Growth and Lifespan Development EPPP

Maturation

genetically-determined patterns of development o Environmental factors have little or no impact on maturationallydetermined characteristics o Order in which behaviors emerge is same regardless of environmental factors

prenatal smoking effects

high risk for spontaneous abortion, prematurity, low birth weight, and death during period surrounding birth § Less responsive to environment and more irritable § Increased hyperactivity, short attention span, and reduced school achievement in reading, math, and spelling

Freud's theory of sexual development criticized for

overemphasizing influence of sexual feelings on development, failing to acknowledge role of social and intellectual factors, and not addressing developmental tasks of later years

Fetal Distress

prolonged anoxia, whether by twisted cord, sedatives given or other factors, may result in delayed cognitive and motor development, MR and cerebral palsy

Secular Trends

provide evidence of impact of environment on development o Long-term patterns/differences across different cohorts

Nativist Theories

role of innate, genetically-determined factors in language learning o Quickly learn to apply very complex grammatical rules to sentences they have never heard before § Rules so complex that they cannot be directly taught to or independently discovered by cognitively immature children o Born with biologically innate language acquisition device (LAD) that enables children who have acquired sufficient vocab to combine words into novel but grammatically consistent utterances and to understand meaning of what they hear o Support for theory—certain aspects are universal, brain lateralizes language on left, and language is best acquired during sensitive period

Heritability Index

statistic used to estimate degree to which particular characteristic can be attributed to genetic factors o Estimates are obtained from kinship studies that compare individuals within family to one another

SLEEP PROBLEMS IN INFANCY

30% of children have difficulties during first few years • Infant sleep problem often become chronic if left untreated • FERBERIZING (progressive waiting method)—training children to fall asleep and stay asleep by letting them cry for prescribed period of time before comforting them

motor milestones 1 month, 3 months, 5 months, 7 months, 9 months, 11-15 months, 18-24 months

1 month—Gross Motor=turns head from side to side when prone; Fine Motor=strong grasp reflex § 3 months—Gross=holds head erect when sitting but head bobs forward; regards own hand; Fine=holds rattle, pulls at clothes, can bring objects in hand to mouth § 5 months—Gross=when sitting, holds head erect and steady, reaches and grasps, puts foot to mouth when supine; Fine=plays with toes, takes objects directly to mouth, grasps objects voluntarily § 7 months—Gross=sits, leaning forward on both hands, stands with help; Fine=transfers objects from one hand to next § 9 months—Gross=creeps on hands and knees, pulls self to standing position when holding onto furniture; Fine=use of thumb and index finger to grasp (Pincer grasp) § 11-15 months—Gross=walks holding onto furniture, stands alone, walks without help (12-14 mos); Fine=can remove objects from tight enclosure (11 mo), turn page in book (12 mo), and use cup well (15 mo) § 18-24 months—Gross=runs clumsily, walks stairs with hand held, can use spoon (18 mo), goes up and down stairs alone, kicks ball, and 50% use toilet during day

Formal Operational Stage

12 and beyond Thinks logically when dealing with concrete, tangible information but cannot process abstract, hypothetical information very well • Characterized by: o Hypothetical-deductive reasoning—ability to arrive at and test alternative explanations for observed events o Propositional thought—ability to evaluate logical validity of verbal assertions without making reference to real-world circumstances • Adolescents are prone to formal operational egocentrism— rigid insistence that world can become better place through implementation of their idealistic schemas o Characteristics: § IMAGINARY AUDIENCE—belief that others are as concerned with and critical of adolescent's behavior as him/herself § PERSONAL FABLE—belief that s/he is unique and indestructible

Disorders Due to Chromosomal Abnormalities o Additional Chromosomes: § Down Syndrome—Trisomy 21

1:800 live births • Frequency rises dramatically with maternal age • Characterized by moderate to profound MR and physical features (i.e. Short stocky build, flattened face, protruding tongue, almond shaped face) • Also often have heart abnormalities, thyroid dysfunction, malformations of intestinal tract, and susceptibility to respiratory infections

preoperational stage

2-7 yearsExtraordinary increase in symbolic thought, resulting in tremendous strides in language and appearance of substitute pretend play and sociodramatic play • Emergence of intuitive thought • Limited by EGOCENTRISM—inability to understand that others do not experience world same way o Underlies magical thinking and animism § MAGICAL THINKING—erroneous belief that one has control over objects/events or that thinking about something will actually make it occur § ANIMISM—belief that objects have thoughts/feelings/other life-like qualitiesMagical thinking is result of precausal or transductive reasoning, which reflects incomplete understanding of cause and effect by children • Unable to conserve, or understand that underlying properties of object may not change even when its physical appearance changes o CENTRATION—tendency to focus on one detail of situation to neglect of other important features o IRREVERSIBILITY—inability to understand that actions can be reversed

BILINGUALISM

3 million American children speak other language in their home • Bilingual children perform better on tests of cognitive flexibility, divergent thinking and metalinguistic awareness • CODE SWITCHING—changing to another language during conversation o Several functions: § If bilingual speaker cannot express self adequately in other language § Bilingual speaker may switch to minority language as sign of solidarity with group § Way to express attitude towards listener • Major problem in evaluating bilingual education is existing programs vary widely in terms of teacher experience, school resources, and SES backgrounds o Overall, children in good-quality bilingual programs do as well in acquiring English skills and learn subject matter as well or even better

concrete operational

7-12 years old Development of reversibility and decentration, which enable concrete operational child to conserve o CONSERVATION—develops sequentially throughout concrete stage § First comes conservation of number, then conservation of length, liquid, mass, area, weight, and volume § HORIZONTAL DECALAGE—sequential mastery of concepts within single stage of development • TRANSITIVITY—ability to mentally sort objects o Hierarchical classification—ability to sort objects in hierarchies of classes and subclasses based on similarities and differences among groups

Conformity

Actually depends on number of factors, such as age, nature of bx in question, and individual characteristics of adolescent o Adolescents are most conforming to peers when they are btw ages of 12-14 § Engage in antisocial bx, they are influenced to engage in prosocial bx as well § Peer pressure is more likely to impact attitudes and bx related to status in peer group while parents have greater effect on life decisions and values

PIAGET'S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: adaptation

Adaptation—building cognitive schemas, which are organized ways of thinking about the world, through interactions with environment § Two complementary processes: • Assimilation—incorporates and interprets new information in terms of existing schemas • Accommodation—schemas are modified to take into account newly understood properties of object

Germinal Period

conception to implantation (8-10 days later) § Exposure may only damage few cells, have little or no effect on development, or may cause death

memory according to VYGOTSKY'S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Ability to recall is influenced by: o Nature of event o Number of times they experience them o Availability of cues or reminders • Infants tested at 2/4/6mo can recall details about hidden objects, location, and size • Children ages 1-3 are capable of immediate and long-term recall of specific events that occurred several months ago • When adults are asked about earliest memories, most cannot recall anything before age 3 (INFANTILE AMNESIA) o Result of lack of schematic organization of experience, different way of encoding in early childhood, and importance of language development • Memory increases at steady rate during preschool years and shows substantial gains at about age 7 (transition from early to middle childhood), which is due to: o Consistent use of rehearsal and mother memory strategies o Increased short-term memory capacity o Increased knowledge about things that are to be remembered o Development of meta-memory, or knowledge about one's one memory processes

FREUD'S THEORY OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

At each stage, either too much/little gratification of impulses can result in fixation of psychic energies at stage o Overgratification=person unwilling to move onto next stage o Undergratification=person continually seeking gratification of the frustrated drive • Stages: o Oral Stage—birth-1 § Sensual pleasure is obtained through mouth, tongue lips § Newly emerging ego directs baby's sucking activities towards breast or bottle to satisfy hunger and obtain pleasant stimulation § Fixation may result in habits such as thumbsucking, fingernail biting, and pencil chewing beginning in childhood and overeating and smoking later in life o Anal Stage—1-3 § Pleasure is derived from anal and urethral areas of body § Child must learn to postpone release of feces and urine, and toilet training becomes major conflict § Fixation produces anal retentiveness (obsessive punctuality, orderliness, and cleanliness) or anal expulsion (messiness and disorder) o Phallic Stage—3-6 § Child derives pleasure from genital stimulation § Oedipal or Electra conflict takes place • Child feels unconscious sexual desire for opposite-sex parent but represses desire out of fear of punishment by same-sex parent § If conflict is resolved successfully, child identifies with same-sex parent and superego formedLatency Stage—6-Puberty § Sexual instincts lie repressed and dormant § Child works on solidifying superego by playing w and id w same-sex children and assimilating social values from larger society Genital Stage—Post Puberty § Sexual drive of early phallic stage is reactivated but can now be gratified through love relationships outside of fam § If development has proceeded appropriately during earlier stages, this stage is characterized by mature sexuality

Parenting Styles

Authoritative Parents—set high standards, expect children to comply w rules § Gain control by explaining rules and seeking children's input into fam decisions § Very warm and nurturant § Children have best outcomes: independent, achievement-oriented, friendly, self-confident § High levels of emotional support or responsiveness along w firmness and high standards or demands on child § Most predictive of higher academic achievement o Authoritarian Parents—controlling and demanding and expect children to accept their commands in unquestioning manner § Respond w punitive manner § Children are insecure, timid, unhappy, and may grow up to be dependent and lacking motivation o Permissive Parents—though nurturant and accepting, fail to assert authority § Children have difficulty controlling their impulses, ignore rules and regulations, and are not very involved in academic and work activities o Uninvolved Parents—undemanding and indifferent to or rejecting of children § Display little commitment to being parents and keep their children at distance § Children are noncompliant and demanding, lack self-control, and prone to antisocial bx § Characteristics of parenting (weak parental supervision, lack of reasonable rules, lax/erractic discipline, parent-child relationship that is hostile, indifferent, apathetic) are those that are most predictive of delinquency in adolescence

early sensory vision : birth, 1 month, 2-3 months, 6 months

Birth—prefer facial images § 1 month—discriminate mother's face § 2-3 months—color vision § 6 months—depth perception and visual acuity close to that of adult

ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES: ECOLOGICAL MODEL

Bronfenbrenner o Four interacting systems

Conscience, Temperament, and Discipline

Children develop higher level conscience when their parents rely on loveoriented discipline techniques, such as praise, social isolation, and withdrawal of affection, rather than objected-oriented techniques, such as tangible rewards, physical punishment, or withdrawal of material objects or privileges § More recent research indicates relationship btw type of discipline and development of conscience may be more complex than previously thought o Most effective form of discipline depends on child's temperament § Toddlers who have fearful temperament develop conscience better when parents use gentle discipline that deemphasizes power and capitalizes on child's internal discomfort, than when parent uses negative discipline, based on power, threats, or angry commandsGentle discipline elicits optimal level of arousal in child, which facilitates semantic processing of parent's message that can then be internalized o Gentle discipline was not found to be effective in promoting conscience in fearless toddlers § Did not readily respond w internal discomfort when presented with gentle discipline following bx transgressions § May be due to insufficient level of arousal among fearless children in response to gentle discipline § Best promoted through use of secure attachment and maternal responsiveness which promotes child's cooperation based on positive motivation inherent in relationship rather than anxiety over consequences of misbx

key assumptions of Kolhberg's Theory of Moral Development

Children pass through stages in invariant sequence, although stages 5 and 6 are not reached by most people § Development is outgrowth of cognitive development § Each stage represents organized wholeStages relate to moral reasoning more than moral conduct § Low correlation btw stage or development and actual bx § Higher the stage, stronger relationship btw reasoning and bx o Development occurs in invariant sequence of stages that parallels cognitive development § Cognitive growth does not by itself guarantee person will progress through stages and that other factors have an effect on development • SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE-TAKING—ability to understand perspective of others • Parents' childrearing practices, peer interactions, and formal education

Chronic Illness and development of psychopathology

Children with conditions that involve brain functioning have more bx problems and poorer social functioning o Family functioning, in particular fam cohesion and support for child, is positively correlated with adjustment o Parental adjustment is positively correlated with adjustment o Chronically ill boys (esp 6-11 yrs) are at greater risk for bx problem than chronically ill girls, while girls are at greater risk for self-reported symptoms of distress o Adolescents are particularly higher risk for not adhering to treatment regimens, because of increased concern about "being different" o Children who are told about illness early have better psych adjustment § Tell child truth in way that is consistent w age and level of understanding

VYGOTSKY'S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Cognition depends on social, cultural, and historical context • Development is directly related to social interactions and that learning always occurs on two levels: o Child and another person (INTERPERSONAL) o Within child (INTRAPERSONAL) • ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT o Gap btw what child can do alone and what s/he can accomplish with help from parents or more competent peers o Learning occurs most rapidly when teaching is within zone o Support provided to child by others is referred as SCAFFOLDING § Most effective when involves giving cues, encouraging thinking about other possible actions and modeling

Information Processing theory

Cognitive processes of mind compare to functioning of computer programs and processes § Logical rules and strategies § Limited capacity for nature and amount of info that can be processed o Children can become better information processors or thinkers through brain and sensory systems changes and learning rules/strategies for processing info better

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY: fear and aggression

Deviant and normal bx have common origins and deviant bx can arise from diverse developmental pathways Fears o Content of normal childhood fears changes w development § Infancy—loud noise, strange objects, and strangers § Early childhood—animals peak at age 3, followed by fear of dark at 4- 5, fear of imaginary creatures after age 5 § After age 5—number and intensity of fears decline § Adolescence—social and sexual situations o Only 5% older than 5 have fears that are excessive or unrealistic o Treatment § Self-control procedure, making self-statements—most effective for fear of dark § Modeling § Contact desensitization § Participant modeling—animals, dental/medical treatments, test anxiety social withdrawalAggression o Boys/girls show similar levels prior to age 1During next few years, boys become more aggressive and girls less aggressive § Boys—more likely to engage in overt aggression § Girls—relational aggression o Aggression is due to combination of biological and environmental factors § Parenting Factors—highly aggressive children often come from homes where parents are rejecting and lacking warmth, are permissive or indifferent toward child's aggressiveness, and rely on power assertive discipline as means of control • High levels of aggression are associated with insecure/resistant attachment pattern and lax monitoring of child's activities and bx • Coercive family interaction model of aggression—social learning perspective and proposes child learns to act aggressively as result of both imitation and rewards they receive for acting in aggressive ways o Parents of highly aggressive children often reinforce aggressive bx by responding w attn and approval § They model aggression through parenting practices, which typically involve high rates of commands combined w inconsistent, harsh physical punishment

social Gender Differences

Differences become more pronounces w increasing age o Female pattern of relating as "enabling" style § Increase intimacy and equality btw peers and is characterized by expressing agreement, making suggestions, and providing support o Boys exhibit "restrictive" style § Tends to interfere with continuing interaction § Bragging, contradicting, and interrupting Friendship—girls place more importance on intimate, emotional aspects, while boys are more interested in sharing activities and interests

early sensory taste

Distinguish between all four tastes at birth § Show preference for sweet taste

Early practice can affect age reached of certain motor milestones

Early training does not have impact on long-term outcomes for basic skills but may affect more complex motor skills

ERIKSON'S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT emphasizes

Emphasizes psychosocial development and describes psychosocial conflict as occurring throughout lifespan • New stage builds on progress made in previous stages, and successful outcome in each stage is more likely is previous developmental conflicts have been successfully resolved

piaget's theory of cognitive development

Equilibration—continuous movement between cognitive equilibrium, a state in which we use existing schemas to interpret reality (assimilate) and disequilibrium, a state in which we notice that information doesn't fit into our current schemas § Disequilibrium forces us to modify current schemas (accommodate) so that we can understand new information

Marci's Identity Statuses

Extension of Erikson, that reflects different patterns with regards to occupational choice and religious and political beliefs § Identity Diffusion—have not undergone identity crisis and are not committed to an identity § Identity Foreclosure—strong commitment to identity that was not outcome of identity crisis but was suggested by parent/other person § Identity Moratorium—having identity crisis and is actively exploring different options and beliefs § Identity Achievement—resolved identity crisis and is committed to particular identity o 60% of people have achieved stable identity by 24 o Identity crisis is relatively uncommon and it is most often during early years in college

Gilligan's "Loss of Voice"

Females experience as result of internalization of sexist messages o High risk for relational crisis—abandoning themselves and other in order to conform to cultural expectations about femininity o Pressure to conform highest in middle school years

Alcohol—severe and largely irreversible abnormalities

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)—vary depending on amount of alcohol consumed • Include growth retardation, facial deformities, microcephaly (small, underdeveloped brain), irritability, hyperactivity, and variety of neurological abnormalities • MR, with IQ averaging 65-70 • Leading cause of MR in US § Fetal Alcohol Effects (FAE)—alcohol exposed but without full syndrome • More common • Present with 1 or more symptoms § 1:100 live births with FAS or FAE

VYGOTSKY'S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT crying in infancy

First way that infants communicate • Three distinct cries o Basic cry—associated with hunger o Pain cry o Angry cry • By week 3—cry for attention • Infant's cries on adults o Crying causes changes in heart rate, skin conduction, and other measures of physiological arousal in parents and non-parents

theories of attachment: Freud, Harlow, Bowlby

Freud viewed it as result of feeding § Research has shown feeding is less important for attachment than other factors o Harlow—separated monkeys from mothers at birth § Spent more time with terry-cloth mother § Concluded CONTACT COMFORT (pleasant tactile sensation provided by soft, cuddly parent) is more important than feeding o Bowlby's Ethological Theory—infants and mothers are biologically programmed for attachment § Infant is endowed with set of built in, attachment-related bx § Mothers respond with bx that are appropriate to infant's attachment needs § Evolutionally, purpose of bx is to keep infant's mother in close proximity and increase infant's chances for survival § Also proposed that children begin to develop mental representations of self and attachment figures during first year • "INTERNAL WORKING MODELS" for self and others that guide bx in later relationships

Research on Piaget's Theory

Generally, idea that cognitive development occurs in invariant sequence of stages has been confirmed o Criticized for underestimating cognitive abilities of children, especially preoperational children o While Piaget claimed that everyone reaches formal operational stage, there is evidence that only about ½ of adult population reaches this stage and that many adults use formal operational thought only in their areas of expertise and experience

genotype and phenotype

Genetype—characteristics that are determined by info coded on genes • Phenotype—person's observable and measurable characteristics which develop from an interaction btw genetics and environment

Criticized Kolhberg's Theory of Moral Development

Gilligan § Emphasizes principles of justice and fairness and reflects a "male bias" since males are more likely to refer to these principles when making moral judgments, while females are more likely to refer to interpersonal conncectedness and care • Research has generally not supported Gilligan o No consistent differences

Most neurons are already present at birth, so development involves:

Growth of new dendrites, which create synapses § Myelinization • Begin to form myelin in first month in primary cortex o Accounts for ability to perform certain voluntary movements in one month of agePrimary sensory area next • Most myelinization is complete by end of year 2, it continues at slower rate into early adolescence

Piaget's Theory of Moral Development

HETERONOMOUS MORALITY—morality of constraint § Characteristic of children ages 4-7Children view rules as absolute and unchangeable and believe in imminent justice § Base judgments primarily on act's consequences—more negative consequences, worse the act § Inflexible moral reasoning at this stage is due to combination of preoperational egocentrism and constraint of parental authorityAUTONOMOUS MORALITY—morality of reciprocity § By age 7-8 § Rules are recognized as being determined by agreement btw individuals and, consequently, alterable § Consider intentions of actor to be most important § Decline in egocentrism, social interactions with peers, and gradual release from adult vigilance and constraint o Children under age of 6 usually equate lies with things they are not supposed to say § Btw 6-10, label any untruth as lie § By 11, understand that only intentionally false statement is lie § Children do no deliberately lie until 7 • Children as young as 3-4 intentionally lie to avoid punishment or embarrassment

Goodness-of-Fit

Healthy psychological development requires goodness-of-fit btw child's temperament and environmental factors, especially parents § Maladjustment is caused by poorness-of-fit btw child and environment

early sensory hearing

Last few months of development—hears sounds in uterus § Newborn—somewhat less sensitive than that of adult § Few days after birth—prefer human voice, recognize mother's voice, distinguish between vowels "a" and "i" § Soon after birth—sound and auditory localization (turning heard toward direction of sound), but this ability disappears between 2-4 months and then re-emerges and becomes fully developed by 12 months

illegal drugs prenatal use

Herin or Methadone—increases risk for prematurity, low birth weight, physical abnormalities, respiratory disease, and morality at birth • Physically addicted to drug and display withdrawl symptoms at birth § Marijuana—low birth weight, muscle tremors, increased startle response and visual problemsCocaine—retarded fetal growth, preterm birth and malformations of brain, intestinal and genital-urinary tract • Hemorrhages, lesions and swelling in brain, small head circumference, genital and urinary tract deformities, heart defects, brain seizure, and abnormalities in motor development • Due to altered function of neurotransmitters, tend to show more irritability, rigidity, muscle tremors, difficult selfsoothing, difficulty being consoled, and excessively reactive to environmental stimuli • Impaired sensory function, decreased visual attention, and difficulty regulating own state of arousal (i.e. asleep, awake, attentive) • In school setting, problems with concentration, memory, learning disabilities, and social problems o Prescription and OTC Drugs § Benzodiazapines—feeding problems, hypothermia, and deficiency in muscle tone § Lithium—increases risk for Edstein's Anomaly (defect in heart) • When taken at time of birth—perinatal syndrome, including bluish discoloration of skin and decreased muscle tone § Valproic Acid—increases risk of fetal malformation

types of infant reflexespalmar grasp, babinski, moro or startle, and stepping and disappear when

Palmar Grasp—grasps finger pressed against surface of palm § Babinski—extends big toe and spreads small toe when sole of foot is stroked § Moro or Startle—when head drops slightly or sudden sound, arches back, extends legs, and throws arms outward as if grabbing for support § Stepping—when upright position and soles of feet touch floor, makes stepping motions;Disappear during first 6 months of life due to gradual increase in voluntary control

TEMPERAMENT

Individual's basic bx style • Strong genetic component and be primary contributor to personality o Identical twins are more similar in terms of temperament • Relatively stable during first yr of life o More stable over lifespan when measurements of temperament are made after child reached 2 o Prior to age 1, not good predictor of temperament

Gender Identity Development

Individual's own sense of identification as male or female, distinguished from actual biological sex o By 3, have established gender-role id and can id themselves as either girl or boy, recognize what is expected or appropriate of them as girls/boys and note that other are same/opposite sex o Greater impact than biological sex on self-esteem in children and that androgyny is associated with highest levels of self-esteem in boys/girls § Masculinity, to a somewhat lesser degree, is associated with higher levels of self-esteem than femininity in both boys/girls o Differences decrease in late adolescence and early adulthood, however increase again once first child is born and primary responsibility for child rearing and domestic responsibilities is maintained by woman § Gender role reversal starts in middle-age, with women becoming more outgoing, independent, active and competitive and men becoming more dependent, sensitive and passive

Resilience for developing psychopathology

Infants are high risk were less likely to develop problems when they were temperamentally "easy" and socially responsive as infants, and had consistent caregiver

PEER RELATIONS in development in kids

Infants begin to interact w peers by 6 mo through smiling, touching, gesturing, and vocalizing • At 14 mo, peer interactions revolve around playing w toys and often accompanied by fights over toys or displays of affection • During preschool yrs, children begin to prefer some peers over others, and this preference is usually based on similarity in terms of gender, age, and bx tendencies • Peer interactions increase during elementary school yrs, so that children spend increasingly more time w peers than w adults o During these yrs, peer groups are strictly gender-segregated, and choice of friends related to shared activities and reciprocity • During adolescence, groups become less segregated by gender, and friendships are more based on mutual intimacy and self-disclosure and similarity in terms of interests, attitudes, and values

Attachment Phenomena

Infants begin to show preference for mother over other people by 4 mo, but do not exhibit clear signs of attachment until 6-7 mo o Primary signs of attachment include: § Social Referencing—6 mo • SOCIAL REFERENCING—"read" emotional rxns of mother and other caregivers, especially in uncertain situations, and use info to guide own bx § Separation Anxiety—6 mo • Respond with distress to separation from primary caregiver o Strongest when infant is btw 14-18 mo, and gradually lessens in intensity and frequency through preschool years § Stranger Anxiety—strong negative rxn to strangers as early as 6 mo, although more common at 8-10 mo • Reaches peak at 18 mo and gradually declines during 2 yr • Intensity is affected by situational factors § Response to Prolonged Separation—15-30 mo were separated from mothers for extended period of time, infants exhibit predictable sequence of bx: • Protest—loud crying, restlessness, rejection of attn from other adults • Despair—crying, inactivity, withdrawl • Detachment—apathy that may continue even when mother returns

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION according to VYGOTSKY'S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Key features of language: o System of words that stand for something o It is rule-governed o Within confines of rules, it is creative • Sequence of Language Development o Different cultures progress through similar stages of development o Milestones: § Cooing (1-2 mo)—vowel-like sounds, usually emitted when content § Babbling (4-6 mo)—repetition of consonant-vowel combinationsBabies begin around same age in all linguistic environments and initially produce similar repertoire of sounds • By 9 mo, sounds narrow to those of language exposed to § First words (10-16 mo)—refer to people or manipulable or moving objects and events that have salient properties of change (bye-bye, up, more) § Holophrastic Speech (12-18 mo)—combining single word with gestures and intonation to express entire thought/sentence § Telegraphic Speech (18-24 mo)—two word sentences that are made up of most critical words § Rapid Vocabulary Growth (30-36 mo)—vocab of 1000 words and use simple three word sentences § Development of Complex Grammatical Forms (3-6 yrs)—correctly use verb "to be," master concept of negation, and ask questions • By age 6, connect whole sentences and verb phrases, produce embedded sentences, use direct and indirect objects, and construct sentences in passive voice

Klinefelter's syndrom, Fragile X, turners syndrome,

Klinefelter's Syndrome—extra X • Males • Typical masculine interests in childhood and develop normal male identity, but show incomplete development of secondary sex characteristics and often sterile § Turner's Syndrome—all or part of second X is missing • Female • Do not develop secondary sex characteristics, are sterile, and tend to have short stature, stubby fingers, and webbed neck § Fragile X Syndrome—weak site on X • Both male and femaleNegative effects are usually more evident in males who lack influence of normal X • Unique constellation of physical, intellectual, and behavioral deficits (i.e. moderate-severe MR, facial deformities, and rapid, staccato speech rhythm)

sex linked chromosomal disorders

Klinefelter's syndrom, Fragile X, turners syndrome,

Sensorimotor Stage—birth to 2 yrs and 6 substages

Learns about objects through sensory information and motor activity • Learning is thought to be result of CIRCULAR REACTION— behaviors are performed to reproduce events that happened initially by chance o Substage 1: Basic Reflexes—birth to 1 mo § First schemas are inborn reflexes and newborn begins to get control over them o Substage 2: Primary Circular Reactions—1 to 4 mo § Infant finds actions involving their bodies by accident then learns to repeat them by trial and errorSubstage 3: Secondary Circular Reaction—4 to 8 mo § Infants find actions involving objects in environment, then try to reproduce actions/events by trial and error o Substage 4: Coordination of Secondary Schemas—8 to 12 mo § Infants intentionally put together two schemas (secondary circular reactions) to reach goal or solve problem § Object permanence begins o Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions—12 to 18 mo § Infants are curious, explore through trial and error, trying to produce novel reactions or consequences o Substage 6: Transition to Symbolic Thought—18 to 24 mo § Toddlers begin to form mental or symbolic representations of events, using body movements for movements of objects, to think about events and to determine consequences of action

Custody Arrangements

Live w same-sex parent are better adjusted, especially for boys o Findings are inconsistent § For adolescence, father custody is associated with higher rates of depression/anxiety, poorer grades, and other problems

family risk factors

Low SES o Overcrowding or large family size o Severe marital discord o Parental criminality o Maternal psychopathology o Placement of child outside of home • Psychiatric risk was 2% for children with one/no risk factors, and 21% for those with 4/

ADOLESCENT PERSONALITY AND IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT • Physical Development and Personality

Many difference become increasingly apparent in adolescence o Adolescent growth spurts begin 2 yrs earlier for girls than boys o Best adjustment outcomes are found among early-maturing boys; then average-maturing boys and girls; then late-maturing girls; and last by late maturing boys and early maturing girls § Latter group has most severe problems, including emotional instability, declines in academic achievement, and drug/alcohol use

Bronfenbrenner o Four interacting systems

Microsystem—immediate setting • Includes family, daycare, school § Mesosystem—interconnections between different components of child's microsystem § Exosystem—aspects of environment that child is not in direct contact with but is affected by § Macrosystem—aspects of society that affect child's development

divorce on school performance

Negative impact § Not only lower grades, but also like school less, exhibit more peer and bx problems at school, and at higher risk for dropping out § Negative impact worse for boys and older children

Key achievements of sensorimotor stage:

OBJECT PERMANENCE—understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible o DEFFERED IMITATION—ability to imitate observed act at later point in time and beginning of make-believe play o Both are results of beginning of symbolic thought, which allows child to use words, activities, and mental images to stand for objects

PARENTING AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Parental bx is one environmental variable that is known to have strong impact on child's personality development • Dimensions of Parenting o Warmth vs. Hostility § Warm parent—affectionate, regularly puts child's needs first, enthusiastic about child's activities, responds to child with empathy and sensitivity § Hostile parent—quick to criticize, rarely shows affection, overtly rejecting § Children from warm family are more securely attached in first 2 yrs, higher self-esteem an IQs, and more empathetic and altruistic o Restrictiveness vs. Permissiveness § Restrictive parents—highly controlling and demanding and expect unwavering obedience to rules • Children tend to be obedient and timid and have difficulty establishing close relationships § Permissive parents—have few rules, make few demands, let children make own decisions • Children are relatively thoughtless toward others and are only moderately independent § Optimal parenting style is one that falls in middle

divorce effects of parenting

Promote state of disorganization—"Diminishing Capacity to Parent" § Continues for about 2 yrs after divorce § Ordinary household routines usually disintegrate § Inconsistent with discipline and vacillate btw being detached and highly punitive o Mothers may show less affection toward children, especially sons § May start to treat sons more harshly o Fathers tend to become more indulgent and permissive o Parents without physical custody initially spend more time w children, but contact diminishes over time

Teen Drug Use

Rate of current illicit drug use among 12 or older is 8.3% o Tobacco, alcohol, marijuana

Disorders Due to Recessive/Dominant Genes

Recessive: § Phenylketonuria (PKU)—lack enzyme needed to digest amino acid phenylalanine • In undigested form remains toxic agent in brain and causes severe MR • MR prevented by adherence to diet low in phenylalanine during first 6-9 yrs (ex. Milk, eggs, fish, bread) § Tay-Saschs § Sickle-cell anemia § Cystic Fibrosis o Dominant: § Huntington's Chorea—degenerative disorder of CNS • Characterized by cognitive, motor and psychiatric symptoms

Small-For-Gestational-Age (SGA)—below 10th%

Respiratory disease, hypoglycemia and asphyxia during birth

maternal disease prenatal

Rubella Virus (German Measles)—heart defects, eye cataracts, deafness, GI anolmalies, and MR • 20% due shortly after birth § Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)—risk of miscarriage increased 3-fold during pregnancy • If contracted through delivery—high risk of death, brain damage, and blindness o Typically, C-section done § Cytomegalovirus (CMV)—embryo dying • If later in pregnancy—retarded growth, blindness, deafness, MR, microencephaly (small head circumference associated with delayed motor, speech and mental development) and cerebral palsy § Syphilis—deafness, facial deformities, malformations of teeth and bones, excess fluid in brain and MR § HIV—higher than average rates of prematurity and often small for gestational age Early symptoms include increased susceptibility to other infections, failure to thrive, swollen lympth nodes and development delays • High risk for immunologic abnormalities and CNS dysfunctions including loss of developmental milestones, attention and concentration problems, and declining IQ • With antiviral therapy, risk can be reduced to 2% transmission

divorce effects on kids age and gender

Rxns are moderated by several factors, including age, gender, and custodial arrangements § Age: • Preschool—most negative outcomes, especially short-term o Difficult for them to understand reasons for divorce and are prone to self-blame, reversion to more immature bx, and intense separation anxiety • Long-term consequences are worse for older children o 10 yrs after divorce, preschoolers had fewer memories of period surrounding divorce, while older children expressed painful memories and fears about own ability to have happy marriage § Gender: • Boys suffer more severe short and long term consequences o Following divorce, presadolescent boys often exhibit increase in bx, such as noncompliance, demandingness, and hostility • Girls more likely to exhibit internalizing bx o "Sleeper Effect"—girls in preschool/elementary may have few problems initially, but as adolescence, exhibit noncompliance, low self-esteem, emotional problems, and antisocial bx § More likely than intact families to marry young, be pregnant before marriage, and choose psychologically unstable husband

Ainsworth noted differences are result of how responsive mother is to child's needs

Secure Attachment—baby actively explores environment when alone or with mother • Friendly to stranger when mother is present but clearly prefer mother to stranger • Show distress when mother leaves and seek physical contact with her when she returns • Mothers are emotionally sensitive and responsive § Anxious/Avoidant Attachment—babies are uninterested in environment • Show little distress when mother leaves and avoid contact with her when she returns • May or may not be wary of strangers • Mothers are impatient and nonresponsive or overly responsive, involved and stimulating § Anxious/Resistant Attachment—babies are anxious even when mother is present and become very distressed when she leaved • Ambivalent when she returns and may resist her attempts to make physical contact • Very wary of strangers even when mother is present • Mothers are inconsistent in responses to child, sometimes being indifferent and other times being enthusiastic § Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment—babies have conflicting responses to mother and alternate btw avoidance/resistance and proximity-seeking • Bx is dazed, confused, and apprehensive • Seen in maltreated babies by caregivers

Adult Attachment Patterns

Secure-Autonomous—value attachment relationships and have secure base provided by at least one parent • Do not idealize parents nor do they feel angry about childhood • Able to integrate both positive and negative experiences • Most of their own children have Secure Attachment Pattern § Dismissing—devalue importance of attachment relationships and are guarded and defensive when asked about childhood • Idealize parents, yet cannot support their positive evaluations with concrete examples¾ of their own children are Avoidantly Attached § Preoccupied—confused and incoherent regarding attachment memories • Disappointment, frustrated attempts to please their parents, and role reversals • Enmeshed with family of origin issues and may be angry or have sense of resignation that problems cannot be overcome • Most of children have Ambivalent (Anxious/Resistant) Attachments § Unresolved—severe trauma and early losses tend to show this pattern • Have not mourned not integrated losses • Frightened by memories associated with trauma and may dissociate to avoid pain • Very negative and dysfunctional relationships with own children, often being abusive and neglectful • Children tend to develop Disorganized/Disoriented attachments

Theories of Gender-Identity Development: social learning theory, gender schema theory, cognitive developmental theory, psychodynamic theory

Social Learning Theory—social factors role on development of id, yet primarily emphasizes impact of modeling and reinforcement § Children first gain gender-typed bx through rewards and punishments, modeling and imitation and then develop gender-role id o Gender Schema Theory—children develop schema about what is expected of them as girls/boys w/in sociocultural environment, these schemas influence how they perceive and think about world and then apply schemas to own bx § Social-cognitive approach—both social, notably sociocultural factors, and cognitive processesCognitive-Developmental Theory—gender-role id parallels cognitive development across 3 stages: § Gender Identity—child recognizes the s/he is male/female • Age 2-3 § Gender Stability—gender identity is consistent over time § Gender Constancy—understanding that gender does change because of changes in appearance, bx, or situations • Age 6-7 o Psychodynamic Theory—resolution of psychosexual crisis of phallic stage

Popularity

Social bx seems to be much more important—popular children are skilled at initiating and maintaining positive relationships w peers § They are more outgoing, supportive, communicative, cooperative, and nonpunitive than less popular children o Popular children tend to be more intelligent and more successful academically § Rejected children are more aggressive and show higher levels of disruptiveness, physical aggressiveness, and other negative bx

Kolhberg's Theory of Moral Development

Stages and Levels § Preconventional—morality based on consequences of act o Bx are punished are regarded at bad, while bx rewarded are good • Stage 1—punishment and obedience orientation o Focus on avoiding punishment when making moral judgments • Stage 2—instrumental hedonistic orientation o That which satisfies their own needs as moral § Conventional—moral reasoning is guided by desire to maintain existing social laws, rules and norms • Stage 3—"good boy-good girl" (social relations) orientation o Oriented toward maintaining approval of relatives and friends • Stage 4—authority and social order-maintaining orientation o Toward obeying society's laws and rules § Post-Conventional—morality in terms of self-chosen principles • Stage 5—social contract and individual rights orientation o Oriented toward upholding democratically-determined laws, but recognizes that laws can be ignored or changed for valid reason • Stage 6—universal ethical principles orientationReflects fundamental universal ethical principles that transcend legal standards § Although not a 1:1 correspondence btw age and level, transition from preconventional to conventional occurs btw age 10-13, while transition from conventional to post-conventional (if it happens at all) occurs in mid-adolescence or later

ATTACHMENT

Strong affectional tie we feel for special people in our lives that leads us to feel pleasure and joy when we interact with them and to be comforted by their nearness in times of stress

Dimensions of Temperament

Thomas and Chess § Distinguished btw 9 dimensions • Activity level • Rhythmicity • Approach/withdrawal • Adaptability • Threshold of responsiveness • Intensity of rxn • Quality of mood • Distractibility • Attn span/persistence § 3 groups • Easy Children—usually cheerful, have rxns to new stimuli that are low to moderate in intensity, adapt easily to changes, and have regular feeding and sleeping schedules • Slow-to-Warm-Up Children—sad/tense, have low intensity rxns to new stimuli, take time to adapt to change and initially withdraw from new experiences, and have variable feeding and sleeping schedulesDifficult Children—respond to new experiences with irritability, are difficult to soothe, are very active, and have irregular feeding and sleeping schedules

stages of erikson theory of psychosocial development

Trust vs. Mistrust—birth-1 § Due to warm, responsive parental care and pleasurable sensations while feeding, infant gains sense of confidence that caregivers are predictable, good and gratifying § Mistrust of others results when infant has to wait too long for comfort and is handles harshly o Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt—1-3 § Increasing motor control and cognitive skills lead to greater exploration and independence § Autonomy is fostered when parents offer guided opportunities for free choice and do not overly restrict or shame child o Initiative vs. Guilt—3-6 § Through make-believe play, children learn about roles and institutions of society and gain insight into type of person they can become § Initiative develops when parents support child's emerging sense of purpose and direction § Too many parental demands for self-control may lead to excessive guilt o Industry vs. Inferiority—6-Puberty § Children develop capacity for productive work and cooperation with others § Inferiority develops when experiences in school, peer groups or with parents do not foster feelings of competence and mastery o Identity vs. Identity Confusion—Adolescence § Transition btw childhood and adulthood § Tasks of earlier stages become integrated into lasting sense of identityPerson optimally develops coherent sense of who s/he is and what his/her place is in society § Negative outcome is confusion about one's sexual and occupational identity o Intimacy vs. Isolation—Young Adulthood § Relationships w others enhance person's sense of identity and provide gratifying feelings of connectedness § Unsuccessful resolution results in inability to establish close relationships, intense fear of rejection, and isolation o Generativity vs. Stagnation—Middle Adulthood § Contributing to younger generations through child-rearing, serving as mentor/teacher, and productive work § Failure to contribute in one/more results in sense of stagnation and boredom o Ego Integrity vs. Despair—Old Age § Look back at who they are and what they have done during their lives § Integrity results from feeling like was worthwhile § Despair and regret result from sense of dissatisfaction

early sensory smells

Unpleasant odors during first days following birth § Discriminate between different odors by 2-7 days old

COMMUNICATION: GENDER DIFFERENCES

Women are more likely than men to ask rhetorical questions, hesitate, use hedge (sort of, I guess), and add tag questions in statements (its warm in here, isn't it?) • Men do not interrupt more often • Men talk more than women overall

cognitive factorsDEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY:

aggressive children are much more likely to report that is it easier to perform aggressive acts and difficult to inhibit aggressive impulses and feel confident that aggression will have positive outcomes, including reducing aversive treatment by others • Dodge and Crick believe aggression involve 5 steps: o Encoding of social cues o Interpretation of social cues o Response search o Response evaluation o Response enactment o Skillful processing at each step will lead to competent performance within situation, whereas biased or deficient processing will lead to deviant, possibly aggressive, antisocial bx

Fetal Period

beginning 9th week to birth § Organ systems less affected, but exposure can cause less severe defects, especially for external genitalia and brain • Prolonged exposure tends to cause growth retardation and lowered IQ

THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

behavioral, nativist theories, cognitive theory,

premature infants

born before 37 weeks § Increases due to: lack of prenatal care, malnutrition, maternal age (younger than 15), drug use, low SES, and multiple gestations § Premature infants w/o significant abnormalities often catch up with peers, in terms of cognitive language and social skills, by 2-3 yr/old

Both Piaget and Kohlberg link moral development to

changes in cognitive maturity

NEO-PIAGETIAN

constructivist approach development in stages with qualitative differences like Piaget o Unlike Piaget—increasing complexity of stages in terms of child's info processing system or upper limits or constraints on levels of functioning o Combine info processing and Piagetian theories, recognizing roles of both ENDOGENOUS (biological maturation) and EXOGENOUS (social learning and experience) factors in cognitive development

Brain Development in Infancy and Childhood o Especially

cortex, development occurs following birth and brain development continues until early adolescence

prenatal malnutrition

depend on when and the severity § First Trimester—spontaneous abortion or congenital malformations § Third Trimester—low birth weight, low brain weight due to fewer neurons, less extensive branching of dendrites, and reduced myelinization • Apathy, unresponsiveness to environmental stimulation, irritability, abnormally high pitch cry, intellectual deficits, and lags in motor development

Embryonic Period

end of 2nd week to end of 8th week § Organism is more susceptible to major structural defects as result, mainly organs

Teratogens

environmental agents (i.e. durgs, toxins, infections) that cause abnormalities by interfering with normal prenatal development

Cognitive Theories

motivated by child's desire to express meaning Language does not introduce new meanings to child, but is used to express only those meanings the child has already formulated independently of language

piaget's stages of cog development 4 stages :

o Cognitive development proceeds sequentially in four stages, with each one building upon earlier stage1 sensorimotor; preoperational, concrete, formal operational

Emotional Stress— during pregnancy

—chronic, severe anxiety or stress on mother § Spontaneous abortion, premature delivery and more difficult labor § High risk for low birth weight, respiratory problems, exhibiting higher-than-normal levels of irritability and hyperactivity, bowel irregularities and problems related to sleep and eating

Range of Reaction

—individual's genetics set boundaries for possible phenotypes that can occur o Genes set boundaries for range of reaction but environment determines which outcomes will materialize o For many traits, reaction range is larger for those with high genetic endowment than those with low genetic endowment

GxE Interaction

—interaction of genetics and environment to produce given outcome

TV viewing

—more violent, aggressive TV programs, more aggressive child becomes • Tv violence is stimulating increase in adult aggression in males and famles • Effect persists even when effects of SES, intellect, age, and variety of parenting factors are controlled

Canalization—

—narrow developmental path that characteristics take due to being relatively resistant to environmental forces

maternal age

—percentage of babies born low in birth weight is greatest for mothers under age 15 and over 45 § Women over age 35—miscarriage, placenta previa, high BP, diabetes, and birth by C-section • Increased risk of congenital birth defects

Behavioral Theories

—result of classical and operant conditioning and imitation o Focus on strategies that caregivers and others use to facilitate language development § Strategies include use of MOTHERESE (talking in simple sentences at slow pace and with high-pitched voice) and RECASTING (rephrasing child's sentence in different way)

Adult Attachment Interview (AAI)

—shown to be effective measure of intergenerational transmission of attachment patterns § Used to elicit details about early family like, relationships with parents, and unresolved emotional issues

Interventions for aggression

—social skills training is most effective • Alternative ways of resolving conflict, using cognitive interventions to help child accurately interpret statements and bx of others, and empathy training to encourage identity of feelings of others and to express own approach • Bx modification program—alter way parents interact w aggressive children o Reinforce desirable bx, enforce rules consistently, and use time-out and nonphysical punishment