

Logical reasoning errors (types)

atmosphere effect, semantic effect, confirmation bias

Navigation cues

atmospheric pressure, infrasound, magnetic sense, sun compass, star compass, polarized light,

achievement tests

attempt to assess what one knows or can do now; can test adequacy of learning content & skill

Postsynaptic cell

beginning of neuron (dendrites)

Middle ear

begins with tympanic membrane (ear drum) stretched across auditory canal, - ossicles located behind ear drum - vibrations hit ear drum causes ossicles to vibrate (malleus-incus-stapes)

Impression management

behaving in ways that might make a good impression

Sex-typed behaviour

behaviour stereotypical for gender, low prepubescence, highest young adulthood, then lowers again

Altruism

behaviour that solely benefits another, - similar to group mentality, - will help if benefit outweighs cost or expect to be repaid

Edward Tolman

behaviourist, valued both behaviour and cognition; purposive behaviour and sign learning; rats in mazes formed cognitive maps rather than blindly attempting various routes like stimulus-response suggests; also expectancy-value theory of motivation: performance = expectation x value

Courting

behaviours that precede sexual acts that lead to reproduction, to attract and isolate a mate

Displacement activities/irrelevant behaviours

behaviours that seem out of place, illogical, and no particular survival function (e.g. scratching your head while thinking)

lens

behind cornea

Self-efficacy

belief that one can effectively perform a task

Inoculation theory

beliefs are more vulnerable if never faced challenge

Anton Mesmer

believed healing of physical ailments came from manipulation of bodily fluids; animal magnetism (mind control of one person over another) responsible for patient recoveries; used technique of mesmerism (hypnotism)

abnormal theory (Psychopharmacology)

believed some emotional disturbances at least partly caused by biological factors

Hindsight bias

believing after the fact that you knew something all along

Nodes of Ranvier

between myelin sheath, help send impulse down axon

Bulimia nervosa

binge eating with harmful ways to prevent weight gain (e.g. induced vomiting or laxative use)

Depth perception cues (list)

binocular disparity (two slightly different angles), apparent size, interposition (overlap to show which object closer), linear perspective (parallel lines seem to converge with distance), texture gradient (texture/fine detail changes from different distances), motion parallax (perceived different pace of movement through displacement of objects over time)

Star compass

birds many birds can use star patterns and movements as navigational cue

Robert Zajonc

birth order vs. intelligence; the older, the more intelligent; the more children, the less intelligent; the greater spacing, the more intelligent

Dichotomous thinking

black and white thinking (e.g. "if I don't score 100% I have no future")

Hermaphrodite or intersex individual

born with both female and male genitals, most likely female fetus exposed to excessive testosterone

R. C. Tyron

bred "maze bright" and "maze full" rats to demonstrate heritability of behaviour

Inbreeding

breeding within same family, evolutionary controls prevent this (e.g. swan facial markings of same family)

photons

brightness

Fechner's law (+equation)

built upon Weber's law; strength of a stimulus must be significantly increased to produce a slight difference in sensation; S (sensation strength) = k log R (log of original intensity)

Inferior colliculus

bumps on the brainstem, controls auditory reflexes

Superior colliculus

bumps on the brainstem, controls visual reflexes

Gyri

bumps seen on cortex surface

E.R. Kandel

by studying sea slug Aplysia, similar ideas to Donald Hebb involving synaptic and neural pathway changes in memory; young chicks brains are altered with learning and memory

standard error of mean

calculates how off the mean might be in either direction

Tardive dyskinesia

can result from long-term use of neuroleptics or psychotropics; characterized by involuntary, repetitive movements of tongue, jaw, or extremities

Long-term memory

capable of permanent retention, most learned semantically for meaning, measured by recognition, recall, and savings Subject to encoding specificity principle, but not primacy/recency effects

interval variables

capable of showing order and pacing because equal spaces lie between the values. - do not include real zero - ex: temperature

Idiographic approach

capture individual's unique, defining characteristics

cones

cells concentrated in the center of the retina, sensitive to color and day light

receptor cells

cells on retina responsible for sensory transduction through chemical alteraction of photopigments

fovea

center of retina, greatest visual acuity

Ventricles

chambers filled with cerebrospinal fluid that insulate brain from shock

positive correlation

change in value of one of the variables tends to be associated with a change in the same direction of the value of the other variable; as the value of one variable increases, the value of the 2nd variable tends to increase as well in a linear fashion

postsynaptic potentials

changes in a nerve cell's charge as the result of stimulation 2 forms: excitatory postsynaptic potential and inhibitory postsynaptic potential

Sublimation

channelling threatening drives into acceptable outlets

Type A personality

characterized by drive, competitiveness, aggressiveness, tension, hostility; found - most common in middle to upper class men

Obsessive-compulsive disorder

characterized by obsessions or compulsions that are time-consuming, distressing, and disruptive; typical obsessions might be about locking the door, or becoming contaminated; typical compulsions might be checking behaviour, counting, or hand washing

Personality disorders (group 16; +types)

characterized by rigid, pervasive, culturally abnormal personality; A (odd or eccentric), B (dramatic, emotional or erratic), C (anxious or fearful)

Pheromones

chemicals detected by vomeronasal organ, acts as messengers between animals, primitive form of communication, can transmit states such as fear or sexual receptiveness

Neurotransmitters

chemicals that stimulate nearby cells

Play therapy

child clients; during play a child may convey emotions, situations, or disturbances conveyed might otherwise go unexpressed

Arnold Gessell

child developmentalist, nature provided "blueprint" through maturation and environment filled in details

John Watson's behaviouristic approach to development

children passively molded by environment and behaviour by imitation of parents

Telencephalon

consists of limbic system, hippocampus, amygdala, cingulate gyrus

Comparative psychology

closely related to ethology, different species are compared in order to learn about their similarities and differences. Draw from animal studies to gain insight into human functioning

Facial Action Coding System (FACS)

code facial expressions for emotion; can determine whether a smile is genuine (happiness engages the upper cheek) or fake (eyes and whole face are less involved)

Jean Piaget

cognitive development in children; The Language and Thought of the Child, Moral Judgment of the Child, Origins of Intelligence in Children

Leon Festinger

cognitive dissonance theory

Walter Mischel and Nancy Cantor

cognitive prototype approach

Schachter-Singer theory

cognitive theory of emotion; similar to James-Lange theory, emotions are the product of physiological reactions, but interpretation of the physiological arousal is determined by the cognition we attach to a situation, leading to emotion

Aaron Beck

cognitive therapy; problems arise from maladaptive ways of thinking; therapy to reformulating illogical cognition rather than searching for a life-stress cause; Beck Depression Inventory

Learned optimism

cognitive training against learned helplessness

Icon

coined by Neisser, --> brief visual memory that lasts about one second

hue

color,, dominant wavelength of light

cohort-sequential design

combines longitudinal and cross-sectional approach

Hindbrain

consists of myelencephalon, metencephalon, and reticular formation

between subject

compares 2 groups of people at the same time point

quasi-experimental design

compares 2 groups of people like an experiment, but this is used when it is not feasible or ethical to use random assignment ex: smoker vs. cancer

Split-half reliability

comparing an individual's performance on 2 halves of the same test to reveal internal consistency; internal consistency can be increased by item analysis

competition

competition for scare resources usually causes conflict in a group - Sherif's Robber's cave experiment

Monoamines

comprise two classes of neurotransmitters, indolamines and catecholamines

descriptive statistics

concerned with organizing, describing, quantifying, & summarizing a collection of actual observations

domain-referenced testing (criterion-referenced testing)

concerned with the question of what the test taker knows about a specified content domain. performance on such a test is described in terms of what the test taker knows or can do. ex: driver's ed test (only matters that you have personally mastered the rules of the road, not how you did in comparison to your peers)

cones vs. rods

cones see better than rods because they are fewer cones per ganglion cells than rods per ganglia cells

Acceptance

conformity; change actions and beliefs to conform

Compliance

conformity; go along publicly but not privately

Corticospinal tract

connections between brain and spine

Topographic model of mental life

conscious elements were openly acknowledged forces and unconscious elements (drives and wishes) were many layers below consciousness - Freud's greatest contribution to psychology

personal constructs

conscious ideas about the self, others and situations

criticism (existential theory)

considered too abstract for severely disturbed individuals

histogram

consist of vertical bars in which the sides of the vertical bars touch - useful for discrete variables that have clear boundaries - interval variables in which there is some order

reliability

consistency with which a test measures whatever it is that the test measures -high reliability = test measures are dependable, reproducible, & consistent -we would expect that a person would score about the same when retested on the same test or a comparable form of that test. -in practice, no test is perfectly reliable -SEM

Philip Zimbardo

continued Milgram's study, --> deindividuated individuals more willing to administer higher levels of shock; --> prison simulation experiments found normal subjects could easily be transformed into sadistic prison guards; --> also found antisocial behaviour positively correlates with population density, broken-down cars in NYC destroyed in 10 minutes while in Palo Alto untouched for three days

Selective breeding

contrived breeding mates intentionally paired to increase chances of producing offspring with particular traits

Basal ganglia

control large voluntary muscle movements, Their degeneration is related to motor dysfunction in Parkinson's and Huntington's

Pituitary gland

controlled by hypothalamus, regulation of hormones in the body - The "master gland" of the endocrine/hormone system

Eye parts

cornea lens ciliang muscle retina optic nerve receptor cells rod cones fovea optic chiasm horizontal cells bipolar cells amacrine cells ganglion cells striate cortext visual association areas

goal of therapy (Cognitive Theory)

correct maladaptive cognitions

hit

correctly sensing a stimulus

Cell membrane

covers whole neuron, selective permeability, sometimes lets ions (positive charge) through

Donald Campbell and Donald Fiske

created multitrait-multimethod technique to determine validity of tests

Franz Joseph Gall

created phrenology

Internal-External Locus of Control Scale

created to determine whether a person feels responsible for things that happen (internal) or no control over events in life (external)

Factitious disorder (group 9)

creating physical complaints through fabrication or self-infliction to assume sick role for attention

Seymour Epstein

critical of personality trait theory

Walter Mischel

critical of personality trait-theory and personality tests; felt situations (not traits) decide actions

Hans Eysenck

criticized effectiveness of psychotherapy after analyzing studies that indicated psychotherapy was no more successful than no treatment at all; other studies contradict this

Seymour Epstein and Walter Mischel

criticized trait and type theories that both assume behaviour is stable across situations and people fail to take circumstances into account; - studies show that people often act different in different situations; consistency paradox

Hazel Markus

cross-cultural research; Eastern countries value interdependence over independence; for example, in Japan, individuals likelier to demonstrate conformity, modesty, and pessimism; where in the U.S., likelier to show optimism, self-enhancement, and individuality; some criticizes generalizations about cultures

linear perspective

cue that is gained by features we are familiar with, such as 2 seemingly parallel lines that converge with distance

apparent size

cut that gives us clues about how far away an object is if we know about how big the object should be

Antagonists

decrease effects of a neurotransmitter (e.g. botox is an acetylecholine antagonist that decreases muscle activity)

Stroop effect

decreased speed of naming color of ink if incongruous to word itself

Delirium, dementia, and amnestic and other cognitive disorders (group 2)

delirium and dementia related to Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and alcoholism)

Electroconvulsive shock therapy (ECT)

delivers electric current to brain to induce convulsions; effective for severely depressed patients

R.M. Cooper and John Zubek

demonstrated the interaction between heredity and environment, - bright rats performed better than dull only when both sets raised in normal conditions, - both groups performed well in enriched environment (lots of food and activities), - both performed poorly in impoverished environment

Substance-related disorders (group 4)

dependence and abuse of various substances

Excitatory postsynaptic potential

depolarization, + from outside allowed into cell, increase firing

Rorschach Inkblot Test

describe what is seen in each of 10 inkblots; scoring is complex; validity questionable

Episodic memory

details, events, discrete knowledge

Meissner's corpuscles

detect flutter, touch or contact; superficial

Free nerve endings

detect pain and temperature

Merkel cells

detect pressure and texture; superficial

Ruffian corpuscles

detect stretch

Pacinian corpuscles

detect vibration, displacements of skin

Size of two-point threshold for touch

determined by density and layout of nerves in skin

Schizophrenia (etiology)

diathesis-stress theory; physiological predisposition (excess dopamine) paired with external stressor

cross-sectional design

different subjects of different ages are compared - faster, easier

Insomnia

difficulty falling/staying asleep

Ivan Pavlov

digestion, classical conditioning

Mental disorders due to a general medical condition (group 3)

direct physiological result of a medical problem (e.g. depression due to hypothyroidism)

therapy (Cognitive Theory)

directed therapy helps expose and restructure maladaptive thought and reasoning patterns, - generally short-term, - therapist focuses on tangible evidence of client's logic (what client says and does)

Pick's disease

disease of the frontal and temporal lobes of the brain characterized by changes in personality

DSM IV disorder groups (16)

disorders often diagnosed in 1. childhood/adolescence; 2. delirium, dementia, other cognitive disorders; 3. mental disorders due to a general medical condition; 4. substance-related disorders; 5. schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders; 6. mood disorders; 7. anxiety disorders; 8. somatoform disorder; 9. factitious disorder; 10. dissociative disorders; 11. sexual and gender identity disorders; 12. eating disorders; 13. sleep disorders; 14. impulse control disorders (not elsewhere classified); 15. adjustment disorders; 16. personality disorders

Fundamental attribution error

dispositional attribution; tendency for others to think actions are caused more by personality than situation (e.g. lie because he is a liar, not because of the situation)

Retroactive interference

disrupting information that was learned after new items were presented

Proactive interference

disrupting information that was learned prior to new items were presented

Forebrain (division)

divided into diencephalon and telencephalon

dependent variable

does not control, but examines how independent variable affects it

predictive validity

does test performance predict FUTURE success as history major?

Foot-in-the-door phenomenon

doing a small favour makes people more willing to do larger ones later

Kenneth and Mamie Clark

doll preference studies

Draw-A-Person Test

draw a person of each sex and tell a story about them

Arbitrary inference

drawing conclusion without solid evidence (e.g. "Boss hates me because he never asks me to play golf")

Antabuse ®

drug that changes metabolism of alcohol, resulting in severe nausea and vomiting when combined; countercondition alcoholics

Antimanics

drugs for bipolar disorder, mania appears to be from excessive monoamines; inhibit monoamines such as norepinephrine and serotonin (ex. Lithium)

Automatic processing

effortless task due to higher organization process - When a task is effortlessly done because the task is subsumed under a higher organization process

3 components of model of mental life

ego id superego

R.E. Petty and J.T. Cacioppo

elaboration likelihood model

Reaction formation

embracing feelings or behaviours opposite to true threatening feelings one has

Clinical psychology

emerged after WWII, psychology research to a practical field

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

emergency theory; Emotions and bodily reactions occur simultaneously In emotional situations, our body is cued to react in the brain (emotion) and in the body (biological response) Ex: We tremble and feel scared in response to anger

Karen Horney

emphasized culture and society over instinct; suggested neuroticism expressed as movement toward, against, and away from people

Gordon Allport

emphasized idiographic approach to personality theory, as opposed to nomothetic; conscious motives governed by proprium or propriate function; lexical approach (5000 possible traits), determined trait hierarchy of cardinal, central, secondary traits

Presynaptic cell

end of a neuron (terminal buttons)

Circadian rhythms

endogenous rhythms that revolve around a 24 hour time period

Delusions

erroneous or distorted thinking

Social comparison

evaluating one's own actions, abilities, opinions, and ideas and comparing to others; - since others are generally familiar people (own social group), used for argument against mainstreaming; --> when children with difficulties in classes with normal children, may result in lower self-esteem

random sample

every population member has an equal chance of being selected for the sample

Nature vs. nurture

evolutionary psychology vs. social constructionism whether psychological phenomena are the result of inborn, genetic factors or the result of cultural and society influences

Mimicry

evolved form of deception, ex: harmless snakes may mimic coloration and pattern of more poisonous ones to escape predation

convergent validity

ex: social adeptness is related to intelligence, then in order for your test of social adeptness to have construct validity, people who score high on your test of social adeptness should also score high on tests of intelligence

Compensation

excelling in one area to make up for shortcomings in another

Hypersomnia

excessive sleepiness

Victor Frankl

existential psychology; Man's Search for Meaning - people innately seek meaningfulness in their lives, perceived meaninglessness is root of emotional difficulty; logotherapy

Sunk cost

expense incurred and cannot be recovered; because money already spent is irrelevant to the future, best to ignore these when making decisions but we often do not

Learned helplessness

experience can change people's personalities; after a series of events one feels helpless or out of control, negative or pessimistic explanatory style develops; gives up in general, exhibits helpless disposition; countered with learned optimism

Stanley MIlgram (study)

experiment where participants ordered to give "painful electric shocks" to a "learner" when incorrect, explored how people respond to orders; conditions that facilitated conformity: remoteness of victim, proximity of commander, legitimate-seeming commander, conformity of other subjects; conformed 66% of the time; raised ethical issues; also explained actions of Nazi war criminals

Muzafer Sherif

experiment, people's descriptions of the autokinetic effect were influenced by others' descriptions; also win/lose game-type competition can trigger conflict in groups, Robbers' cave experiment

Cross fostering experiments

experiments that attempt to separate effects of heredity and environment, sibling mice separated at birth and placed with different parents or situations; later differences in aggression attributed to experience rather than genetics

Factors that a speaker has to most likely change a listener's attitude

expert and/or trustworthy, similar to listener, acceptable to listener, overheard rather than obviously influencing, anecdotal, emotional, or shocking, part of a debate rather than one-sided argument

Post-traumatic stress disorder

exposure to trauma that results in decreased ability to function and recurrent thoughts and anxiety about the incident; often linked to war veterans or victims of violence

Brain evolution

extension of the spine, developed from base to the front

Julian Rotter

external and internal locus of control

Saccades

eye movements from one fixation point to another

miss

failing to detect a present stimulus

Narcolepsy

falling asleep uncontrollably during routine daily activity

Sleep spindles

fast frequency bursts of brain activity, inhibits processing to keep tranquil state

William James

father of experimental psychology, in America doing what Wundt was in Germany, combining physiology and philosophy; informally investigating psychological principles but did not have an official lab until later; wrote principle of psychology wrote about stream of consciousness, and functionalist ideas that contrasted with structuralist discrete conscious elements

Herbert Spencer

father of the psychology of adaptation, .also founder of sociology; used principles from Lamarckian evolution, physiology and associationism to understand people - idfferent species or races were elevated because of the greater number of associations that their brains could make

Myelin sheath

fatty, insulating sheath on some axons for faster conduction of axon impulses

Agoraphobia

fear of a situation that might arise panic symptoms, and escape would be difficult; usually fear and avoidance of being outside the home or in crowds

castration anxiety

fear of castration

Carl Gustav Jung

felt Freud over-emphasized sexual instinct; analytic psychology (metaphysical and mythological components - collective unconscious and unconscious archetypes; autobiography (Memories, Dreams, Reflections)

Anima

female elements of a man

Zygote

fertilized egg cell, two separate sets of 23 chromosomes (from each parent) come together for 23 pairs, diploid

Zygote

fertilized ovum via fallopian tube goes through 3 stages of gestation (prenatal development): germinal, embryonic, fetal

Convergent thinking

find the one solution to a problem (e.g. math)

Depressive realism

finding of depressed people tend to be more realistic than nondepressed

Antipsychotics

first drugs for psychopathology; - usually to treat positive symptoms of schizophrenia (delusion and hallucination) by blocking dopamine receptors and inhibiting dopamine production (ex. Chlorpromazine (Thorazine®), and haloperidol (Haldol®))

Norman Triplett

first official social psychology experiment on social facilitation; cyclists performed better when paced by others

Sir Francis Galton

first to use statistics and created correlation coefficient; wrote Hereditary Genius, used Darwinian principles to promote eugenics

Sulci

fissures seen on cortex surface

Assimilation

fitting new information into existing ideas

Scripts

ideas about the way events typically unfold "When people go to movies, they stay in their' seats and is quite"

John Horn and Raymond Cattell

fluid intelligence declines with old age while crystallized intelligence does not

Phenomenological view (personality)

focuses on individual's unique self and experiences

Overjustification effect

follows from self-perception theory; tendency to assume we must not want to do things we are paid or compensated to do

median

for even number of values in the set, take the average of the two middle value

menarche

for female, the onset of the menstrual cycles, occurs during puberty

Spearman r correlation coefficient

for ranks; determining the line that describes a linear relationship

Hermann Ebbinghaus

forgetting curve; lists of nonsense syllables to study STM

anterograde amnesia

forgetting of events that occurred after the trauma

retrograde amnesia

forgetting of events that occurred before the trauma

Interference theory

forgetting theory, competing information blocks retrieval (study: memorize list, one group sleeps while other group solves riddles for same amount of time - slept is likelier to remember more)

Decay (or trace) theory

forgetting theory, memories fade with time

Cretinism

form of mental retardation caused by iodine deficiency

Sexual selection

form of natural selection, not the fittest that win but those with greatest chance of being chosen as a mate (best fighters, most attractive, etc)

*Schizophrenia (description)

formerly dementia praecox, renamed by Eugene Bleuler as "split mind" from reality; symptoms may be positive or negative

Eleanor Maccoby and Carol Jacklin

found few sex differences existed that could not be explained by simple social learning; - most consistent difference that seems independent of social influence is that females have greater verbal ability and males have greater visual/spatial ability --> attributed to internal biological or hormonal difference but still debated

Alice Eagly

found interaction between gender and social status, how easily an individual might be influenced

Graphs (types)

frequency polygon (continuous variables), histogram/ bar graph (discrete)

Nightmare

frequent disruption of sleep because of nightmares

Sleep terror

frequent disruption of sleep because of screaming or crying

Intelligence

frequently debated definition and types; the capacity to use knowledge to improve achievement in an environment

Life event stress

frequently results from large, sudden changes or problems

Generalized anxiety disorder

frequently treated with anxiolytics

Wernicke's syndrome

from thiamine deficiency, memory problems and eye dysfunctions Organic disorders that result from years of heavy drinking

Korsakoff's syndrome

from vitamin B deficiency, loss of memory and orientation, often make up confabulations Organic disorders that result from years of heavy drinking

Leonard Berkowitz

frustration-aggression hypothesis

Self

full individual potential; Buddha, Jesus and mandala in cultures

Dispositional attribution

fundamental attribution error; tendency for others to think actions are caused more by personality than situation (e.g. lie because he is a liar, not because of the situation)

Semantic memory

general knowledge of the world

Psychodynamic theory

general term that refers to theories that emphasize role of unconscious (including individual or analytical)

Humanistic theory

general term that refers to theories that emphasize the positive, evolving free will in people (such as client-centered, Gestalt, or existential); optimistic about human nature; "Third Force"

Overextension

generalizing names for things, often done through chaining characteristics rather than logic (e.g. any furry thing is a "doggie")

Mirrors

generally make people more self-aware; small mirror - not so self-aware since its common, large mirror - very self-aware since we see a view of ourselves as others see us

Recall (+types)

generate information on their own; cued and free

Huntington's disease

genetically inherited progressive degeneration of thought, emotion, and movement

top-down processing

gestalt psychology

Prominent posturing (catatonia)

gestures, mannerisms, or grimacing

nominal variables

give descriptive names No order or relationship among the variables other than to separate them into groups ex: male-female

alternate-form method

given 2 different forms of a test that are taken at 2 different times

Sound localization

gives us information about sound origin; high-frequency localized by intensity differences, low-frequency localized by phase differences; binaural cues and spectral cues (pinna) - ex: hear one ear first, or different intensity can tell origin of sound

interactionists

in the forefront a combination of stable, internal factors and situations

goal of therapy (Gestalt Theory)

goal is exploration of awareness and full experiencing of the present; - success is connecting client with present existence

goal of therapy (Rational-Emotive Theory)

goal is for (e)ffective rational beliefs to replace previous self-defeating ones, then client's thoughts, feelings, and behaviours can coexist

goal of therapy (existential theory)

goal is to increase sense of being and meaningfulness, to alleviate neurotic anxiety

Morphology/ morphological rules

grammar rules' how to group morphemes

frequency distribution

graphic representation of how often each value occurs

receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve

graphical representations of a subject's sensitivity to a stimulus

Chunking

grouping items can increase STM capacity

Risky shift

groups take greater risks than individuals

Solomon Asch

had subjects listen to "opinion" of others of which lines were equal, subjects conformed to clearly incorrect opinion of others 33% of the time; unanimity seemed to be influential

Olfaction

hair receptors in nostrils send message to olfactory bulb at base of brain, smell strongly connected to memory and taste

Psychotic disorder (group 5; +types)

hallucinations or delusions are present; schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, delusional disorder, shared psychotic disorder

frequency polygon

has plotted points connected by lines - used to plot variables that are continuous (categories without clear boundaries)

Stimulus-seeking individuals

have a great need for arousal

ratio variables

have order, equal intervals and a real zero ex: age

Abraham Maslow

hierarchy of needs

therapy (Rational-Emotive Theory)

highly directive; therapist leads client to (d)ispute previously applied irrational beliefs

research design

how a researcher attempts to examine a hypothesis - different questions call for different approaches - some approaches are more scientific than others

countertransference

how a therapist feels about his/her patients; analyst's transfer of unconscious feelings or wishes (central figures in analyst's life) onto patient

external validity

how generalizable the results of an experiment are

motion parallax

how movement is perceived through the displacement of objects overtime and how this motion takes place at seemingly different paces for nearby or faraway objects Ex: boat far away seem to move more slowly than nearby ships moving at same rate

variance and standard deviation

how much variation there is among n number of scores in a distribution

Genetic drift

how particular genotypes selected out or eliminated from a population over time

constancy

how people perceive objects int he way that they are familiar with them, regardless of changes in the actual retinal image ex: book --> square

Reliability (+types)

how stable measure is; test-retest, split-half

Mere-exposure effect

how stimuli are rated, the more we see/experience something, the more positively we rate it

Variability

how the score are spread out overall

bimodal

if there are 2 values that are tied for being the most frequently occurring observation; data has 2 modes (different because mean and median can only have a single value) -if all values in a distribution occur with equal frequency, then there is no mode

what would happen if you converted every score in a distribution to a z-score?

if you have a distribution of z-scores and calculate the mean & SD, the mean of the distrib. of z-scores will always = ZERO and the SD will always = 1. -this is true regardless of whether the distribution is normal or not and regardless of the mean and the SD of the original distribution

Ellen Langer

illusion of control

Identification

imitating a central figure, such as a parent

Echopraxia (catatonia)

imitating gestures of others

Semantic priming

in a word recognition task, presentation of a related item before the next item; decreases reaction time because it activates node of the second item in semantic hierarchy - Pairing GRE with TEST vs. pairing GRE with lobster

Third Force

in psychotherapy, in reaction to psychoanalysis and behavioralism

fixation

inability to move on to the next stage

Amnesia

inability to recall information relating to trauma

resting potential

inactivated state of a neuron

placebo

inactive substance or condition disguised as a treatment substance or condition, used to form control group

Disorganized behaviour

inappropriate dress, agitation, shouting

Personalizing

inappropriately taking responsibility (e.g. "our failed project was all my fault")

Catecholamines

include dopamine, lack of dopamine linked with Parkinson's, excess dopamine is linked with schizophrenia, dopamine is also involved in feelings of reward and therefore addiction

Indolamines

include serotonin, lack of serotonin is linked with depression

Rational-Emotive Theory

includes elements of cognitive, behavioural, and emotion theory; intertwined thoughts and feelings produce behavior

Alfred Adler

individual psychology; people motivated by inferiority; 4-type theory of personality: choleric (dominant), phlegmatic (Dependent), melancholic (withdrawn), and sanguine (healthy)

psychoanalytic theory

individual's mental life consists of a constant push-pull between the competing forces of the id, superego and environment. - each areas struggles for acknowledgement and expression - how well a persons' ego handles this determines his mental health

John Bowlby

infants motivated to attach to mothers for positive (wanting closeness) and negative (avoiding fear) reasons; emphasized mother-infant attachment during sensitive period to prevent character/stability problems

Manic symptoms

inflated self-esteem, decreased sleep, talkativeness, flight of ideas, intense goal-directed activity, excessive pleasure-seeking

Kinesthetic sense or proprioception

information from receptors in joints and muscles that senses body positioning

Collective unconscious

inherited from ancestors, common to all and contains archetypes

Gray matter

inner core of spine, cell bodies and dendrites

passionate love

intense longing for the union with another and a state of profound physiological arousal biophysiological, can be positive(when love is reciprocal) and negative (when love is unrequited)

Biological clocks

internal rhythms that keep animal in sync with environment; circadian, circannual, lunar, tidal rhythms

Self-serving attributional bias

interpreting own actions and motives ina positive way, blaming situations for failures and taking credit for successes; think self as better than average

Mediation

intervening mental process that occurs between stimulus and response, It reminds us of what to do or how to respond based on ideas or past learning

Dissociative disorders (group 10; +types)

involve disruption of memory or identity; formerly psychogenic disorders; retrograde and anterograde amnesia, fugue, identity disorder, depersonalization

Hypochondriasis

irrational concern about having a serious disease

pathological gambling

irresistble impulse to gamble

mental set

it impacts why we see what we expect to see

criticism (individual theory)

it is best used with normal people in search of growth

Increase in likelihood to conform (factors)

it is majority opinion, majority has unanimous position, majority has high status majority or individual is concerned for her own status, situation in public, not previously committed to a position, low self-esteem, scores high on authoritarianism

Saltatory conduction

jumping from one node of Ranvier to the next due to insulation by myelin sheath

Rationalization

justifying behaviour/feelings that cause guilt

Rehearsal (+types)

key to transferring items to LTM; primary (maintenance) rehearsal, secondary (elaborative) rehearsal

Serial learning/recall (memory effects)

learned and recalled in order; primacy and recency effects; serial-position U-curve demonstrates savings effect

Martin Seligman

learned helplessness

Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart

learning and recall depend on depth of processing; from most superficial phonological (pronunciation) to deep semantic level, the deeper the easier to learn and recall

Instrumental learning

learning happens through trial, error and accidental success animals then acts based on previous successes

Goal of therapy (psychoanalytic theory)

lessen the unconscious pressures on the individual by making as much of it conscious as possible - allow the ego to be a better mediator of forces

Visual pathway

light, receptors, horizontal cells, bipolar cells, amacrine cells, ganglion cells (make up optic nerves, one to each eye), optic chiasm (half fibers from each optic nerve cross over to other eye for full picture), striate cortex, visual association areas

Grant Dahlstrom

linked Type A personality to heart disease and other health problems

Endorphins

linked to pleasure and analgesia; can be endogenous (opioid peptides) or exogenous (morphine or heroin) Exogenous endorphine are highly addictive

retina

loacted on the lack of eye, receives light images from lens. Composed of about 132 million photo receptor cells and other cell layers that process information

Slippery slope

logical fallacy; small, insignificant first step in one direction will lead to greater steps with a significant impact

Semantic effect

logical reasoning error, believing in conclusions because of what you know or think to be correct rather that what logically follows from the information given

Atmosphere effect

logical reasoning error, conclusion influenced by the way information is phrased

Confirmation bias

logical reasoning error, remembering and using information that confirms what you already believe

Diencephalon

made of thalamus and hypothalamus

Charles Darwin

made the concept of evolution scientifically plausible by asserting that natural selection was at its core

Confabulations

made up events to fill in memory gaps

Central Nervous System (CNS)

made up of brain and spinal cord

Phenotype

made up of external characteristics (eye color, size, etc)

Peripheral nervous system (subsystems)

made up of somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

Autonomic nervous system (subsystems)

made up of sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system

Mood disorders (group 6; types)

major depressive disorder, dysthymic disorder, bipolar disorder

dopamine

major player in the physiology of various disorders - too much dopamine activity is believed to cause schizophrenia

Animus

male elements of a female

Central Tendency (types and distribution differences)

mean (standard error of mean), median mode; normal and platykuric: equal; positively skewed: mode, med, mean; negatively skewed: mean, med, mode; bimodal: equal mean and med, 2 modes

Standard normal distributions

mean is 0, and SD=1 This with Z-score allow you to compare one person's score on two different distributions

measures of central tendency

mean, median, mode all provide estimates of the average score

Lie detector tests

measure arousal of sympathetic nervous system, stimulated by lying and anxiety

Achievement tests

measure how well you know a subject, measure past learning

Aptitude tests

measure innate ability to learn (debatable), - to predict later performance

Criterion-referenced tests

measure mastery in a particular area (e.g. final exam)

F-scale or F-ratio

measure of fascism or authoritarian personality

External validity (+types)

measure the extent to which test measures what it intends to; concurrent, construct, content, face

DSM (description & history)

mental disorders, diagnostic criteria, official numerical codes, first published 1952, for clinical, research and educational use; 4th edition 1994, text revision 2000, DSM V 2013

Disorders often diagnosed in childhood/adolescence (group 1; types)

mental retardation, learning disorders, developmental disorders, attention-deficit and disruptive behaviour disorders, tic disorders, elimination disorders

Sociotechnical systems

method of work design, acknowledges interaction between people and technology in the workplace

criticism (psychoanalytic theory)

methodology - theory developed from single case studies - which is not scientific

Mesencephalon

midbrain; contains tectum and tegmentum

median

middle value when observations are ordered from least to most or from most to least -if you have even number of data points, you must add the 2 middle-most #s and divide by 2.

Frequency distributions (+variables)

might show how often different variables appear; nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio (real zero)

Immanuel Kant

minds were active, not passive

Absolute threshold

minimum amount of stimuli that can be detected 50% of the time

Accommodation

modification of cognitive schemata to incorporate new information

Kenneth Spence

modified Hull's Performance = drive x habit theory

Divergent thinking

more than one possibility exists in a situation (e.g. chess or creative thinking)

Down syndrome

most common cause of mental retardation, results from trisomy of chromosome 21; older women have a greater chance of having a baby with Down syndrome

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

most commonly used for adults 16+ - organized by subtests with subscales and identify problem areas; current is WAIS-IV

binocular disparity

most important depth cue - eye vies objects from two slightly different angles, which allows us to create a 3D picture

Catalepsy (catatonia)

motor immobility or waxy figure

DSM (axes)

multiaxial assessment, across five axes; (I) clinical disorders and other conditions (group 1-15); (II) personality disorders (group 16); (III) General medical conditions; (IV) Psychosocial and environmental problems; (V) Global assessment of functioning

Mesomorph

muscular, athletic means energetic, aggressive

5 theories about working of perception

nativist theory, structural theory, gestalt psychology, current thinking, perceptual development

Hearing of owls

navigate at night but do not use echolocation, like humans localize sound direction and distance by binaural cues (compare intensities, arrival times), but better at determining elevation of sound source due to asymmetrical ears

Cognitive triad

negative views about the self, the world, and the future; causes depression

Correlational relationships

neither purely descriptive nor purely inferential can only show relationship, not causality - positive and negative correlation

double-blind experiment

neither the researcher nor the participants know which groups received the IV or which level of the IV

double-blind experiment

neither the subject nor the experimenter know whether the subject is assigned to the treatment or the control group

Endorphins

neuromodulators that reduce or eliminate pain perception

Learn the shape of different distributions

normal curve negatively skewed distribution positively sknewed distribution bimodal distribution platykuric distribution

Intelligence

not IQ, It is unlikely IQ captures all facets of it

Repression or denial

not allowing threatening material into awareness

Bayley Scales of Infant Development

not intelligence tests; measure sensory and motor development of infants to identify mental retardation; poor predictors of later intelligence

Curvilinear relationship

not simple and linear, looks like a curved line - ex: arousal and perfomance - high A --> low P - Low A --> low P - medium A --> high P

criticism (Gestalt Theory)

not suited for low-functioning or disturbed clients

Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)

not to diagnose depression but assess severity of depressive symptoms; used by researcher or clinician to track course of depressive symptoms

Goodenough Draw-A-Man Test

notable for cross-cultural application and simple directions - to make the best picture of a man, scored based on detail and accuracy, not artistic talent

Walter Dill Scott

one of the first to apply psychology to business, specifically in advertising; also involved in helping military implement psychological testing to aid with personnel selection

Z-scores

number of SD a score is from the mean For normal distribution - (-3 to +3)

mean

numerical halfway point between the highest and the lowest score. add all scores and divide by # of scores -most sensitive to extreme scores

Pearson r correlation coefficient

numerically calculating and expressing correlation r range -1 to +1, 0 = no relationship

J. Rodin and E. Langer

nursing home residents with plants to care for have better health

John Dewey

one of America's most influential philosophers; synthesize philosophy and psychology; reflex arc; denied structuralism, that animals respond to disjointed stimulus and response chains; instead functionalism, constantly adapting to environment rather than processing isolated stimuli

phantom limb pain

occurs when amputee feel sensations of pain in limbs that have been amputated and no longer exist

deindividuation

occurs when individual identity or accountability is de-emphasized - may be the result of mingling in a crowd, wearing uniforms, or otherwise adopting a larger group identity

Rebound effect

occurs when people deprived of REM sleep, compensate by spending more time in REM sleep later in the night

Thyroid stimulating hormone

of pituitary, activates thyroid

Vasopressin

of pituitary, regulate water levels in body and therefore BP

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

of pituitary, stress hormone, increases androgen and cortisol production

American Psychologist

official APA journal, published monthly; archival, current issue, theoretical, and practical articles from all psychology

Auditory system to auditory cortex

olivary nucleus, inferior colliculus, medial geniculate body

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

on the verge of retrieval

All-or-none law

once minimum threshold is met, intensity always the same regardless of amount of stimulation

Grandiose delusion

one has special talent or status

Schizophrenia (prognosis)

one with a history of good social and interpersonal skills likelier to recover than antisocial individual

situationists

only circumstances determine behavior

Diana Baumrind

parenting style and personality development; authoritarian (demanding, unaffectionate, strict) led to withdrawn and unhappy, permissive (affectionate, not strict) led to happy but lacking self- control/reliance, authoritative (affectionate, firm but fair) help understand/accept norms of society and led to self-reliant, confident, assertive, friendly, happy, high-functioning kids

Echolalia (catatonia)

parroting

Attraction (in order of importance)

people who are near us (propinquity), physically attractive, attitudes similar to our own, like us back (reciprocity); opposites do not attract

dispositionist

people who emphasize internal determinants of behavior

Hierarchy of needs

people work their way up hierarchy toward self-actualization by satisfying needs at the previous level: physiological needs, hunger, thirst, shelter, warmth safety, security, stability, lack of fear belonging, love, acceptance esteem, and recognition self-actualization

structuralist theory

perception = the sum of all sensory input bottom-up processing

nativist theory

perception and cognition are large inate

Nonsensical or disorganized speech

perhaps use of neologisms

Estrus

period in which a female is sexually receptive (usually used to describe non-human mammals)

Delusional disorder

persistent delusions of various types: erotomanic, grandiose, jealousy, persecutory, somatic

Obsession

persistent thoughts

Shadow

person's dark side, often projected onto others; devils and evil spirits in cultures

brightness

physical intensity

Amplitude

physical intensity of sound wave - determines loudness

Plato

physical world not all that could be known, presence of universal forms and innate knowledge, abstract and unsystematic

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

physiological responses cause emotion - We feel scared BECAUSE we tremble

Johannes Muller

physiologist, existence of "specific nerve energies", taught Wilhelm Wundt

Lexical approach

picking all possible traits out of dictionary

Infrasound

pigeons can hear extremely low-frequency sounds (e.g. emitted by surf) that travel great distances as a navigational cue

Atmospheric pressure

pigeons sensitive to pressure changes in altitude as navigational cue

Sun compass

pigeons and bees can compensate for daily solar movements for navigational cue

Magnetic sense

pigeons and bees have magnetic sensitivity, allows them to use earth`s magnetic forces as navigational cue

Outer ear

pinna and auditory canal which vibrations move down the canal to middle ear

Melanie Klein

pioneered object-relations theory and psychoanalysis with children

Hermann von Helmholtz (audition)

place-resonance theory; different parts of basilar membrane respond to different frequencies

Schizoaffective disorder

schizophrenic symptoms accompanying a depressive episode

Population & related

population --> sample/subgroup --> representative and unbiased --> achieved through random sampling --> if it's not feasible, use convenience sampling instead or stratified sampling

Androgynous

possessing both male and female qualities

Consistency paradox

possibility that a person may behave inconsistently, presents problems for labelling people as one internal disposition

Phrenology

practice of examining head and skull shape to discern personality

Mental set

preconceived notion of how to look at a problem

Robbers' cave experiment

prejudice, showed group conflict most effectively overcome by need for cooperative attention to a higher superordinate goal; 2 groups of 12-year-old boys, 3 phases of group dynamics: in-group phase (bonding with own group), friction phase (groups met and became competitive), and integration phase (work together for a common goal); formation of in/out-groups, and strategies for conflict resolution

H-Y antigen

presence during development causes a fetus to develop into a male (absence cause the fetus to develop into a female)

Adjustment disorders (group 15)

presence of an identifiable stressor (e.g. divorce) that results in emotional difficulty and decreased function

Social facilitation

presence of others enhance or hinder performance

Robert Zajonc

presence of others helps with easy tasks but hinders complex tasks

Amino acids

present in fast-acting, directed synapses

Fromm and Reichamn

schizophrenogenic mother

Primary prevention

prevent documented psychosocial problems through contact with an at-risk group; proactive intervention; e.g. prenatal health care, Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE), and Head Start

Reproductive isolating mechanisms (+types)

prevent interbreeding between two different (but closely related / genetically compatible) species, four types: 1) behavioral isolation, 2) geographic isolation, 3) mechanical isolation, 4) isolation by season

LTM not subject to

primary and recency effects

Pleasure principle

primary process; human motivation to seek pleasure and avoid pain; id

Morton Deutsch

prisoner's dilemma, trucking company game to illustrate struggle between cooperation and competition

Interference types

proactive interference causes proactive inhibition, retroactive interference causes retroactive inhibition

Algorithms

problem solving strategy, considers every possible solution to arrive at correct one, time consuming

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

problems with attention, behaviour, and impulsivity; frequently treated with stimulants (e.g. Ritalin® and Adderall®)

Self-monitoring

process by which people pay close attention to their actions, often change behaviours to be more favourable

Cross validation

process in testing concurrent validity

Reading and writing (language learning)

processed in same brain regions as producing and understanding speech, but slight differences suggested by alexia and agraphia while having no speech problems In other word, people who are unable to read (alexia) or write (agraphia) have no problem understanding speech

Neal Miller

proved experimentally that abnormal behaviour can be learned

Oligodendrocytes

provide myelin in central nervous system

Schwann cells

provide myelin in peripheral nervous system

goal of therapy (Client-centered theory)

provide trusting atmosphere for client to self-direct growth and tap his own "vast resources", - evidence of growth includes a congruent self-concept, positive self-regard, internal locus-of-evaluation, and willingness to experience

Assertiveness training

provides tools and experience that client can use to be more assertive

therapy (individual theory)

psychodynamic approach in which unconscious feelings do play a role - examination of a person's lifestyle and choices (motivations, perceptions, goals, and resources)

Noam Chomsky

psycholinguistics; transformational grammar; language acquisition device (LAD)

Conversion disorder

psychological problems converted to bodily symptoms; generally relate to voluntary movement and may be manifested as "paralysis"; formerly known as "hysteria" by Freud

abnormal theory (analytical theory)

psychopathology is a signal that something wrong in makeup of psyche, clues about how one could be more aware

Phobia

recognized, unreasonable, intense anxiety symptoms and avoidance of a stimulus; specific and social

Flashbulb memories

recollections that seem burned into memory, especially traumatic ones

Panic disorder

recurrent panic attacks, persistent worry about another attack; often accompanied by mitral valve heart problem

Abuse

recurrent use despite substance-related problems or danger

Neuroleptic drugs

reduce dopamine activity by blocking receptors; reducing schizophrenic symptoms (e.g. antipsychotic chlorpromazine); can cause Parkinsonès-like symptoms since they decrease dopamine activity

Reactance

refusal to conform, may occur as result of blatant attempt to control; will not conform if forewarned that others will try to change them

Anorexia nervosa

refusing to eat enough to maintain healthy weight; excessive concern about obesity

statistically significant

reject the null hypothesis if significance level = or is less than 5%; if greater than 5%, then NOT statistically significant & must ACCEPT the null hypothesis -doesn't tell us anything about whether or not the research is poorly designed, or whether or not the results are trivial or meaningless.

trait

relatively stable characteristics of behavior that a person exhibits (trait is stable, state is more of temporary feeling or characteristics)

Acetylcholine

released at neuromuscular junction to cause contraction of skeletal muscles, also involved in parasympathetic nervous system

oxytocin

released from the pituitary and facilitates birth and breast feeding also involved in pair bonding (mother to child or romantic partners)

stratified random sample

relevant subgroups of the population are randomly sampled in proportion to its size

Primary (maintenance) rehearsal

repeating material to hold in STM

compulsion

repetitive behaviors or mental acts

Concepts

represents relationship between two things

behavioral isolation

reproductive isolating mechanism courtship or display behavior of a particular species allows an individual to identify a mate within its own species

geographic isolation

reproductive isolating mechanism different species breed in different areas to prevent confusion or genetic mixing

mechanical isolation

reproductive isolating mechanism different species have incompatible genital structures

isolation by season

reproductive isolating mechanism potentially compatible species mate during different seasons

Harry Harlow

researched development with rhesus monkeys in terms of social isolation, maternal stimulation, contact comfort, and learning to learn

abnormal theory (existential theory)

response to perceived one's meaninglessness is neurosis or neurotic anxiety (as opposed to normal or justified anxiety)

Terman

revised Binet-Simon test for U.S. which became known as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence test

existential theory

revolves around philosophical issues particularly the issue of meaning; - one`s greatest struggles are being vs. nonbeing, and meaningfulness vs. meaninglessness; - will to meaning

correct rejection

rightly stating that no stimulus exists

Undoing

ritualistic activity to relieve anxiety about unconscious drives

Dreams

safe outlets for unconscious material and wish-fulfillment, valuable for analysts; manifest content provides information about latent content

Door-in-the-face

sales tactic, persuader ask for more than they would ever get and then "settle" for less

representative sample

sample is a miniature version of the population

socially useful type

sanguine high in activity and high in social contribution, healthy

false alarm

saying that you detect a stimulus that is not there

Stages of memory

sensory, short term, long term

Navigation of bees

scouting bees look for food and nesting sites; can use landmarks as simple location cues, also sun, polarized light, and magnetic fields as aids

Self-monitoring

scrutiny of own behaviour, motivation to act appropriately rather than honestly, ability to mask true feelings

Reality principle

secondary process; guided by ego and responds to environment by delaying gratification

Self-handicapping

self-defeating behaviour that allows one to dismiss or excuse failure

Daryl Bem

self-perception theory

Charles Osgood

semantics (word meanings), semantic differential charts

Hermann von Helmholtz

sensation; hearing and color vision, foundation for modern perception research

rods

sensitive to dim light, used for night vision - concentrated on sides of retina, important for peripheral vision

Echoic memory

sensory memory for auditory sensations

Role

set of behaviour norms that seem suitable for a person

libido

sexual force

Reciprocity of disclosure

sharing secrets/feelings facilitates emotional closeness

Displacement

shifting unacceptable feelings/actions to a less threatening recipient

Richard Nisbett

showed that we lack awareness for why we do what we do

Twin studies

shows heritability of personality about 40-50%, identical twins separated at birth; "Jim" twins had wives and dogs with same name, and same habits; differences shows environmental impact

ANOVA/analysis of variance

similar to T-test, but can measure more than 2 groups

Adolescent educational and career aspirations

similar to parental educational and career aspirations

Serial-anticipation learning

similar to serial learning but asked to recall one item at a time

Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank

similar to word association, finish incomplete sentences

Dyssomnias

sleep abnormalities; hypersomnia, narcolepsy, etc.

Associations between pictures and words

slower between pictures than words; pictures must be put into words before associations made

Roger Brown

social, developmental, linguistic psychology found children's understanding of grammar rules develops as they make hypotheses about how syntax works and then self-correct with experience

William Sheldon

somatotypes personality theory

Navigation of animals

some use map-and-compass navigation (landmarks and sun or stars), some have true navigational abilities and can point toward their goal with no landmarks and from any position (e.g. captured birds eventually arrive at their usual goal anyway); birds and bees are expert navigators

Excitation-transfer theory

sometimes attribute excitement or physiological arousal about one thing to something else (e.g. bungee jumping on first date)

Q-sort/measure

sorting cards into a normal distribution; each has a different statement on it about personality; to one end is "least like self", other is "most like self", and middle is neutral; factor analysis to reduce viewpoints into a few factors

Telegraphic speech

speech without articles or extras like a telegram (e.g. "Me go")

Gamete

sperm or ovum, haploid (23 single chromosomes)

Alpha waves

stage 0 & 1 non-REM sleep, low-amplitude and fast-frequency waves

Theta waves

stage 1 & 2 non-REM sleep (with sleep spindles), lower-amplitude and slower frequency waves

Delta waves

stage 3 (less sleep spindles) & 4 non-REM sleep, high-amplitude and low-frequency, deepest level of sleep

operational defenitions

state how the researcher will measure the variables (ex: a good breakfast is a breakfast high in protein)

meta-analysis

statistical procedure that can be used to make conclusions on the basis of data from different studies -combining results of studies to come up with a more general conclusion

Statistical regression

step beyond correlations; allows not only identification of relationship between 2 variables, also make predictions

Sexual dimorphism

structural differences between sexes, arisen through both natural and sexual selections

bottom-up processing

structuralist theory

Objective tests (+types)

structured, do not allow own answers; more objective than projective tests; not completely objective because most self-reported; - Q-sort, - Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), - California Personality Inventory (CPI), - Myers-Brigg Type Indicator (MBTI), - Internal-External Locus of Control Scale (LOCS)

B.F. Skinner

studied Thorndike and Watson; Skinner box, operant conditioning; Walden Two and beyond freedom and dignity - control of human behaviour

Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenmean

studied Type A personality

Big Five

superfactors, 5 dimensions that encompass all of personality; superordinate traits or facets; O-dimension (openness to experience, intellectual curiosity), C-dimension (conscientiousness), E-dimension (extroversion, enthusiasm), A-dimension (agreeableness), N-dimension (neuroticism, nervousness)

Gustation

sweet, bitter, sour, salty, umami (meaty/savory); saliva mixes with food so flavour can flow to taste receptors (taste buds or papillae) on tongue

Dysthymic disorder

symptoms of MDD (i.e. lower mood) are present more days than not for more than 2 years, but never an actual depressive episode

split-half reliability

take only 1 test, which is divided into equal halves. scores on one half are correlated with the scores on the other half

Non-REM sleep (4 stages of sleep)

takes about half an hour; (0) prelude to sleep, neural synchrony; alpha waves; person is relaxed and drowsy, closes eye; (1) Eyes begin to roll. alpha waves give way to irregular theta waves; loses responsiveness to stimuli, experiences fleeting thoughts (2) theta wave stage, characterized by sleep spindles; muscle tension and gradual decline in HR, respiration, temperature; (3) 30 min after falling asleep; delta waves and fewer sleep spindles; (4) delta waves >50% of the time; deepest level of sleep when HR, respiration, temperature, and blood flow to brain reduced and growth hormones secreted; when awoken here, will feel groggy and confused

standard deviation (calculation)

tell you the average extent to which scores were different from the mean - if average standard deviation is large, then scores were highly dispersed

Physiological zero

temperature sensed as neither warm nor cold

Working memory

temporary memory needed to perform the task that someone is working on at that moment

Short-term memory

temporary, seconds or minutes, largely auditory, items coded phonologically, 7+/- 2 capacity, chunking, subjective to interference and inhibition

Actor-observer attributional divergence

tendency for person doing the behaviour to have different perspective on situation than observer

Barnum effect

tendency of people to accept and approve of the interpretation of their personality that you give them; it is relatively simple to generate a "report" from stereotyped statements; these reports are readily accepted as accurate -form of pseudovalidation (false validation) -ex: horoscopes

Barnum effect

tendency to agree with and accept provided personality interpretations

Clustering

tendency to group similar items in memory whether learned together or not, often into conceptual or semantic hierarchies

Oversimplification

tendency to make simple explanations for complex events - people hold onto original ideas about cause even when new factors emerge

minimum principle

tendency to see what is easiest or logical to see

Orienting reflex

tendency to turn toward an object that touched you

compassionate love

the affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply entwined, achieved via mutual trust, respect, and commitment

mental age

the age level of a person's functioning according to the IQ test

Thanatos

the death instinct, including self-destructive behavior

Ethology

the study of animal behaviors, especially innate behaviors that occur in a natural habitat

Developmental psychology

the study of changes and transitions that accompany physical growth or maturation

closure

the tendency to complete incomplete figures

dependent variable (DV)

the variable expected to change due to variations in the independent variable (ex: spelling test performance)

Boys who reach puberty sooner

these boys shown to be psychologically and socially advantaged

Halo effect

thinking if someone has a good quality then he has only good qualities

Ingroup/outgroup bias

those in a group think their members have more positive qualities and fewer negative than members in another group even if qualities are the same; basis for prejudice

Tri color/component theory

three types of receptors in retina: cones that respond to red, blue, or green Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz

Absolute refractory period

time after a neuron fires which it cannot respond to stimulation

Relative refractory period

time after absolute refractory period, neuron can fire but needs a much stronger stimulus

Sensitive or critical periods

times when a developing animal is particularly vulnerable to the effect of learning (e.g. birds learning their species' song, if reared in isolation cannot develop normal song later. and imprinting)

Goal of therapy (Behavior theory)

to change behaviour to be more desired or adaptive; successful in treating phobias, fetishes, OCD, sexual problems, and childhood disorders (especially nocturnal enuresis)

Psychopharmacology (goal of therapy)

to provide relief from symptoms of psychopathology

goal of therapy (individual theory)

to reduce feelings of inferiority and to foster social interest and social contribution in patients

Middle Ages

understanding the mysterious world temporarily because a question for church, then philosophy was reclaimed by scholars

Cognitive prototype approach

to show personality traits exist in a person, show person exhibits those traits in a variety of situations; cognitive behaviour (e.g. formulation of and attention to prototypes) is examined in social situations; - consistency of behaviour is result of cognitive processes, rather than result of personality traits

criticism (analytical theory)

too mystical or spiritual

Cutaneous/tactual senses

touch, pain, cold, warmth

Meninges

tough connective tissues that cover/protect brain and spinal cord

T-score

transformation of a z-score, mean is 50 and the SD is 10 - T=10(Z)+50

Axon

transmits impulses of neuron, bundles of these are nerve fibers (white matter); the wider nerve fiber, the faster its conduction

control group design

treating both groups equally in all respects except that the cereal for one group (control group) contains no protein whereas the cereal for the other group (experimental group) has 10 grams of protein injected into it. -how to rule out confounding variables (keeping calorie content)

criticism (Behavior theory)

treating symptoms rather than underlying problem

Evidence-based treatment

treatment for mental health problems shown to produce results in empirical studies; many argue only this is ethical; others argue controlled experiments not like real treatments, less useful and applicable

Culturally competent interventions

treatment/prevention programs that recognize and tailor to cultural differences; therapists beginning to be trained in customs and norms of various cultures to minimize Eurocentric bias and assumptions

Family therapy

treats family as a whole as client

Parkinson's

tremors with declining neurological functioning; caused by deficient dopamine activity, boost dopamine by drug such as levodopa

Schizophrenogenic mother

type of mother who "causes" children to become schizophrenic

catharsis/abreaction

unconscious material always looking for a way to discharge repressed emotion

Subliminal perception

unconsciously perceiving a stimulus, such as the unattended message in dichotic presentation or tachistoscopic presentations

abnormal theory (individual theory)

unhealthy individuals are too much affected by inferior feelings to pursue the will to power - make excuses or have a "yes,but" mentality - if they do pursue goals, these are likely to be self-serving and egotistical

Embryonic stage

until end of 2nd month, organ formation

Terminal threshold

upper limit above which stimuli can no longer be perceived (lowest pitch can heard = absolute threshold)

Amphetamines

use increase dopamine activity, produces schizophrenic-like paranoid symptoms

Psychopharmacology

use of medication to treat mental illness, do not cure but some are effective at alleviating symptoms; often used with therapy

Simulations

use perceptual cues to make artificial situations seem real

goal of therapy (analytical theory)

use unconscious messages to become more aware and closer to full potential

Raymond Cattell

used factor analysis in data reduction of Allport's 5000 traits; identified 16 bipolar source traits (e.g. relaxed-tense) that seemed to underlie all; 16 personality factors tested in personality questionnaire

Hans Eysenck

used factor analysis to identify underlying traits of 2 personality-type dimensions (introversion-extraversion and stable-unstable [neuroticism]); - two dimensions formed a cross and four quadrants of phlegmatic, melancholic, choleric, sanguine

percentiles

used most commonly on standardized test

Stereotaxic instruments

used to implant electrodes into animals' brains in experiments

Reaction TIme/Latency

used to measure cognitive processing Response speed for all types of tasks declines with age

aptitude tests

used to predict what one can accomplish through training; used to predict future performance (intelligence/IQ tests)

Anxiolytics

used to reduce anxiety or to induce sleep; increases effectiveness of GABA (inhibitory); high potential for causing habituation and addiction; Ex. barbiturates and benzodiazepines such as diazepam (Valium®) and alprazolam (Xanax®)

Mating of bees

very few drones (male bees) produced, only for mating with queen, same mating areas used year after year even though no bee survives from one year to the next, unknown how they know to gather there

Thomas Szasz

viewed schizophrenic world as simply misunderstood or artistic; felt they should not be treated

Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk

visual cliff apparatus

Communication of bees

von Frisch, once a scouting bee locates a promising food source, returns to hive and conveys the location through movements; round or waggle dance, the longer the dance the farther the food, the more vigorous display the better food; performed on vertical sheets of the hive where the angle is a vertical line and direction of bee orients when dancing is the same angle as between sun and food sources; also communicates potential nesting sites

Residual (schizophrenia)

watered-down schizophrenia with few positive symptoms, if any

waves

wavelengths

Reciprocal socialization

when 2 parties adapt to or are socialized by each other (e.g. parents and children)

Instinctual drift (example)

when animal replaces a trained or forced response with a natural or instinctive response Ex: a dog with the nature to bark at visitors thinking they are intruders might have been taught to sit quietly when a guest enters through reward and punishment. Under stress, however, it may disregard the learned behavior and barking at the guest.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

when one's expectations draw out (in a way, cause) the expected behaviour

Acquiescence

when people agree with opposing statements; giving tacit agreement

Availability heuristic

when people think there is a higher proportion of one thing in a group than there really is because examples of that one thing come to mind more easily; e.g. read a list, half celebrity names, half random, may think more celebrities than random because easier to remember

reception

when receptors for a particular sense detect a stimulus

Illusory correlation

when relationship inferred when there is none ex: many people think there is a relationship between physical and personality characteristics, when evidence show there is none

A test with zero reliability has how much validity?

zero. reliability is a precondition for validity (but not vice versa).

Learning

relatively permanent or stable change in behaviour as the result of experience


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