GVSU Geo 111-10 COMBINED 2
vadose zone
contains water only along grain boundaries and in the smallest pores and fractures
lithosphere
cooling of surface forms this strong outer shell
Porphyry deposits
copper orebodies formed in magma chambers
Biological activity
influence of the biosphere - can also physically disintegrate rock
olivine; mantle
Ultramafic rocks contain __________ and are commonly found in __________.
rock
naturally formed, coherent mass of minerals, may include organic debris
mineral
naturally formed, inorganic, solid, crystalline strucutre
frost wedging
one of the most efficient mechanisms for widening cracks in rock
ocean acidification
one of the most threatening aspects of anthropogenic global change
igneous rocks are classified based on:
texture chemical and mineral compositions
Electrons
the lightest in weight or least massive of the basic atomic particles
____________ is often paraphrased as "the present is the key to the past."
Uniformitarianism
The size of the volcanic fragments
What differentiates welded tuff from volcanic breccia?
They both exhibit a vesicular texture.
What do pumice and scoria have in common?
Pyroxene
What do the olivine crystals convert to as the temperature of magma cools?
Amphibole
What do the pyroxene crystals convert to as the temperature of magma cools?
Biotite
What do the pyroxene crystals convert to as the temperature of magma cools?
lahars
What do we call mudflows produced by the melting of snow and glaciers on composite volcanoes?
The shape that the water table takes on near a pumping well
What is the cone of depression?
Batholith
What is the largest of all the plutons?
Granite
What is the most common igneous rock?
Fractional crystallization
What is the process by which a magma becomes progressively more felsic as it cools?
Streak
color of mineral powdered form
sea stack
column of rock remaining after the collapse of a sea arch
lithosphere
Sphere of rock. 100-250 km thick. Thin in ocean basin, thick in older oceanic crust.
Magma chamber
What is the underground zone where magma accumulates?
Andesite
What rock is intermediate in composition and aphanitic in texture?
Gabbro
What rock is mafic in composition and phaneritic in texture?
Scoria basalt
What rock is mafic in composition and vesicular in texture?
Volcanic breccia
What rock is formed from volcanic fragments that are larger than sand grain (ash) in size?
gabbro
A medium- to coarse-grained mafic igneous rock, the phaneritic equivalent of basalt.
Springs
A natural source of water formed when water from an aquifer percolates up to the ground surface.
Perennial Stream
A stream that always has water flowing in it.
Submerging them in cold mercury
How did Bowen cool the melted powdered mafic minerals in his experiments?
the organism is burried quickly
what conditions favor fossil preservation?
Diamond
what mineral is the hardest known substance in nature?
Ferromagnesian silicates
What type of rocks are in the discontinuous branch of Bowen's reaction series?
concrete
building material made by mixing small stones and sand with limestone, clay, and water
Cinder cone
built from ejected lava that begins to solidify in flight
geochemical cycles
patterns of flow, or flux, of chemical from one component of the earth system to another
Vesicular
What is formed when magma has an excessive amount of dissolved gasses?
Welded tuff or volcanic breccia
What rock can be any of the 3 compositions and but only pyroclastic in texture?
Diorite
What rock is intermediate in composition and phaneritic in texture?
Basalt
What rock is mafic in composition and aphanitic in texture?
Scoria
What rock is most often seen in rock gardens or in dry saunas because it is inexpensive and very lightweight?
Granite
What rock is phaneritic in texture and composed of quartz, muscovite, and K+ feldspar?
Granite
Which rock could be classified as: a) a phaneritic rock. b) felsic in composition. c) could be found in a batholith. d) the coarse-grained equivalent of rhyolite.
diamictite
Which sedimentary rock when found at an outcrop is indicative of past glacial activity?
convergent
Which tectonic boundary is responsible for the most powerful and destructive earthquakes recorded?
Liquefaction
Which type of earthquake destruction can cause houses to sink into the ground?
Eyjafjallajokull
Which volcanoes eruption in 2010 caused almost all air traffic across Europe to be shut down?
They were derived from the igneous rocks from which the islands were formed
While vacationing in hawaii you notice that the sands on the beach are composed of black sediments. What inferences can you make about these sediments?
granite
A coarse-grained, felsic igneous rock containing mostly feldspar and quartz
driving forces
A force that causes the movement of tectonic plates
natural gas
A fossil fuel in the gaseous state
Methane
A gas produced by bacteria from hydrogen and carbon dioxide
andesitic
A geologist sends you a sample that was collected in the field. You find that it is a gray-colored igneous rock containing amphibole and intermediate plagioclase feldspar. Using Bowen's Reaction Series as a guide, how would you describe its composition?
rhyolite
A mostly fine-grained, felsic igneous rock, generally of volcanic origin; can contain glass, volcanic ash, pieces of pumice, and variable amounts of visible crystals (phenocrysts)
volcanic glass
A natural glass produced by the cooling and solidification of molten lava at a rate too rapid to permit crystallization.
Who proposed the theory of continental drift?
Alfred Wegener
Which group of minerals are the most abundant in the Earth's crust?
C. silicates
What is Continental drift(ing)
Continents move freely over Earth's surface, changing position relative to each other
Igneous rocks
Cooling and solidification of magma (molten rock)
Most lava crystallizes to form igneous rocks with phaneritic (coarse-grained) textures.
False
Two main carbonate minerals
Limestone and Dolostone
parts that make magma
Liquid, Solid, and Gas
Luster
This property describes the appearance of reflected light from the mineral's surface.
Igneous
cooled from a liquid (melt). Magma, lava, volcanoes, molten rock cooling
Columnar jointing
cooling of basaltic lava can produce...
magnetic filed
deep inside earth in its liquid outer core help create this
benioff zone
earthquake zone resulting from from a collision between 2 crustal plates (one overriding the other)
Intraplate earthquakes
earthquakes occurs within the plate, away from plate boundaries
tuff cone
formed by interaction between magma and shallow water or water saturated ground
seamount
isolated peak of volcanic acivity underwater. some rise above sea level, some do not.
tar sands
oil deposits that are exposed to erosion that form sedimentary units rich in bitumen, sand, and gravel
where is heat flow the lowest?
oldest sections of the ocean floor adjacent to continents
A peridotite is mainly composed of...
olivine and/or pyroxene
A gabbro is mainly composed of...
olivine, pyroxene & feldspar
biotite
peals
Kimberlite
rare, ultramafic rock that can contain diamonds and other minerals formed only under very high pressures.
aquifers
rock formations through which groundwater flows in sufficient quantity to supply wells
Tuff
rock formed from the fusing of fine glassy fragments that were created by hot gasses melting ash
Drumlin
streamlined hills of glacially smoothed till or outwash
Drainage Basin
the area from which a single stream or river and its tributaries drains all of the water
ionic bond
the attraction of oppositely charged ions to one another
troposphere
the lowest region of the atmosphere, extending from the earths surface
Atmosphere
the mass of air surrounding the Earth. Protects from suns heat and UV rays. Thin and tenuous compared to earth.
groundwater
the mass of water that flows beneath earths surface
bed load
the material the current carries along the bed by sliding and rolling
angle repose
the maximum angle at which a slope of loose material will lie without cascading does
geochemical cycles
the movement of elements between Earth's land, water, atmosphere, and living things
discharge
the movement of groundwater to the surface is the opposite if recharge
Biotite
the name a dark-colored mica
younger
the sedimentary layers above an erosive surface are _ relative to all rocks present below the surface
lee side
the side of something that is sheltered from the wind
continental slope
the slope between the outer edge of the continental shelf and the deep ocean floor.
Solifluction
the slow downward movement of the surface layer on a slope, occurs where the ground freezes deeply, when the surface thaws becomes saturated by rain and flows over the frozen layer
high heat and pressure
the two most important driving forces of metamorphism?
asthenosphere
the upper layer of the earths mantle below the lithosphere, in which there is relative low resistance to plastic flow and convection is thought to occur
climate
the weather conditions prevailing in an area in general or over fa long period
Kaolinite
the white cream-colored clay produced by the weathering of feldspar
A scientific hypothesis that stands repeated testing can be elevated to a scientific
theory.
what are the 3 most important radioactive elements?
thorium potassium uranium
Feldspars and Quartz
three dimensional frameworks
Change in the ground elevation of Earth's surface is called
topography.
fossils
traces of organisms preserved in geological record
Lithification
transformation into solid rock.
Sediment
transportation and deposition
immiscible
two liquids which can not mix together (rarely magmas can unmix and form 2 immiscible liquids)
continental and oceanic.
two types of crust
geodesy
very old branch of earth science that studies Earth's shape and surface
Scoria
vesicular rock commonly having basaltic or andesitic compositions
extrusive
what lava erupts at earth's surface, what type of rock is produced?
Ground motion(shaking)
what type of earthquake hazard breaks power lines, pipelines, buildings, roads, bridges, etc
differentiated planet
A planetary body in which various elements and minerals are separated according to density and concentrated at different levels. Earth, for example, is differentiated, with heavy metals (iron and nickel) concentrated in the core; lighter minerals in the mantle; and still lighter materials in the crust, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.
transform boundary
A plate boundary in which two tectonic plates move horizontally past one another
divergent boundary
A plate tectonic boundary in which two plates move apart (diverge) relative to one another
convergent boundary
A plate tectonic boundary in which two plates move toward (converge) relative to one another
earthquake mitigation
Adjustments to earthquake activities: Site selection for critical facilities Structure reinforcement and protection Land-use regulation and planning Emergency planning and management: Insurance and relief measures
A ________ volcano is a very large, gently sloping mound composed mainly of basaltic lava flows.
A. shield
A ________ is an open cavity in a volcanic rock that was filled by a gas bubble when the lava was still mainly liquid.
A. vesicle
Which of the following is not part of the Milankovich Cycle?
Accretion
vesicular
Adjective used to describe a rock containing vesicles
bay mouth bar
An exposed sandbar attached to a headland adjacent to a bay and extending across the mouth of the bay.
glacial erratic
An ice-transported boulder that was not derived from the bedrock near its present site.
Change in the composition of magma caused by melting surrounding host rock is known as ________.
B. assimilation
Which one of the following mineral groups exhibits a sheet-like silicate structure?
B. clays
The strong tendency of certain minerals to break along smooth, parallel planes is known as ________.
B. cleavage
The ________ refers to the ice and snow that exists on the Earth's surface.
Cryosphere
phenocryst
Crystals in an igneous rock that are larger than those around them, as in a porphyritic rock
________ is named for a prominent, volcanic mountain range in western South America.
D. Andesite
Deep-ocean trenches are formed by _______.
Deep-ocean trenches are formed by _______.
reverse and thrust fault
Hanging wall moves up and over the footwall. Caused by compression.
_____ igneous rocks are those that cool below the surface.
Intrusive
turbulent flow
Irregular flow with random variations in pressure.
Objection to Wegener's Pangaea proposal
Its inability to provide a mechanism for continental drift
____________ was an important 18th century English geologist and proponent of uniformitarianism.
James Hutton
volcanic bomb
Large blobs of magma that harden in the air, the shape is caused by the magma spinning though the air as it cooled into spindle, breadcrust, polygonally joined blocks
Subduction zones
Plate margins where oceanic crust is being consumed. Becomes molten rock due to temp and pressure
What happens at a divergent plate boundary?
Plates move appart
What happens at a convergent plate boundary?
Plates move together
Earth's surface is divided into continents and ocean basins. What is the difference between these two areas?
Relative levels - The elevation difference is a result of differences between density and thickness • Continents are relatively flat plateaus approximately 0.8 kilometers above sea level composed of granitic rocks • The average depth of ocean basins, composed of basaltic rocks, is 3.8 kilometers below sea level
What is the connection between people and Geology?
Resources (without geology our standard of living would be lower)
Foliation
Result of Regional Metamorphism, layered or banded appearance as a result of exposure to heat and directed pressure
hydrothermal rocks
Rocks that precipitate from hot water
fine grained
Rocks where the individual grains are too small to see. Fine-grained or glassy rocks require a microscope.
lithosphere
Spear of rock. 100-250 km thick. Thin in ocean basin, thick in older oceanic crust.
inner core
Sphere with radius of 1216 km has a high temperature but strong anyway because of immense pressure. (acts like a solid, like magic mud)
What evidence supports that the glaciers on the southern continents were once part of a single, massive ice sheet?
Striations
The Difference between Tabular and massive
Tabular is table like and massive is large in size.
The softest and hardest minerals on the Mohs Scale of Hardness
Talc (1) is the softest and Diamonds (10) are the hardest.
What is a transform plate boundary?
Tectonic plates that slide past each other
Grain Flattening/Elongation
Tectonic stresses accompanying metamorphism will flatten or elongate preexisting mineral crystals
subduction
The process of plate consumption is called
CO2 sequestration
The process of removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and making it unavailable for release back to the air.
continental rifting
The pulling apart of a continent, forming a low, fault-bounded trough (continental rift); may lead to a divergent plate boundary that leads to seafloor spreading and splitting apart a continent.
Which of the following forces is important in driving plate tectonics?
The pulling force of a lithospheric slab, the pushing force of a plate sliding off a mid-ocean ridge, and the suction force of a retreating subduction zone.
sorting
The range of clast sizes in a collection of sediment
geothermal gradient
The rate at which temperature increases with depth into the subsurface
specific gravity
The ratio of the density of a substance to the density of freshwater
luster
The reflection of light from the surface of a mineral, especially its quality and intensity; the appearance of a mineral in reflected light
stratosphere
The region of the atmosphere above the troposphere and below the mesosphere
What is Geology?
The science that pursues and understanding of planet earth.
Match the layer of the atmosphere with the correct description. Stratosphere
The second layer of the atmosphere where temperatures gradually increase from bottom to top
Stratosphere
The second-lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere.
crystal shape
The shape reflects the arrangement of atoms within the mineral (Cubic, hexagons, rectangular prisms)
at the focus or hypocenter
The slippage of an earthquake starts_
Atom
The smallest part of matter that still retains the characteristics.
Fission
The splitting of an atomic nucleus to release energy.
craton
The stable continental crust, including the shield and stable platform areas, most of which have not been affected by significant tectonic activity since the close of the Precambrian Era.
violent and explosive
The subduction of oceanic crust under continental crust predominantly produces which of the following types of volcanic eruption?
Cleavage
The tendency of a mineral to break along planes of weak bonding when stressed
Match the layer of the atmosphere with the correct description. Mesosphere
The third layer of the atmosphere where the coldest temperatures are found
define mesospheres
The third layer of the atmosphere where the coldest temperatures are found
Half-Life
The time required for one half of the atoms of a radioisotope to emit radiation an decay products
Water Table
The upper level of the saturated zone of groundwater
mantle
The voluminous layer of Earth located below the crust and above the core
cleavage
The way minerals break along a specific set of planes
Mica
Peals into sheets
Color Luster Habit Streak Hardness Cleavage
Physical Properties of minerals
Ferromagnesian silicate
What is olivine classified as?
Magma
molten rock below surface
Nuée ardent
"glowing cloud"
Cinders
"pea-sized" 2-64 mm
NIMBY
"refers to the idea that, while people may be aware of the necessity of some unpleasant realities, such as prisons, landfills, or chemical plants, they insist theses place be located away from where they live"- NOT IN MY BACK YARD
S wave
"shaking" particle motion at right angles to the direction of wave travel
Lapilli
"walnut" size 2-64 mm
hematite
(Fe2o3) All iron oxides formed at earths surface which is also the most abundant
Shearing
(created by tectonic stresses) between grains or along discrete planes will stretch pre-existing mineral crystals
Cryosphere
Frozen regions of Earth (ice, snow)
Intermediate Grade
Intermediate temp and pressure
The Difference between Mafic and felsic
Mafic is MAgnesium and FErrum it is darker and has greater density. Felsic is FEldspar and SIlica it is 10% biotite and amphibole and is a major part of the continental crust.
Main silicate minerals
Quartz and Feldspar
inner core
Radius of 1,220 km Denser than outer core solid
acid rain
Rain containing acids that form in the atmosphere when industrial gas emissions (especially sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) combine with water.
Sulfates
Raw material used for making plaster (Drywall)
Metamorphic Grade
Refers to the intensity of metamorphism
Olivine
What is peridotite mostly composed of?
Basalt
What is the Rosetta stone made of?
Crater
What is the circular depression at the top of a volcano?
composition and texture
What is the classification of igneous rocks based on?
artesian spring
a spring whose water flows from a crack in the cap rock over the aquifer
Braided Stream
a stream that is divided into numerous strands weaving back and forth between elongate bars of gravel and sand due to abundant sediment that was carried through the stream during a previous flood
forest beds
fine grained sand and silat are deposited to form this
Ash and Dust
fine, glassy fragments less than 2mm
Igneous processes on or near Earth's surface produce _____ ____ igneous rocks.
fine-grained; extrusive
calcite
fizzes
texture, composition
igneous rocks are characterized by
abyssal hills
relatively small hills on the abyssal floor. cover 80-85% of the seafloor.
Pyroclastic
"fire fragments"
joule
A unit used to measure energy and work.
Extrusive rock Quickly
Basalt in an... Cools...
Surface waves
Have the slowest velocity
outcrop
Rock-Exposure
Where do most people live in urban or rural areas?
Rural areas
P waves
compression and expansion
Frost wedging
expansion of freezing water
Pumice
from "frothy" lava
Electrons
orbit the nucleus
Deposition
settling out of the transporting fluid.
Where is it occurring today?
East African Rift
Halite
Salty
Muscovite
What mineral is a silicate
Habit
common crystal shape
lacustrine
lake deposits
inner planets
smaller. earth, venus, mercury, mars
eustatic sea level
worldwide sea level
earth's deep subsurface
(rock) melting
how are shield volcanoes, composite volcanoes and cinder cones different?
*Shield volcanoes: -largest volcanoes -thick sequence of thick lava flows -low slopes -life span of 100,000-1,000,00 yrs -smal summit calderas common at vent -low viscosity magmas -intense fountaning vent, but rarely explosive composite: -inter bedded lavas and frag mental material -alternating lava and pyroclastic eruptions or eruptions of blocky flows -intermediate viscosity flows -steep slope -life span 10,000-100,000 -sometimes explosive -classic hollywood volcano cinder cones: -small volcanic landforms -generally single eruptive events 1-10 yrs -loose fragmental material -steep angle -lava flows from base common -common in areas of crustal extension
True
*T/F:* A factor that influences the chemical composition of magmas is melting and assimilation of some of the rock of the magma chamber walls.
True
*T/F:* A factor that influences the chemical composition of magmas is mixing of magmas brought together from different locations.
True
*T/F:* A factor that influences the chemical composition of magmas is only partial melting of the source rock.
True
*T/F:* Anything that can be aphanytic can be porphyritic.
True
*T/F:* As magma cools, the feldspar will become less calcium rich and become more sodium rich.
True; Erosion of soft exterior rocks has exposed the frozen lava that filled the vents at Devil's Tower and Shiprock.
*T/F:* Devil's Tower, Wyoming, and Shiprock, New Mexico, are landforms that exist because softer volcano exteriors erode faster than solidified lava in fissures and vents.
True
*T/F:* Factors that influence the chemical composition of magmas may include the chemical composition of the source rock.
False; Felsic magma is more viscous because the silicon tetrahedrons link up in chains, which at the microscopic level tangle and impede smooth flow.
*T/F:* Felsic magma is less viscous than mafic magma.
False; Igneous rocks are aphanitic if they're fine-grained, phaneritic if they're coarse-grained.
*T/F:* Igneous rocks are coarse-grained if they're intrusive.
False; They're called pyroclastic rocks
*T/F:* Igneous rocks formed of igneous debris blown out of a volcano are called pegmatites.
True
*T/F:* Intermediate rocks are often called "salt and pepper" rocks.
True
*T/F:* Intrusions are bodies of rock that have never been erupted.
True
*T/F:* Intrusions are classified by size.
True; Volcanic rocks, like basalt, andesite, and rhyolite, are fine-grained extrusive igneous rocks. Intrusive igneous rocks do solidify in the Earth but eventually are exposed by erosion.
*T/F:* Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly and are coarse-grained.
False; Lava often travels no faster than several feet per hour, and most flows move no faster than about 30 km (18 mph); people can usually get out of the way.
*T/F:* Lava is the greatest volcanic hazard to human life because it travels so fast.
False; The rocks formed of mafic minerals would be basalt and gabbro.
*T/F:* Mafic minerals form rhyolite and granite.
False; The hotter the magma, the less viscous it is and the faster it flows.
*T/F:* Magma moves up toward Earth's surface more quickly as it cools and therefore becomes less viscous.
True
*T/F:* Magmatic rocks are classified according to their silica content.
True
*T/F:* Obsidian appears to be black, but it actually translucent or smoky.
True
*T/F:* Olivine and quartz are never found in the same rocks.
False;
*T/F:* Pegmatite has a very glassy texture.
False; Pegmatite is a very coarse-grained rock (which means it has very large crystals); glassy means no crystalline structure.
*T/F:* Pegmatite has a very glassy texture.
False; Pegmatites have cooled quickly but are, surprisingly, very coarse-grained because they form in water-rich melts that allow atoms to move around quickly and develop large crystals.
*T/F:* Pegmatites have intruded at great depth and cooled very slowly.
False; Since it's on the left side of the solidus line, it is solid. The region to the right of the liquidus line represents molten rock. Between the two lines, the rock is a mixture of solid and melt.
*T/F:* Point A represents rock that's physical state is molten.
True; Pyroclastic flows move extremely fast (100 to 300 km/h) and are very hot (500 to 1000°C). No person, animal, or plant could survive if caught in the path of a pyroclastic flow.
*T/F:* Pyroclastic flows bring instant death to any life caught in them.
True
*T/F:* Quartz is very common in a rock with a felsic composition.
True; Earth's temperature increases with depth, so the deeper an intrusion is, the hotter its environment and the longer it takes for it to cool.
*T/F:* The deeper an igneous intrusion, the slower it cools.
False; fractional crystallization
*T/F:* The sequence of mineral production that takes place in a cooling magma, called Bowen's reaction series, is an example of the process called stoping.
True
*T/F:* There is a well ordered sequence to fractional crystalization and it always happens in the same sequence.
True; Tuff is composed of fine pieces (volcanic ash); breccia is composed of larger, angular pieces.
*T/F:* Tuff and breccia are both fragmental igneous rocks.
True
*T/F:* Volcanic ash deposits are often Rhyolite.
True; The presence of volatiles helps break chemical bonds, resulting in a lower melting temperature for the wet rock.
*T/F:* Wet igneous rock (rock that contains volatiles) melts at a lower temperature than does the dry version of that same rock.
True
*T/F:* You cannot identify individual crystals in an extrusive rock.
What does features of the ocean floor include?
- Continental margins are the portion of the seafloor adjacent to major landmasses • The continental shelf is a gently sloping region of continental crust extending from the shore • The continental slope is a relatively steep dropoff that extends from the continental shelf to the deep ocean floor • The continental rise consists of a thick wedge of sediment that moved downward from the continental shelf and slope to accumulate on the sea-floor - Deep ocean basins are the portions of the seafloor between the continental margins and the oceanic ridges • The abyssal plain is a flat feature of the deep ocean basin • Deep-ocean trenches are deep and relatively narrow depressions that make up only a small portion of the ocean floor • Seamounts are small volcanic structures that dot the ocean floor - Oceanic ridges are the most prominent feature on the ocean floor and are composed of igneous rock that has been fractured and uplifted
What do features of continents include?
- Mountain belts are the most prominent features of continents - Cratons are the stable interior of the continents - Shields are expansive, flat regions of deformed crystalline rocks in the cratons - Stable platforms are the flat portions of cratons covered with a thin veneer of sedimentary rocks
What did the oceanographer's learned after WW II?
- The oceanic ridge system winds through all of the major oceans - There is no oceanic crust older than 180 million years old - Sediment accumulation in the deep oceans was relatively minor • These developments led to the theory of plate tectonics
Metallic bonding
- each atoms contributes electrons - electrons are free to move about the lattice - positively charged ions and the moving "sea" of electrons
Iron Production
- iron is the chief element of all heavy industry and of land or sea transport - steam engine improves iron production and increases demand for iron -iron was not popular bc it was relatively weak - demand for iron was limited - BUT the use of coke (derived from coal) and the steam engine made making iron easier, thus the price dropped
Cleavage directions
- one direction - two directions at 90 degrees - two directions not at 90 degrees - three directions at 90 degrees - three directions not at 90 degrees - four directions
What are the basic steps used in the Scientific Method?
-- A question is raised about the natural world - Scientific data are collected - One or more hypotheses are developed - Experiments are developed to test the hypotheses - Hypotheses are accepted, modified, or rejected - Data and results are shared with the scientific community
ice core records
-Can construct a climatic record over the age range of the core through isotopic analysis
Hot Spot
-Caused by rising plumes of mantle material Example- Hawaiian islands
silica
-Compound containing only silicon and oxygen in 1:2 ratio -Silicon dioxide (SiO2), appearing either as a relatively pure form in a mineral (e.g., quartz) or as a component in more chemically complex minerals and rocks
Alfred Wegener
-First proposed hypothesis, 1915 -Published The Origin of Continents and Oceans
Evidence about Pangaea used by Wegener
-Fit of South America and Africa -Fossils match across the seas -Rock types and structures match -Ancient climates
Felsic
-High-silica content -Acid type magma -Thick and viscous -Slow moving -Light color minerals form such as feldspar and quartz -Example: granite/rhyolite -Nonferromagnesian minerals -Mostly intrusive and continental rock
Mantle plume
-Hot mantle materials that ascend from the mantle Example- Yellow Stone
Granite
-Large minerals -Light colored -Slow cooling
Mafic (Magnesium & Ferric)
-Low-silica content -Basic type magma -Hotter and more fluid -Fast moving -Dark color minerals form that are high in calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), and magnesium (Mg) so dark color rocks form -Ferromagnesian minerals -Mostly extrusive rock and the mantle
Differences between Oceanic and Continental Crusts
-Oceanic is denser -Oceanic started from seafloor spreading -Continental is thicker -Continental is older
What drives plate motion
-Slap-Pull -Ridge-Push Force -Mantel Convertion
Basalt
-Small minerals -Rich in dark minerals -Rapid cooling
Continental drift hypothesis
-Supercontinent called Pangaea began breaking apart about 200 million years ago -Continents "drifted" to present positions -Continents "broke" through the ocean crust
Composite Volcanoes
-also known as "stratovolcano" -comes from fairly viscous andesitic magmas - consists of both ash and lava layers
why are lithologic units often different from chronologic units?
...??
The typical elevation of the land surface occurs within a range of _____ above sea level.
0 to 1 km
What percentage of the atmosphere is carbon dioxide?
0.0395%
what are the 4 major subdivisions of rock type?
1. sedimentary- formed at or near the earths surface and solidify during shallow burial at low temps 2. igneous-formed at high temp from molten rock called magma 3. metamorphic- formed when solid rocks are recrystallized as a result of being reheated and compressed at high temps and pressure 4. extraterrestrial- meteorites
what factors control the development of metamorphism?
1. temp 2. pressure (depth of burial) 3. rock composition 4. fluids (b/c crystallize better with fluids) 5. time (b/c longer cooking= more change ie better)
The steps of the Scientific Method
1.State the problem 2.Hypothesis 3.Design the experiment 4.Record & Analyze the data 5.Conclusion
What are the major differences between the inner and outer planets?
1.density: The inner planets have densities between 4.0-5.5 gms The giant outer planets have densities between 0.7-1.7 gms 2. Composition: inner- Fe, O, Si, Mg Outer- H, He, CH4, NH3, H2O
On average, Earth's lithosphere is approximately ____ km thick.
100
How old is the universe?
13.8 GA
isomorphs
2 minerals with the same crystalline structure that are not solid solution end members ex: halite( NaCl)= table salt and Sylvite(KCl)= potassium salt same structure but there is no complete mixing between the two (no salt that is half Na and half K)
Modern seafloor spreading rates range from
2 to 15 centimeters per year.
outer core
2,255 km thick, liquid
Pangaea happened
200 Million years ago
what temperature does metamorphism occur at ?
200C(sedimentary->metamorphic)-1000C (metamorphic->igneous)
What percentage of solar radiation is reflected back into outer space by the albedo of the Earth?
30%
continental crust
35-70 km thick. waves are travelling less than 6.2 km/sec
clastic, biochemical, organic, chemical
4 classes of sedimentary rocks
how is heat transferred through earth?
4 mechanisms 1. radiation- the transfer of energy as electromagnetic waves 2.. conduction- transfer of energy bu atom to atom or molecule to molecule 3. convection- process in which material expand s rises loses heat and sinks 4. advection- transfer of heat by moving liquids or solids
How old is Earth estimated to be?
4.6 Billion years old
How many major mass extinction events have occurred throughout Earth's history?
5
What is the average rate of seafloor spreading in modern oceans?
5 cm per yr
ground motion, ground failure, tsunami, fire, disease
5 earthquake related hazards
weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition, lithification
5 steps to forming a clastic rock
How much lithospheric plates move in a year
5cm a year!
what temperatures do magmas erupt at?
800 to 1300 degrees C
why cant magmas with very different compositions mix well?
??????
isograd
?A line on a map joining those rocks comprising the same metamorphic grade.
remanant magnitism
?aka Paleomagnetism the magnetization left behind in a ferromagnetic material after an external magnetic field is removed
sill
A _ is formed when magma intrudes between existing sedimentary layers
Aquifer
A body of rock or sediment that stores groundwater and allows the flow of groundwater.
intermolecular force
A bond that occurs when several types of weak bonds attract a molecule (a combination of atoms) to another molecule
fracture
A break or crack in a rock, subdivided into joints and faults
stalacite
A calcite deposit that hangs from the roof of a cave
ion
A charged atom
metallic bond
A chemical bond formed when electrons are shared widely by many atoms
spheroidal weathering
A chemical weathering process in which the sharp edges and corners of boulders and rocks are weathered in thin plates that create a rounded, spheroidal form.
Rhyolite
A coarse-grained granite is most similar in mineral composition to what fine-grained rock type?
stratigraphic section
A columnar diagram that shows the sequence of rock units, generally in their approximate relative thicknesses
scoria
A dark gray, black, or reddish volcanic rock that contains abundant vesicles, usually having the composition of basalt or andesite; syn. volcanic cinders
Biodiesel
A diesel substitute produced by extracting and chemically altering oil from plants
Metamorphic Facies
A distinct mineral assemblage produced by unique metamorphic conditions, Provides a better characterization of pressures & temperatures rocks experienced than by rock type alone
clay
A family or minerals or any fine sedimentary particles less than .002 millimeters
pyroclastic flow
A fast-moving cloud of hot volcanic gases, ash, pumice, and rock fragments that generally travel down the flanks of a volcano; syn. ash flow.
fault creep
A few sections of the San Andreas Fault exhibit a slow, gradual displacement known as_.
basalt
A fine-grained, dark-colored mafic igneous rock, with or without vesicles and phenocrysts of pyroxene, olivine, or feldspar
resisting forces
A force that resists the motion of an object, such as resisting the movement of tectonic plates
island arcs
A generally curved belt of volcanic islands above a subduction zone; also used as an adjective to refer to this setting
ultramafic
A generally dark or greenish igneous rock composed chiefly of mafic minerals rich in magnesium and iron.
very fast
A glassy igneous texture is formed by ___ cooling
quiet and effusive
A hot spot that occurs in oceanic crust is likely to produce which of the following types of eruptions?
Sinkholes
A large surface crater caused by the collapse of an underground channel or cavern; often triggered by groundwater withdrawal.
folded mountain belt
A long, linear zone of Earth's crust where rocks have been intensely deformed by horizontal stresses and generally intruded by igneous rocks.The great folded mountains of the world (such as the Appalachians, the Himalayas, the Rockies, and the Alps) are believed to have been formed at convergent plate margins.
ocean trenches
A long, narrow, deep depression in the ocean floor, typically one running parallel to a plate boundary and marking a subduction zoneOne of earth's large features, the result of plate tectonics.
Topographic Map
A map that shows surface features of an area such as mountains, valleys, plains, and plateaus by using contour (isoline) lines to show changes in elevation
mafic
A material having high contents of magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe), generally accompanied by a decreased amount of silica. Mafic mineral is A generally dark-colored, silicate mineral with a high magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe) content
Oxbow Lake
A meander that has been cut off from the river
density
A measure of how much mass is present per given volume of a substance
Hardness
A measure of the resistance of a mineral to abrasion or scratching Mohs hardness scale
vein deposit
A metal-rich accumulation of mineral matter that occurs along a fracture or bedding plane
Breeder reactor
A nuclear power plant that creates its own fuel from plutonium
What is the D" layer?
A partially molten layer above the outer core at the base of the mantle.
nucleus
A particle composed of protons and neutrons in the core of an atom.
accretionary prism
A prism- or wedge-shaped, structurally complex zone of faults, folds, and mostly metamorphosed rocks that form along the upper parts of a subduction zone; material derived from sediment contributed by adjacent volcanoes or a continent, along with oceanic crust scraped off the downgoing slab
Laterite
A red, highly leached soil type found in the tropics that is rich in oxides of iron and aluminum
Intermittent Stream
A river has water flowing in it only during certain times of the year.
basement complex
A series of igneous and metamorphic rocks lying beneath the oldest stratified rocks of a region. In shields, the basement complex is exposed over large areas.
dike
A sheetlike intrusion that cuts across any layers in a host rock, commonly formed with a steep orientation
electron
A stable subatomic particle with a negative charge
neutron
A subatomic particle that contributes mass to a nucleus and is electrically neutral.
seamounts
A submarine mountain, in some cases flat-topped, that rises above the seafloor
sill
A tabular igneous intrusion that parallels layers or other planar structures of the surrounding rock and which usually has a subhorizontal orientation.
Which of the following statements regarding the scientific method is TRUE?
A theory is a hypothesis that has withstood many scientific tests.
Roughly how much extraterrestrial material falls on Earth annually?
A thousand tons.
element
A type of atom that has a specific number of protons and chemical characteristics
normal fault
A type of fault where the hanging wall slides downward; caused by tension in the crust
Karst
A type of landscape in rainy regions where there is limestone near the surface, characterized by caverns, sinkholes, and valleys
volcanic breccia
A volcanic rock containing angular fragments in a matrix of finer material
groin
A wall made of rocks or concrete that is built outward from a beach to reduce erosion
Artesian Wall
A well in which ground water rises on its own under pressure in an aquifer
________ destroyed the city of St. Pierre, Martinique in 1902.
A. A nuee ardente (pyroclastic flow)
________ has the same mineral composition as andesite.
A. Diorite
________ is characterized by very coarse mineral grains?
A. Pegmatite
________ is the dominant feldspar in basalt.
A. Plagioclase
Mount St. Helens is ________.
A. an explosive stratovolcano
Which kind of eruptive activity is most likely to be highly explosive?
A. eruptions of large composite cones (stratovolcanoes)
The last minerals to crystallize on Bowen's Reaction Series are those found in igneous rocks with a ________ composition.
A. felsic
A cubic centimeter of quartz, olivine, and gold weigh 2.5, 3.0, and 19.8 grams respectively. This indicates that ________.
A. gold has a higher density and specific gravity than quartz and olivine
Visible quartz and potassium feldspar grains are the main constituents in a ________.
A. granite
Which of the following minerals is in the mineral group known as mica?
A. muscovite
Which of the following igneous rocks has the lowest silica (SiO2) content?
A. peridotite
Atoms of the same element, zinc for example, have the same number of ________.
A. protons in the nucleus
Give an example of a divergent plate:
African and South-American called Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Biosphere
All life on earth, near the surface from ocean floor to the atmosphere. Plants and animals.
Biosphere
All living or once-living materials
Rock Cycle
Allows us to visualize the interrelationships among different parts of the Earth system
Amphibolite
Amphibole/Biotite/Garnet Schist Intermediate Metamorphic rock, forms in the inner core of collisional mountain belts, Intermediate-high P&T
disconformity
An _ exhibits sedimentary layers that are parallel to each other above and below an erosive surface.
under pressure rises above the aquifer level
An artesian system is present when groundwater_
isotope
An atom that has more or fewer neutrons that it should
7
An atom's mass number is 13 and its atomic number is 6. How many neutrons are in its nucleus?
isotope
An element with the same number of protons, but a different number of neutrons
fissure eruption
An eruption in which lava is extruded from narrow fractures or cracks in the crust.
hypothesis
An explanation that is developed to explain observations and that allows testing
first, the limestone was laid down, then intruded by the igneous dike, and lastly the sandstone was deposited
An igneous dike cuts through limestone, but not through the overlying sandstone. Which of the following statements is most accurate?
metamorphic and sedimentary
An igneous rock becomes buried, is subject to high heat and pressure, and recrystallizes. This rock then is eroded, transported, deposited and subsequently lithified. Which rock types—in order—did the original igneous rock develop into?
phaneritic
An igneous rock containing crystals that are visible to the unaided eye
pegmatite
An igneous rock containing very large crystals, which may be centimeters to meters long
granite or felsic rocks
An igneous rock that contains quartz and potassium feldspar would have a mineralogic content placing it in the range of __________.
aphantitic
An igneous rock that does not contain crystals visible to the unaided eye; can consist of microscopic crystals, fine-grained volcanic ash, volcanic glass, or a combination of these
extrusive
An igneous rock that forms when magma is erupted onto Earth's surface; syn. volcanic rock.
fine sized grains
An igneous rock that is formed from the cooling of lava is going to have what sized grains?
plutonic
An igneous rock that solidified at depth rather than on the surface; syn. intrusive rock
intrusive
An igneous rock that solidified from magma below Earth's surface; syn. plutonic rock
felsic
An igneous rock with a felsic composition, including granite, a light-colored igneous rock that contains abundant feldspar and quartz.
dimension stone
An intact block of granite or marble to be used for architectural purposes.
dendritic drainage
An irregular stream drainage network that resembles the limbs of a branching tree.
peridotite
An ultramafic igneous rock generally containing abundant olivine, commonly with smaller amounts of pyroxene
Rock
Any solid mass of minerals or mineral like matter that occurs naturally as part of our planet.
Rock
Any solid mass of minerals or mineral like matter that occurs naturally as part of your planet.
Mineral
Anything naturally occurring in organic solid that possesses an orderly internal structure and a definite chemical composition.
Mineral
Anything naturally occurring inorganic solid that possesses an orderly internal structure and a definite chemical composition.
phosphate
Apatite is the most important ______
How old is the solar system ?
Approx 4.56 GA
When did the supercontinent Pangea begin to break apart?
Approximately 200 million years ago.
How old are the earliest fossil remains?
Approximately 3500 million years.
How old is Earth?
Approximately 4.5 billion years.
Living organisms have been on Earth for _______ of Earth's history.
Approximately 80%
Shields
Are expansive, flat regions of deformed crystalline rocks in the cratons
Seismograms
Are records of seismic waves
Stable platforms
Are the flat portions of cratons covered with a thin veneer of sedimentary rocks
Cratons
Are the stable interior of the continents
Surface area
As ___ ___ increases on a rock, the rate of weathering increases
assimilation
As magma migrates through the crust, it may incorporate some of the surrounding host rock.
are able to transmit water great distances from recharge to discharge areas
As shown by the South Dakota example, artesian systems_/
mantle plumes
At which of the following tectonic settings would you expect to find volcanoes producing significant amounts of very fluid, high-temperature lavas?
subduction of an oceanic plate under a continental plate
At which of the following tectonic settings would you expect to find volcanoes producing the highest volumes of pyroclastic material?
an oceanic plate subducted beneath a continental plate
At which type of tectonic setting would you expect the development of composite volcanoes?
mantle plumes
At which type of tectonic setting would you expect the development of shield volcanoes?
Solar energy energizes which of the Earth's components?
Atmosphere, biosphere, and hydrosphere
The ion at the center of a silicate tetrahedron is surrounded by ________.
B. 4 oxygen ions
________ magma is erupted at oceanic spreading centers (mid-ocean ridges).
B. Basaltic
Which set of magma conditions produces the most explosive eruptions?
B. High viscosity and dissolved gas
________ is a volcanic rock that is extremely vesicular and glassy.
B. Pumice
Which of the following igneous rocks exhibit aphanitic (fine-grained) texture?
B. andesite, rhyolite
Which of the following describes the light reflecting and transmission characteristics of a mineral?
B. luster
Why do magmas rise toward Earth's surface?
B. magmas are mainly liquid and contain dissolved fluids such as water; most are less dense than the adjacent solid rock
A(n) ________ texture would be most unlikely to occur in an extrusive igneous rock.
B. phaneritic
Which mineral is composed of silicon dioxide (Si02)?
B. quartz
All silicate minerals contain which two elements?
B. silicon, oxygen
pyroxene and calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar
Basalt is an igneous rock that can be identified by its small crystals. What are they composed of?
pyroxene and calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar.
Basaltic igneous rocks contain which of the following minerals:
pyroclastic material
Based on the evidence in the Eruption of Shiveluch Volcano folder, which of the following terms associated with volcanism best describes the grey plume emanating from the volcano?
Because batholiths form deep within Earth, the occurrence of one at the surface implies that it has since been uplifted and/or the rocks above have been removed.
Batholiths are known to form the cores of mountain ranges such as the Sierra Nevada. What is the implication of this observation?
How do we know that the age of the oceanic rock, from the mid-oceanic ridge spreading center, gets older?
Because as new seafloor rises it pushes the older seafloor outward towards the continents and each time new seafloor rises the direction of the lava flow changes from the magnetization of the Earth. So the oceanic rocks cool in different directions each time the sea floor spreads.
How do we know the age of the oceanic rock gets older towards the continents?
Because the older the oceanic rock is, it becomes cooler and more dense
The majority of the Earth's subduction zones are found in and around the ________ Ocean basin.
C. Pacific
Kilauea and Mauna Loa are ________.
C. basaltic shield volcanoes
Which of the following will react readily with acids such as hydrochloric?
C. calcite
What mineral is the hardest known substance in nature?
C. diamond
Hornblende and the other amphiboles have what type of silicate structure?
C. double chains
Which of the following minerals is a silicate?
C. muscovite
Which of the following minerals crystallize early in Bowen's reaction series?
C. olivine
What element is the most abundant in the Earth's crust by weight?
C. oxygen
A ________ is an intrusive, igneous rock body that is tabular and concordant (parallel to adjacent sedimentary rocks).
C. sill
Lava flows are typically finer grained than intrusive igneous rocks. Why?
C. the extrusive magma cools quickly so the mineral grains do not have time to grow
Richter scale (EQ magnitude)
Calculated from the amplitude of the largest seismic wave recorded from the earthquake, no matter what type of was was the strongest Logarithmic scale of 1 to 9
____________, a popular natural philosophy of the 17th and early 18th centuries, was based on a firm belief in a very short geologic history for Earth.
Catastrophism
What are the two important processes involved in lithification of sedimentary rocks?
Cementation and compaction
ionic bond
Chemical bond formed because of the attraction between two oppositely charged ions, such as by the loaning of one or more electrons from one ion to another
The layers of Earth are based on what two sets of characteristics?
Chemical composition and physical properties
Greenschist
Chlorite-rich schist, Low grade metamorphic rock, forms in the outer parts of collisional mountain belt, low-intermediate P&T
Cinder cone, shield volcano, composite cone
Cinder cone volcanoes are built from ejected lava fragments that take on the appearance of cinders, made from gas rich basaltic magma. Shield volcanos are volcanoes produced by fluid basaltic lavas that have a broad and slightly domed shape that looks like a shield from deep ocean floor. Composite cones are the prettiest and most dangerous has gas rich andesitic magma.
Alluvium
Clay or silt or gravel carried by rushing streams and deposited where the stream slows down
fossil fuels
Coal, oil, natural gas, and other fuels that are ancient remains of plants and animals.
How did the Himalayas form?
Collision between India and Eurasia
Quartz Hornblende Feldspar
Common silicate minerals in granite
Specific Gravity
Compares the weight of a mineral to the weight of an equal volume of water
Match the type of atomic bond with the correct definition. Ionic Bond
Complete transfer of electrons between atoms
Primary waves
Compressional waves Vibrations parallel to the direction of wave path Go through liquid
The Difference between Concordant and discordant
Concordant if they form parallel to existing features like sedimentary strata. Discordant is plutons if they cut across existing structures.
mountain formation
Continental-continental collision results in a
What evidence did Geologist used in the theory that continents where once one?
Continents look like a Jigsaw game Mesosaurus- small fresh water reptile that couldn't live in salt water
Ocean-Ocean convergence
Convergent plate boundary involving two slabs of oceanic lithosphere
Fusion
Creation of energy by joining the nuclei of two hydrogen atoms to form helium.
The ____________ is the thinnest layer of the Earth.
Crust
What are earth's 3 layers by composition?
Crust- thin, rocky outer skin, divided into: Oceanic crust- composed of basalt continental crust- composed primarily of granodiorite Mantle- composed of peridotite Core- composed of iron-nickle alloy
The Mohorovicic discontinuity coincides with the __________ boundary.
Crust-mantle
The lithosphere is composed of material from the ________ and the rigid part of the ________.
Crust; Upper Mantle
________ is composed mainly of ferromagnesian minerals.
D. Peridotite
________ are the most abundant gases emitted by volcanoes.
D. Water vapor and carbon dioxide
The average composition of rocks comprising a large composite cone or stratovolcano is similar to a (an) ________ magma.
D. andesitic
Which of the following best describes seamounts and islands of the deep ocean basins?
D. piles of basaltic lava flows built up from the ocean floor by multiple, summit and flank eruptions
The sizes, shapes, and arrangements of mineral grains in an igneous rock are known as ________.
D. texture
Which of the following volcanoes are associated with hot spots?
D. the volcanoes of Hawaii and geysers in Yellowstone National Park
Which one of the following is not true for minerals?
D. they can be a liquid, solid, or glass
quantitative data
Data that are numeric and typically visualized and analyzed using data tables, calculations, equations, and graphs
qualitative data
Data that include descriptive words, labels, sketches, or other images
graded bedding
Depositional feature of sedimentary rock in which particles are progressively heavier and coarser toward the bottom layers of bedding.
cross bedding
Depositional feature of sedimentary rock that forms as inclined layers of sediment are carried forward across a horizontal surface
The location on the Earth's surface directly above the point of slippage
Describe the epicenter
What type of plate boundary do you see in seafloor spreading and oceanic ridge?
Divergent
What type of plate boundary do you see in continental rift?
Divergent
Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
Do not have a layered or banded appearance, result of contact metamorphism
Metamorphism
During the recrystallization and deformation of original minerals a rock due to increased pressures, temperatures, or tectonic stress
Hydrosphere
Dynamic mass of continually moving liquid. Ocean is 71% of the earths surface.
continental crust
Earth's crust that is beneath the continents and the continental shelves; average granitic composition, but includes diverse types of material
Catastrophism
Earth's landscapes were shaped primarily by catastrophes
Magnetic reversals of Earth's magnetic field are when...
Earth's north and south poles flip
Hydrosphere Atmosphere Biosphere Geosphere
Earth's spheres
lithosphere
Earth's upper, rigid layer composed of the crust and uppermost mantle
seismic waves
Earthquake occurs when geologic forces causes brittle rocks to fracture sending out vibrations like the cracking of ice on a river
Core
Earths center, mainly iron and nickel, alloy with some oxygen, silicon and sulfur. Has extreme pressure, very dense. (Like molten cannon ball in middle of earth)
ENSO
El nino-Southern Oscillation aka EL NINO
Oxygen
Element is the most abundant in Earth's crust by weight
protons
Elements are determined based on the number of ________________ they have.
Remobilization
Elements in pre-existing minerals can diffuse, dissolve, or partially melt and be recombined to form new mineral crystals elsewhere
What is the category name for the largest division of time used on the geologic time scale?
Eon
The Difference between Extrusive and intrusive rocks
Extrusive rocks are volcanic rocks- igneous rocks that form when molten rock solidifies at the surface. Intrusive rocks are Plutonic rocks- magma that loses mobility before reaching the surface and has crystallized at depth intrusive rocks cool slowly.
A scientific theory is a tentative or untested explanation that is proposed to explain scientific observations.
False
Basaltic lavas are generally hotter and more viscous than andesitic lavas.
False
Igneous rocks are produced largely by the deposition and consolidation of surface materials like sand and mud.
False
Most basaltic magmas are believed to form by partial melting of granite in the lower crust and upper mantle.
False
The currently accepted age of Earth is approximately 4.5 million years.
False
The terms "rock" and "mineral" have the same meaning.
False
four composition groups:
Felsic igneous rocks Intermediate igneous rocks Mafic igneous rocks Ultramafic igneous rocks
What is the source of black carbon aerosols?
Fires
Calcite
Fizzes
laminar flow
Flows in parallel lines in a smooth progression
how does foliation form?
Foliation is usually formed by the preferred orientation of minerals within a rock. also occurs because the rock has inequant mineral crystals that are parallel, or bc the rock has alternating dark and light colored layers
deformation
Following the deposition of a sequence of sedimentary rocks, which event is the first to occur to produce an angular unconformity?
Which planktonic marine organism, often found in sea sediments, can be used to make interpretations about past climates?
Foraminifera
sedimentary rocks
Form on earth's surface, mostly from loose sediment that is deposited by moving water, air, or ice
Pre-existing rocks undergo metamorphism when they are subjected to heat and pressure without melting
Formation of metamorphic rocks
silicon- oxygen tetrahedron
Four smaller oxygen ions surrounding a smaller silicon ion
short term earthquake predictions
Frequency and distribution pattern of foreshocks Deformation of the ground surface: Tilting, elevation changes Emission of radon gas Seismic gap Fault that hasn't broken in awhile Abnormal animal activities
Eclogite
Garnet/Pyroxene Gneiss Ultra High-Pressure Metamorphic
Atmosphere
Gases that envelop the Earth
Scientific Method
General procedure for discovering how the universe works through systematic observations and experiments
igneous activity has occured more recently in the area
Geysers are more common in the western United states because_
Blueschist
Glaucophane schist Low temperature/High pressure Metamorphic rock, forms in subduction zones, high P low T
Migmatite
Gneiss with pods of or bands of igneous material indicating partial melting
Intrusive rock Slowly
Granite is an... Cools...
Igneous
Granite, Basalt are examples of what type of rock
Systems
Group of interacting and independent parts that form a complex whole. Ex. the solid earth, atmosphere and biosphere forming our earth.
theory
Has already been through testing by various scientists and is generally accepted as being an accurate explanation of an observation
Regional Metamorphism
Heating accompanied by tectonic stress produces both chemical and physical alteration of preexisting rocks, Caused by tectonic compressive stress at or near convergent plate boundaries
What are the two most important driving forces of metamorphism?
High heat and pressure
High Grade
High temperature and pressure
What are the divisions of Geology?
Historical and Physical Geology
What are the basic differences between the disciplines of physical and historical geology?
Historical geology involves the study of rock strata, fossils, and geologic events, utilizing the geologic time scale as a reference; physical geology includes the study of how rocks form and of how erosion shapes the land surface.
magma
Hot fluid or semi-fluid material below or within the earth's crust from which igneous rock are formed on cooling.
Composition
How are diorite, andesite, and scoria related?
Composition
How are gabbro, basalt, and scoria related?
Texture
How are granite, diorite, and gabbro related?
Composition
How are granite, rhyolite, pumice, and obsidian related?
Texture
How are pumice, obsidian, and scoria related?
Texture
How are rhyolite, andesite, and basalt related?
The water table elevation decreases
How does the water table change around a pumping water well?
440 meters
How much did the summit of Mount St. Helens lower after its eruption in 1980?
Water table will fall
How will the water table respond when there is a drought?
What are the two most abundant elements in the solar system?
Hydrogen and Helium
In which of the following subsystems is Earth's magnetic field generated?
Hydrologic system.
What are Earth's 4 spheres?
Hydrosphere- water portion Geosphere- solid earth Atmosphere- gaseous envelope Biosphere- all plant and animal life
A scientific __________ aims to predict the complex behavior of Earth systems.
Hypothesis
What is the difference between Theory and Hypothesis?
Hypothesis- a tentative (untested) explanation Theory- a well-tested and widely accepted view that the scientific community agrees best explains certain observable facts
Example of a country that is situated on top of Mid Atlantic Ridge
Iceland
geology
Identifies the branch of Earth science that studies all aspects of the planet
K+ Feldspar, Muscovite, Quartz, and Sodium rich Plagioclase Feldspar
If a felsic rock is found, what minerals are expected to compose it?
the limestone is the oldest and the succession is comformable
If a limestone, a shale, and a sandstone are deposited in that order without interruption, which of the following is true?
Olivine, Pyroxene, Plagioclase Feldspars that are rich in Calcium
If a mafic rock is found, what minerals are expected to compose it?
A small amount of Pyroxene, Amphibole, a good bit of Biotite, and Plagioclase Feldspars that have a mix of Calcium and Sodium
If an intermediate rock is found, what minerals are expected to compose it?
What would be one of the aspects that the continents didn't float across the ocean?
If continents move like boats there should be some rocks at the bottom of the ocean. Which there is not because it was as flat as flat could be my friend.
icehouse conditions
If glaciers cover too much of the Earth's surface, they could potentially reflect so much sunlight that the Earth could remain cold for a long period of time.
blocks of rock will slide relative to one another along a fault, causing an earthquake
If the stress applied to the rock is greater than rock strength, what happens?
____________ rocks form by crystallization and consolidation of molten magma.
Igneous
The Difference between Igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks
Igneous rocks are formed beneath the surface of the earth or at the surface after a volcanic eruption when magma crystallizes. Metamorphic rock forms when sedimentary rock deep inside the earth is subjected to great pressure or intense heat. Sedimentary rocks are dissolved particles of rocks.
The water table is lower than the stream surface
In a losing stream,_
The eruption was so large that the magma chamber under Crater Lake partially emptied, causing the volcano to become unstable and collapse.
In addition to rock deposits, what evidence do we have that the eruption that preceded the formation of Crater Lake was very large?
amount of gas in the magma
In addition to viscosity, which of the following parameters has an influence on whether a volcanic eruption will be effusive or violent?
glaciers
In terms of freshwater storage, groundwater is second only to which of the following sources?
the surface of a lava flow
In what type of igneous feature would you find rocks with a vesicular texture?
Extrusive
In what type of magma would you find larger phenocryst with a fine grained ground mass?
Intrusive
In what type of magma would you find very large phenocryst with coarse-grained ground mass?
rhyolitic
In which of the following lava types would you expect to find the greatest percentage of gases?
basaltic
In which of the following lava types would you expect to see the development of pahoehoe?
rhyolitic
In which of the following types of lavas would you expect to find the greatest production of pyroclastic material?
a well for industrial purposes is drilled proximal to a smaller, domestic well
In which situation does the cone of depression need to be taken into account?
Why is the use of proxy data necessary when studying past climate change?
Instrumental records only go back a couple of centuries and are more incomplete the older they are
Extrusive; Pillow lava forms by extrusive flows at mid-ocean ridges, where seawater rapidly cools basaltic lava into pillow-shaped blobs.
Is pillow lava intrusive or extrusive?
No
Is volcanic glass a true mineral?
Pangaea seperated into...
Laurasia (northern) and Gondwanaland (southern)
What volcanoes eject
Lava, Large volumes of gas, Pyroclastic materials-broken rock, lava bombs, ash & dust.
what volcanoes eject
Lava, Large volumes of gas, Pyroclastic materials-broken rock, lava bombs, ash & dust.
lunar highlands
Light colored features on the moon's surface; Mountains on the moon.
mid ocean ridge
Linear mountain ranges in Earth's ocean basins.
outer core
Liquid layer 2270 km thick, metallic iron that moves to make the magnetic field.
Parts that make magma
Liquid, Solid, and Gas
Plate=
Lithosphere
Which of the following spheres is not part of the climate system?
Lithosphere
What are earth's zones based on physical properties?
Lithosphere - the rigid outer layer of Earth that consists of the crust and the upper mantle Asthenosphere - the soft, weak layer below the lithosphere Transition zone - a zone marked by a sharp increase in density below the asthenosphere Lower Mantle - a zone of strong, very hot rocks subjected to gradual flow below the transition zone Outer core - liquid outer layer of the core Inner core - solid inner layer of the core
Low Grade
Low temperature and pressure
Silica rich
Magma becomes more ____ ____ with cooling
The Difference between Magma and lava
Magma is molten material which cools to form igneous rock. Lava is magma at the earths surface.
What is the difference between magma and lava?
Magma is molten rock located below the surface; lava is molten rock erupted above ground.
Porphyritic
Magma that has gone through the 2 stages of cooling?
lava
Magma that is erupted onto the surface, or the rock mass into which it solidifies
topographic map
Map showing the elevation of the land surface, with a series of contour lines
Metamorphic
Marble, slate, quartzite are examples of what type of rock
Moment magnitude scale
Measures the total energy released during an earthquake by determining the average amount of slip on the fault, the area of the fault surface that slipped, and the strength of the faulted rock
The Jurassic Period lies in the _____ Era, which was dominated by large terrestrial vertebrates, or _____.
Mesozoic; dinosaurs
Lusters
Metallic= dense, dark streak. earthy=dull. Vitreous=glassy
lusters
Metallic= dense, dark streak. earthy=dull. Vitreous=glassy
An igneous rock becomes buried, is subject to high heat and pressure, and recrystallizes. This rock then is eroded, transported, deposited and subsequently lithified. Which rock types—in order—did the original igneous rock develop into?
Metamorphic and sedimentary
How will melting permafrost in polar regions lead to a positive feedback loop?
Methane will be released as the vegetation thaws
polar wandering curve
Migration during geologic time of the earth's poles of rotation and magnetic poles. Aka Chandler motion; polar migration. the curve that is created when all points of a certain location over different periods of time are plotted
Natural Inorganic Solid Posses an orderly internal structure of atoms Have a definite chemical composition
Mineral properties
silicates
Minerals that contain silicon-oxygen tetrahedra; the most common mineral group on Earth, Compromise most of earth's crust and mantle
magma
Molten rock, which may or may not contain some crystals, solidified rock, and gas
magma
Molten rock, which may or may not contain some crystals, solidified rock, and gas.
they formed at depth and have been exposed by uplift and erosion
Most igneous rocks never reach the surface. However, igneous rocks other than those formed in volcanoes are found exposed on many parts of Earth. How do you account for this phenomenon?
The factors that control crystal size in rocks
Most minerals have well formed crystals if it grows with lots of room, most don't have lots of room.
The largest topographic change relative to sea level on Earth is at
Mount Everest.
Adirondacks
Mountain range in upstate New York that is separated from the Green Mountains of Vermont by Lake George and Lake Champlain
Secondary waves
Move by shaking from side to side Vibration is perpendicular to the direction of wavepath
Contact Aureole
NONFOLIATED Metamorphic Rocks intrude
What are geological hazards? Give an example.
Natural processes that adversely affect people. For ex. Volcanoes and earthquakes.
Which of the following is not part of the definition of a mineral?
Naturally occurring Definite chemical composition Organic(X) Orderly crystalline structure
The __________ proposes that the bodies of our solar system formed at essentially the same time from a rotating cloud of gases and dust
Nebular Theory
divergent
New igneous rock is created at what type of plate boundary?
Sea Floor Spreading
New oceanic crust is created along Mid-Oceanic Ridges and moves away from the ridge
Which two gases make up the majority of the atmosphere?
Nitrogen and Oxygen
Cleave
Not all minerals ______
why are oceans generally shallower in the center than near the edge?
Objects pile up near the crust creating a slope
observations
Observing: We look, listen, smell, and feel so we can record and analyze what is around us.
Continent-continent convergence
Occur along convergent plate boundaries when both plates are capped with continental crust - Himalayas and Alps
Contact Metamorphism
Occurs near the contact of hot/molten igneous intrusions, can also result in the recrystallization of minerals in quartz-rich rocks like sandstone to form quartzite, and calcite-rich rocks like limestone to form marble
What are the two types of crust?
Oceanic and continental
Which type of convergence will result in a volcanic island arc?
Oceanic-Oceanic
Name same differences between continents and ocean bases.
Oceans are younger and flatter Continents are less dense Continents rocks are significantly thicker
isotope
One of two or more species of the same chemical element but differing from one another by having a different number of neutrons
Approximately 50% of the Earth's crust is made up of which element?
Oxygen.
Which of the following plates is the largest?
Pacific Plate.
________ is the study and reconstruction of past climates through the use of proxy data.
Paleoclimatology
The ____________ division of the geologic time scale is an era of the Phanerozoic eon.
Paleozoic
volcanic ash
Particles of volcanic tephra that are sand-sized or smaller, and accumulations of such material
A submarine volcano; Pillow lava is a low-silica-content, basaltic lava associated with underwater effusive eruptions.
Pillow lavas are evidence of what volcanic circumstance?
Lithosphere=
Plate
Convergent boundary
Plates move together and causes subduction of oceanic lithosphere into the mantle. Collision of two continental margins to create a mountain system.
Rotation
Platy minerals can be rotated by tectonic stresses accompanying metamorphism to form metamorphic cleavage, foliation,and lineation
Porphyritic, Phaneritic, vesicular, Aphanitic, glassy and Pegmatitic
Porphyritic texture is large crystals in small crystals. Phaneritic texture is coarse grained and formed when magma slowly solidifys. Vesicular texture has tiny holes and cooled very quickly. Aphanitic texture is fine grained and formed at the surface. Glassy texture forms when molten rock is ejected into the atmosphere and cools quickly or has high silica. Pegmatitic texture has crystals that are large and very coarse rocks called pegmatites.
photic zone
Portion of the marine biome that is shallow enough for sunlight to penetrate.
locked faults
Pressure pushes together the irregular walls of the fault; surfaces resist sliding
proton
Principal particle of an atomic nucleus with a positive charge
Match the paleoclimate proxies to the information they can provide about the past climate. Corals
Provide info about past temperature
Match the paleoclimate proxies to the information they can provide about the past climate. Tree Rings
Provide periods of plentiful rain and drought
Match the paleoclimate proxies to the information they can provide about the past climate. Pollen
Provide vegetation patterns for a location
Quartz
Pyramid crystals; scratches glass
Sulfides
Pyrite (FeS2) and pyrrhotite (FeS) are the most common ___
Hornfels
Pyroxene-Felspar rich contact metamorphic rock
Give an example of where continental drifting is occurring in present day?
Rio Grande Rift and East-African Rift.
metamorphic rocks
Rocks changed by temperatures, pressures, or deformation
igneous rocks
Rocks formed from cooled and solidified magma
Plutonic Intrusive
Rocks formed inside Earth are called ____ or ____ rocks
Volcanic Extrusive
Rocks formed on the surface are called ____ or ____
What does the metaphor "One rock is a raw material for another" mean?
Rocks melt down, or erode and by doing so become another.
Metamorphic Processes
Rocks remain essentially solid during metamorphism; re-melting occurs only at the highest metamorphic grade
coarse grained
Rocks with mineral grains large enough to see without a magnifying glass. observe coarse-grained rocks by cutting a slab and by using a hand lens
Nebula
Rotating diffuse cloud of gas that makes up most of our solar system
volcanic
SOLIDIFIED MAGMA (igneous rocks generally classified on the basis of their chemical composition because they are generally too fine grained to identify the minerals present. they can also be classified based on their eruptive mechanism that produced them etc.) ex basalt
Which one of the following observations and inferences is consistent with the idea of uniformitarianism?
Sand rolling along a stream bottom shows that sediment is moving downstream
Sedimentary
Sandstone, limestone are example of what type of rock
Titan
Saturn's largest moon
what do we think a typical section of the ocean crust looks like?
Sediment layer Pillow Basalts sheeted dykes gabbro -moho- peridotite
Which of the following is commonly used to determine the age of seafloor samples?
Sediment thickness (was carbon-14 dating).
covalent bond
Sharing of electrons between atoms
What is the difference between between shield and stable platform?
Shield is like a flat expansion
why cant sulfates(SO4) form chains and sheets while silicates (SiO4) can?
Silicates have more electron to bind with
Which of the following elements is more abundant in Earth's crust than in Earth as a whole?
Silicon.
Granulite
Sillimanite/Pyroxene/Quartz Migmatite High Grade Metamorphic Rock, forms in the inner core of collisional mountain belts, Intermediate-high P&T
Stick-slip
Slip between the rocks across the fault is sudden and violent (movement along locked faults)
ripple marks
Small waves of sand that develop on the surface of a sediment layer by the action of moving water or air.
Sulfur
Smells/Yellow
Pedalfer
Soil that is characterized by an abundance of aluminum and iron oxides.
inner core
Solid part of earth's core
mantle
Solid rock, 2,885 km thick, 82% of Earth's volume.
Geosphere
Solid rocky Earth
kerogen
Solid, waxy mixture of hydrocarbons found in oil shale rock
There are many bandits in the region, who contribute to the instability and danger of the region.
The Afar region is one of the most environmentally challenging areas on the planet. The geopolitics of Afar are equally challenging. Why?
Why are isochrons on the Pacific seafloor more widely spaced than isochrons on the Atlantic seafloor?
The Pacific seafloor formed at a faster spreading rate than the Atlantic seafloor.
Why is the geologic time scale more detailed in the Phanerozoic than in previous eons?
The Phanerozoic Eon is more detailed because of the presence of organisms with hard parts and the rapid increase in biodiversity.
zone of saturation
The _ is the point in the subsurface where 100% of the pore spaces are filled with water
Permiability
The ability of membrane to let things in and out
shooting flow
The accelerated flow along a mountain slope during a downslope windstorm
what is the difference between sulfides and sulfates?
The amount of oxygenations they have
Luster
The appearance or quality of light reflected from the surface of a mineral
asthenosphere
The area of mantle beneath the lithosphere that is solid, but hotter than the rock above it and can flow under pressure; functions as a soft, weak zone over which the lithosphere may move
The upper mantle can be divided into the asthenosphere and lithosphere based on what physical properties?
The asthenosphere is solid, but mobile, while the lithosphere is solid and relatively rigid.
What happens to the atmosphere as you move away from Earth's surface?
The atmosphere thins.
residence time
The average time a given particle will stay in a given system
What are the three geodynamic systems?
The climate, the plate tectonic, the geodynamo systems
Streak
The color of a mineral in it's powdered form which is more consistent indication of it's color
mineral streak
The color of a mineral in its powdered form; obtained by rubbing the mineral against an unglazed porcelain plate.
streak
The color of powder a mineral leaves when rubbed against a porcelain plate
continental drift
The concept of the movement of continents and other landmasses across the surface of the Earth.
isotasy
The condition of equilibrium, comparable to floating, of the crust resting on the solid mantle
increases the hydraulic gradient
The cone of depression _ near a wall
The statement "planet with a planet" refers to which part of Earth?
The core.
relief
The difference in elevation of one feature relative to another.( syn. topographic relief)
a convection current
The distinctive lava flow pattern in Erta Ale's crater is important because it is similar to the processes occurring deep inside the earth. The repetitive process whereby magma rises from the mantle, cools and solidifies, and then sinks and liquefies is called __________.
Crust
The earth's thin rocky outer skin. Has two types: oceanic and continental. Oceanic crust is 7km thick, dark igneous rocks called basalt. 180 million years old and dense. Continental crust 35-70 km thick, many rock types 4 billion years old and less dense.
Crystal Form
The external expression of the orderly internal arrangement of atoms
matrix
The finer grained material enclosing or filling the areas between larger grains, crystals, or fragments of a rock.
crystal face
The flat exterior surface of a crystal
texture
The general physical appearance or character of a rock, especially the size, shape, and arrangement of minerals and other materials
Law of Superposition
The geologic principle that states that in horizontal layers of sedimentary rock, each layer is older than the layer above it and younger than the layer below it.
down; normal
The hanging wall moves _ relative to the footwall in a _ fault.
Near subduction zones
The highest magnitude earthquakes typically occur?
Law of Original of Horizontality
The law states that layers of sediment were originally deposited horizontally under the action of gravity.
Match the layer of the atmosphere with the correct description. Troposphere
The layer of the atmosphere with the greatest amount of air molecules. Temperatures decrease from bottom to top
muscovite, orthoclase feldspar, plagioclase feldspar, and quartz
The light silicate minerals include __________.
Base Level
The lowest point to which a stream can erode
troposphere
The lowest region of the atmosphere between the earth's surface and the tropopause,
the zone of saturation
The majority of groundwater is stored within which of the following zones?
During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, direct observations showed that a glacier in Switzerland flowed forward in the downhill direction while its snout (terminus) was retreating higher up the valley? Which of the following explains these observations in a rational, scientific way?
The melting rate of ice in the glacier exceeded the rate at which new snow and ice were added to the glacier.
mode
The mineral composition of a sample of igneous rock.
Protolith
The minerals making up a preexisting rock can change during metamorphism
atmosphere
The mixture of gases surrounding a planet.The Earth's atmosphere consists chiefly of oxygen and nitrogen, with minor amounts of other gases. Synonymous with air. Used to be lots of CO2, but got turned into limestone by all the little organisms
The amount of damage to structures caused by an earthquake
The modified mercalli intensity scale rates earthquake intensity by?
Saltation
The movement of sand or other sediments by short jumps and bounces that is caused by wind or water
hypocenter
The name of the site where slippage begins and earthquake waves radiate outward is called the _.
wave speed
The names primary and secondary refer to?
atomic mass
The number of neutrons and protons in an atom
atomic number
The number of protons in an atom
Using a calendar year as an analogy to the geologic time scale, when do the oldest anatomically modern humans appear on Earth?
The oldest human fossils show up at about eleven minutes to midnight on December 31st.
crust
The outermost "skin" of our planet
Define Thermosphere
The outermost layer of the atmosphere where temperatures are extremely high due to solar radiation
Match the layer of the atmosphere with the correct description. Thermosphere
The outermost layer of the atmosphere where temperatures are extremely high due to solar radiation
Uniformitarianism
The physical, chemical, and biologic laws that operate today have operated throughout the geologic past
runaway climate change
The point at which the effects of climate change cause additional effects that add to the warming(positive feedback loops), so that warming is no longer stoppable no matter how much humans reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. Also referred to as the passing tipping points or the points of no return.
sea floor spreading
The process by which two oceanic plates move apart and new magmatic material is added between the plates
assimilation
The process in which melted wall rocks become incorporated into magma.
continental margin
The zone of transition from a continent to the adjacent ocean basin. It generally includes a continental shelf, continental slope, and continental rise.
why does Chile have volcanoes, earthquakes, ore deposits, good seafood , and great wine?
There is a subduction zone along Chile's coast these are all associated with subduction zones the seafood is due to proximity to a deep ocean trench and the wine is due to fertile soils from volcanic ash rich in P and K
The value of the mineral or metal extracted Its concentration in the ore
There two major factors determining the profitability of the mining an ore
Plagioclase feldspars
These are feldspars that will contain calcium, sodium, or both - but NO potassium?
Compared to the age of Earth accepted as correct today, how did 17th and 18th century proponents of catastrophism envision the Earth's age
They believed Earth to be much younger than current estimates.
How can tree rings provide information about past climates?
Thickness and spacing of tree rings reflect environmental conditions
oceanic crust
Thin, earth crust that exists beneath the ocean basins,deep oceans
Dolomite
Thin, platy cream-colored crystals possibly has black specks between crystals.
hardness
This is the resistance of the mineral to abrasion or scratching. (measures on the Moh 1-10 scale)
penetrate well below the regional water table surface
To ensure a continuous supply of water, a well must do what?
Where do you see the youngest oceanic rocks or youngest seafloor?
Towards the center of the Mid-Oceanic Ridge
radiant heat transfer
Transfer of thermal energy as electromagnetic waves.
conduction
Transfer of thermal energy by direct contact.
convection
Transfer of thermal energy by flow of a liquid or a solid, but weak material.
Match the paleoclimate proxies to the information they can provide about the past climate. Ice Cores
Trap gases to provide info about the atmosphere
ice cores
Trap gases to provide info about the atmosphere
Basalt is the aphanitic or fine-grained equivalent of gabbro.
True
Calcite and dolomite are both carbonate minerals.
True
Crater Lake in Oregon actually occupies a volcanic caldera.
True
Glassy igneous rocks form when magma cools too fast for mineral grains to grow.
True
Graphite and diamond have the same chemical compositions, but different crystalline structures.
True
In an open system both energy and matter flow into and out of the system.
True
Internally, the Earth consists of spherical shells with different compositions and densities.
True
Magma generation at depth almost always involves partial melting, not complete melting of the source rock.
True
Plutonic rocks are intrusive and generally consist of mineral grains coarse enough to be readily visible in a hand sample.
True
The addition of water can lower partial melting temperatures in silicate rocks.
True
The doctrine of uniformitarianism implies that the current forces and processes shaping the Earth have been operating for a very long time
True
The micas, biotite and muscovite, both exhibit one direction of cleavage.
True
The viscosities of magmas increase with increasing silica content.
True
false
True or false Groundwater migrates from areas of low pressure to areas of high pressure
False
True or false: Tsunamis travel as a single wave across the ocean
false
True or false: the first life on earth developed during the Cambrian Period.
Who first proposed the three different kinds of plate boundaries widely accepted today?
Tuzo Wilson.
Meandering Stream
Twisting stream with many curves that erodes on the outside of meanders and diposits sediment on the inside of meanders.
The rate of decay of atoms in container A is greater than the rate of decay of atoms in container B.
Two containers hold the same radioactive isotope. Container A contains 1000 atoms, and container B contains 500 atoms. Which of the following statements about containers A and B is true?
Olivine, potassium feldspar, quartz
Use your understanding of Bowen's reaction series and crystal settling to determine which of the following mineral associations should not be found in nature.
hot spot
Very hot pockets of magma close to surface that create volcanoes
Which statement accurately describes continental shields?
Very old, stable regions composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks
tuff
Volcanic rock composed of consolidated volcanic ash and other tephra, commonly including pumice, crystals, and rock fragments
pumice
Volcanic rock, especially of felsic or intermediate composition, containing many vesicles (holes) formed by expanding gases in magma.
porosity
Volume of pore space in a material
Hydrosphere
Water on or near the Earth's surface
Name the epoch, period, era and eon in which we currently live.
We live in the Holocene Epoch of the Quaternary Period, which is part of the Cenzoic Era and Phanerozoic Eon.
Ash
What are fragments that are smaller than a sand grain in size?
Vesicles
What are gas-bubble holes frozen into lava as it solidifies?
Ash flows
What are ignimbrites generated by?
Batholiths
What are intrusive igneous structures?
Plutonic
What are intrusive rocks also called?
Ignimbrites
What are rocks formed when deposits of pyroclastic flows solidify?
Earthquake activity, change in heat flow from the volcano's surface, bulges on the volcano's surface, increase in gas emissions and hydrothermal activities
What are some warning signs of a volcano's imminent eruption?
Volatiles
What are substances that have a tendency to evaporate and are stable as gases?
K+ Feldspar, Muscovite, and Quartz
What are the 3 final minerals that will form as the magma cools?
limited to a short span of geologic time, but widely distrubuted
What are the characteristics of an index fossil?
Lapilli
What are the pea sized volcanic fragments composed of glassy lava and scoria basalt?
cementation and compaction
What are the two important processes involved in lithification of sedimentary rocks?
Dormant
What are volcanoes called that have not erupted in hundreds to thousands of years, but have the potential to erupt again?
the number of protons in the nucleus
What atomic particle in an atom is the same for each element?
a dimple in the water table surface due to water pumped faster than an aquifier can be replenished
What best describes the cone of depression
Reversing the direction of flow in the aquifer subsidence saltwater contamination
What can result from excessive pumping of groundwater?
bombs
What do we call pyroclastic material, ejected during a volcanic eruption, composed of incandescent lava that is greater than 64 millimeters (2.5 inches) in diameter?
surface waves
What do we call seismic waves that are transmitted along the outside of earth?
Most likely K+ Feldspar
What does pink coloring mean in a rock?
Smoking Mountain
What does the volcano's name, Erta Ale, mean in the local Afar language?
Nickle
What element does peridotite contain, making it toxic to plants?
iron
What element is principally responsible for making olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite dark?
cenozoic
What era are we currently in?
spring
What groundwater feature forms where the water table intersects with the Earth's surface, creating a natural outflow of groundwater?
parent isotopes turn into daughter isotopes
What happens during radioactive decay?
Bowen's reaction series
What has a continuous track in which there's a progressive change from calcium-rich to sodium-rich plagioclase?
Bowen's reaction series
What has a discontinuous track in which each step yields a different class of silicate mineral?
Basaltic sill
What is a black, fine-grained tabular intrusion between two layers of horizontal sedimentary rock?
diorite
What is a coarse-grained rock composed of intermediate plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene?
Pyroclastic flow or nuée ardent
What is a fast-moving avalanche of hot gases and volcanic pieces?
rhyolite porphyry
What is a fine-grained igneous rock composed primarily of very small crystals of potassium feldspar and a few large crystals of quartz?
Phenocryst
What is a large crystal surrounded by a finer-grained igneous rock?
Fissure eruption
What is a single eruption that occurs in a linear pattern through an extremely elongated vent?
Lava dome
What is a steep feature called formed from the eruption of rhyolitic lava?
Xenolith
What is a stoped block called that does not melt entirely during assimilation, but rather becoming surrounded by new igneous rock?
Fissure
What is a vertical elongated crack that serves as a conduit?
Jokulhaup
What is a volcanic eruption under a glacier called?
Lahar
What is a volcanic mud-and-debris flow that resembles fluid concrete?
A mineral that makes up a relatively small portion of the total rock composition
What is an accessory mineral?
Krakatau, Indonesia, 1883
What is an example of a phreatomagmatic eruption?
Obsidian
What is an example of a rock with a glassy texture?
Pumice
What is an example of a rock with a vesicular texture?
Phreatomagmatic eruption
What is an explosive (pyroclastic) eruption involving the reaction of water with magma?
Fine-grained
What is another textural term for aphanitic?
Coarse-grained
What is another textural term for phaneritic?
matching up rocks of similar age in different regions
What is correlation?
Glassy texture or a volcanic glass
What is developed when magma cools so quickly that crystals do not have time to develop?
Depth of the magma below the earth's surface
What is least likely to cause variation of the original composition of magmas?
Batholith
What is light-colored granite, an intrusive, coarse-grained, igneous rock?
Stoping
What is the process of magma assimilating wall rock as blocks of it break off and sink into the magma?
Assimilation
What is the process of magma in a magma chamber melting the surrounding wall rock and incorporating it into itself, thus altering the composition?
andesite porphyry
What is the rock name of an intermediate rock with two distinct grain sizes?
The amount of time over which the number of parent isotopes decreases by half
What is the scientific definition of a half-life?
sill
What is the term for a tabular igneous pluton that occurs in an orientation that is concordant with the bedding surfaces of adjacent sedimentary rocks?
dike
What is the term for a tabular igneous pluton that occurs in an orientation that is discordant with the bedding surfaces of adjacent sedimentary rocks?
Tephra
What is the term for an unconsolidated accumulation of any size of pyroclastic grains?
seismic
What is the term for stored-up energy released by earthquakes?
batholith
What is the term used to describe a very large, widespread, and deep intrusive body of igneous rock?
Pegmatite
What is the very coarse-grained igneous rock that contains crystals up to tens of centimeters across and forms in dike-shaped intrustions from water-rich melts?
Olivine
What is the very first crystal to form as magma begins to cool?
Vent
What is the volcano's opening to Earth's surface called?
Pillow basalts; Pillow basalts are bulbous flows of molten basalt, low in silica, which cool and harden as they are expelled into seawater.
What kind of basalts are formed in a submarine environment?
Extrusive igneous rock
What kind of igneous rock is dark-colored, fine-grained basalt?
It is one of only a few volcanoes that have permanent lakes of molten lava in their craters.
What makes Erta Ale so unique among other active volcanoes in the world?
Quartz
What mineral forms at the very lowest temperature?
Mud flows
What normally forms volcanic breccias?
Iron and magnesium
What other two elements can be found in olivine?
0.62%
What percentage of Earths water is in the form of groundwater?
94%
What percentage of earths liquid freshwater is in the form of groundwater?
Columnar jointing
What produces hexagonal columns in cooled near-surface lava flows?
Peridotite
What rock composes the upper part of the earth's mantle?
Vesicular
What rock has a very rough surface but is very lightweight?
Obsidian
What rock is either felsic or intermediate in composition and glassy in texture?
Pumice
What rock is either felsic or intermediate in composition and vesicular in texture?
Rhyolite
What rock is felsic in composition and aphanitic in texture?
Granite
What rock is felsic in composition and phaneritic in texture?
Welded tuff
What rock is formed from volcanic fragments classified as ash (sand grain) in size?
Peridotite
What rock is ultramafic in composition and phaneritic in texture?
A dike trunscates layers in a sedimentary succession
What scenario requires a geologist to use the principle of cross cutting relationships?
Bowen's reaction series
What shows the sequence in which different silicate minerals form during the progressive cooling of a mafic melt?
Mt. St. Helens
What stratovolcano recently erupted in the United States, killing many people, partly because it first blew sideways and produced a monstrous landslide, sending tons of ash skyward and blasted more than 1,000 feet off the mountaintop?
Pyroclastic
What texture are volcanic breccias and welded tuffs?
volcanic neck and dike
What two volcanic landforms are most apparent in the view provided at the Shiprock placemark?
Cool, felsic, gas-rich lava
What type of conditions will result in the most violent, explosive volcanic eruption?
Large crystals
What type of crystals do cooling intrusive magmas produce?
Calcium only
What type of feldspar is the first to form as magma begins to cool?
Phaneritic
What type of igneous rock texture has crystals that can be seen with the naked eye?
Rhyolite lava
What type of lava has more silica than basalt lava does, indicates the tendency for explosive activity, may freeze in the vent and emerge as a spine, and may form a lava dome above the vent?
Intrusive
What type of magma cools underground slowly?
Extrusive
What type of magma cools very quickly from a volcanic eruption?
Frothy, foamy, and very gas rich magma
What type of magma forms vesicular rocks?
Divergent
What type of plate boundary is Surtsey located along?
Coarse grained ground mass with a larger crystal
What type of rock textures will be formed from intrusive magma?
Fine grained ground mass with a smaller crystal
What type of rocks will be formed from extrusive magma?
Low viscosity
What type of viscosity of lava could build a shield cone, indicates an area that has little potential for explosive eruptions, is basalt, and has low silica content?
Bowen's reaction series
What was established by laboratory experiments in which mafic melt was quenched in mercury?
interpretations
What we interpret from the data we have: Data, by themselves, are not very useful until we analyze them in the context of existing ideas. Perhaps the data will confirm old ideas, or perhaps they will point out a need for a new interpretation
Granitic dike
What would be classified as a light-tan tabular intrusion that cuts vertically across layered country rock?
fault scarp
When a fault is expressed at a surface, it is called a _.
How did the earths moon form?
When an extraterrestrial object collided with earth and blasted part of the mantle into orbit which coalesced to form the moon
when the cone of depression of a second well intersects the deepest part of Well A
When might a well, Well A go dry?
More felsic
When rock is *partially* melted, how does the composition change in relation to the original rock?
What is continental rifting?
When the crust of the Earth breaks into large blocks that sink, generally causing a rift valley
drawdown decreases with increasing distance from the well
When water is pumped from a well, drawdown occurs. Which of the following is a true statement regarding drawdown?
United States, Alaska
Where is the Redoubt volcano located that produced a giant, mushroom shaped cloud of ash that reached the stratosphere?
Shiprock, NM
Where is the most famous set of dikes located?
Circum-Pacific Belt
Where is the zone of the greatest seismic activity on earth?
Ocean-Continent convergence
Where oceanic lithosphere is subducting under continental lithosphere -Andes and Cascades
transform fault boundary
Where plates grind past each other without destruction of the lithosphere.
divergent boundary
Where plates move apart, mantle material comes up & makes a new sea floor.
Continuous
Which branch of Bowen's reaction series gives different varieties of the SAME mineral?
cross-cutting
Which concept could be used to relatively age date an igneous intrusion?
Gabbro
Which mafic rock is felsic granite most similar to in *texture*?
Ultramafic
Which magma composition is usually very dark green?
Pyroclastic
Which magma rock texture is made from very hot and sticky ash?
Aphanitic
Which magma rock texture is too small to be seen with the naked eye?
The lava wells up on one side of the crater and forms a dark crust. As the crust cools, it flows across the lake driven by the churning lava below. Once it flows across the lake, the crust sinks down and the process begins again.
Which of the following accurately describes the motion of lava in Erta Ale's crater?
nature of surface material steepness of the slope intensity of rainfall
Which of the following are factors that will influence infiltration of groundwater?
Granite is phaneritic and rhyolite is aphanitic.
Which of the following best describes the difference between granite and rhyolite?
P waves
Which of the three types of seismic waves travels through rock with the greatest velocity
organisms with overlapping ranges and geologically short lifespans
Which of the following characteristics is the most desirable for constraining the relative age of rocks?
water vapor
Which of the following gases is most abundant in basaltic lavas?
Gold
Which of the following has the highest specific gravity?
obsidian
Which of the following igneous rocks contains no mineral crystals?
aquitards must be present both above and below the aquifer
Which of the following is a requirement for an artesian system to exist?
the distance between two wells that penetrate the zone of saturation
Which of the following is necessary to calculate hydraulic gradient?
offset fences
Which of the following might be seen where strike-slip movement has occured?
Hornblende
Which of the following minerals is a ferromagnesian silicate?
shaking particles at right angles to the direction of travel
Which of the following motions best describes the movement of S waves as they travel through rocks following the release of energy during an earthquake
bathiloth
Which of the following terms is best described as a massive pluton?
basaltic
Which of the following types of lava will most likely lead to a volcanic eruption of an effusive nature?
rhyolitic
Which of the following types of magma has the highest viscosity?
S waves
Which of the following types of seismic body waves travel only through solids?
composite volcanoes
Which of the following volcanic forms best describes large, nearly symmetrical structures composed of interbedded lavas and pyroclastic material primarily deposited from a central vent?
cinder cone
Which of the following volcanic types typically produces small, steep-sided structures composed of pyroclastic material?
Unconsolidated sediments
Which of the following would be the most unstable during an earthquake?
The zone of soil moisture
Which of the following zones is the location of the most biological activity?
igneous
Which type of rock is formed from the cooling of very hot material originating from below the surface of the Earth?
Surface waves
Which type of seismic waves generally cause the most structural damage as they travel through Earth?
Kilauea, Hawaii; Hawaii sits on a hot spot, far from any plate boundary.
Which volcanic feature is NOT related to plate-boundary magmatism?
Obsidian; arrowheads and spears
Which volcanic material is highly prized by native Americans because of its usefulness as weapons?
Krakatau
Which volcano eruption in 1883 shot so much volcanic ash into the atmosphere that it created spectacular sunsets around the world for years?
fine-grained
While working in the field, you find a dike cutting across some sedimentary rocks. What grain size would you expect to find in this pluton?
Vulcan
Who was the Roman god of fire?
The lava that flows out of shield volcanoes is more fluid than the lava that flows out of composite volcanoes.
Why are shield volcanoes wider than composite volcanoes?
The volcano is still active, and a new volcanic peak has formed.
Why does Crater Lake have an island in it?
it is less dense than the surrounding rock
Why does magma have a tendency to rise after its formation
meandering
Winding back and forth
The dark crystals formed first, undergoing slow cooling, and the remainder cooled quickly.
Working in the field, you come upon a light-colored, fine-grained igneous rock that contains some very large dark-colored crystals. How do you account for this complex mineralogy?
fine-grained
Working in the field, you see a thin, dark-colored igneous sill across the valley. Without seeing the sill up close, what texture would you expect it to possess?
Pore spaces between rocks and sediments
Worldwide, the largest percentage of fresshwater readily available to humans is stored in?
Is San Andreas Fault in California a transform plate boundary?
Yes, because it connects two divergent plate boundaries that side against each other
aftershocks
_ are smaller earthquakes of lesser magnitude that follow a major earthquake
Megathrust; convergent
_ faults are associated with _ plate boundaries
Magma Lava
__ is molten rock located below the surface __ is molten rock erupted above ground
Chemical weathering
___ ___ is most effective in areas of warm temperatures and abundant moisture
sedimentary rocks
___ ____ form when weathered particles are cemented and/or compacted
intrusive
___ igneous rocks are those that cool below the surface
Shield
___ volcanoes form from low-viscosity lava
extrusive realm
____ _____ is at the surface
intrusive realm
____ _____ lies underground
Plutons
____ form when magma cools slowly at depth; erosion gradually exposes the granite
nonflowing artesian well
a _ is located where the pressure surface is above the aquifer, but below the ground.
cement
a building material that is a powder made of a mixture of calcined limestone and clay
calcite
a carbonate material that reacts readily with cool, dilute hydrochloric acid to produce visible bubbles of carbon dioxide gas
geochemical reservoir
a component of the Earth system where a chemical is stored at some point in its geochemical cycle
Bathiloth
a composite of many plutons
clathrate
a compound in which molecules of one component are physically trapped within the crystal structure of another.
potholes
a deep natural underground cavity formed by the erosion of rock, especially by the action of water
placer deposits
a deposit that contains a valuable mineral that has been concentrated by mechanical action
Noncrystalline Material
a disordered arrangement of atoms
diapir
a domed rock formation in which a core of rock has moved upward to pierce the overlying strata.
floodplain
a flat area about level with the top of the valley that is flooded when the stream spills over its banks, carrying with it silt and sand from the channel
competence
a flows ability to carry material of a given article size
inert gas
a gas which does not undergo chemical reactions under a set of given conditions. aka noble gas or rare gas
interglacial period
a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years
ice age
a glacial episode during a past geological period
Accretion
a gradual process in which layers of a material are formed as small amounts are added over time
hot spot trace/hot spot island chain
a hotspot is a location on the Earth's surface that has experienced active volcanism for a long period of time which overtime can create a chain ex: The Hawaiian Islands where formed by such a hot spot occurring in the middle of the Pacific Plate. While the hot spot itself is fixed, the plate is moving. So, as the plate moved over the hot spot, the string of islands that make up the Hawaiian Island chain were formed.
abyssal plain
a large area of extremely flat or gently sloping ocean floor just offshore from a continent
river
a large natural stream of water flowing in channel to the sea, lake, or another such stream
Pahoehoe
a lava flow displaying the characteristic ropy appearance
drainage network
a map showing the courses of al the large and small streams in a drainage basin reveals a pattern of connections
Benchmark
a mark on a permanent object indicating elevation and serving as a reference in topographic surveys and tidal observations.
slump
a mass of onconsolidated material slides slowly downslope as a unit, leaving a scar at its source
chemical stability
a measure of substances tendency to retain its chemical identity rather than reacting spontaneously to become a different chemical substance
p-wave velocity
a measure of the velocity of sound waves through Earth materials with distance vs. time.
geothermometer
a mineral assemblage that reveals the maximum temperature attained by a rock -in lower temps the amount of Mg in Calcite and the amount of Ca in Dolomite can be used as a geothermometer
quartz
a mineral composed of silicon dioxide
muscovite
a mineral in the group mica
Graphite
a mineral with relatively weak covalent bonds - made of carbon
diamond
a mineral with strong covalent bonds - made of carbon
tenacity
a mineral's physical reaction to stressful forces acting upon it
Nuclear fusion
a nuclear reaction in which 2 atomic nuclei of low atomic number fuse to form 1 heavier nucleus with the release of energy.
Nuclear fission
a nuclear reaction in which a heavy nucleus splits spontaneously or on impact with another particle, with the release of energy.
aquitard
a perched aquifer is located directly above an_
exfoliation
a physical weathering process in which flat or curved sheets of rocks are detached from an outcrop
xenolith
a piece of rock of different origin from the igneous rock in which it is embedded
oxbow lake
a present shaped, water-filled loop
perched water table
a quantity of groundwater that lies above the regional water table because an underlying lens of impermeable rock or sediment prevents the water from sinking down to the regional water table
Gradient
a rate of inclination; a slope
rain shadow
a region with dry conditions found on the leeward side of a mountain range as a result of humid winds from the ocean causing precipitation on the windward side
seismic gap
a region without seismic activity for one or more centuries
Strategic Resources
a resource that is important for a country's industries or national security (i.e. petroleum→ gasoline, lead→ ammunition, chromite→ jet engines)
antecedent stream
a ridge is formed by deformation while a preexisting stream is flowing over it, the stream may erode the rising rise to form a steep- walled gorge
divide
a ridge of high ground along which all rainfall runs off down one side or the other
tributaries
a river or stream flowing into a larger river or lake
ore
a rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mine
igneous dike, sandstone, metamorphic rock
a sandstone contains inclusions of metamorphic rock. An igneous dike cuts both the sandstone and inclusions. List the rocks from youngest to oldest
evaporite deposits
a sedimentary rock formed of material deposited from solution by evaporation of water
sinkhole
a small, steep depression in the land surface above the cave
Plagioclase
a sodium and calcium-rich feldspar with twinning striations
braided stream
a stream whose channel divides into an interlacing network of channels, which then rejoin a pattern resembling braids of hair
Precambrian
a term used to define 88% of earth's history prior to the start of the paleozoic era
what are silica tetrahedral?
a tetrahedral structure of 4 oxygens around one silica
strike slip fault
a type of fault where rocks on either side move past each other sideways with little up or down motion
Disconformity
a type of unconformity in which the sedimentary layers above and below the unconformity are parallel
Cryovolcanism
a type of volcanism that results from the eruption of magmas derived from the partial melting of ice
trace fossil
a worm burrow is an example of which type of fossilization?
Hardness
ability to resist scratching or abrasion
permeability
ability to transmit water
stratosphere
above the troposphere, dryer layer that extends to an altitude of 50 km
relative motion
absolute motions of plates leads to their motion relative to each other
how did the cold war contribute to the discovery of plate tectonics?
according to wiki during the 1950s and early 1960s, scientists set up seismograph networks to see if enemy nations were testing atomic bombs. Seismographs record seismic waves. While watching for enemy atom bomb tests, the seismographs were also recording all of the earthquakes that were taking place around the planet. These seismic records could be used to locate an earthquake's epicenter, the point on Earth's surface directly above the place where the earthquake occurs. Earthquakes are associated with large cracks in the ground, known as faults. Rocks on opposite sides of a fault move in opposite directions. Scientists noticed that the earthquake epicenters were located along the mid-ocean ridges, trenches and large faults that mark the edges of large slabs of Earth's lithosphere (Figure 6.13). They named these large slabs of lithosphere plates. The movements of the plates were then termed plate tectonics
geothermal gradient
aka geotherm the curve where the temp. within the earth increases with depth
diagenesis
aka lithification the process that converts wet gooey layers of sediment into hard dry rock
parental magma
aka primitive magma produced by partial melting in the mantle
phreatic zone
all open pore space is filled with water (saturated)
why do metallic bonds conduct electricity?
all the atoms in the structure effectively share the electrons that are moving free through out the the structure
biosphere
all the life on earth
Earth system
all the parts of our planet and all their interactions, taken together
hydrosphere
all the waters on the earth above the solid crust
Magnitude
amount of ground motion
A diorite is mainly composed of...
amphibole, biotite & feldspar
drainage basin
an area of land bounded by divides, that funnels all its water into the network of streams draining that area
Darcys law
an equation that describes the flow of a fluid through a porus medium
flood
an extreme case of increased disracheg that results from a short-term imbalance between inflow and outflow
the fault is the youngest because it cuts through all the sedimentary layers and basalt
an igneaous dike cuts across existing sedimentary layers and erupts at the surface, creating a layer of basalt. the basalt, as well as all the layers below, are then cut by a fault. Which statement is tue?
humus
an important component of most of earths soils
influx
an inward flow
Karst Topography
an irregular, hilly type of terrain characterized by sinkholes, caves, and a lack of surface streams
Atoll
an island consisting of a circular coral reef surrounding a lagoon
sheeted dikes
an oceanic crust layer almost entirely composed of dikes (frozen sheet of magma)
Radon
an odorless, tasteless, very dilute radioactive gas and is a decay product of U238
Crystalline Material
an orderly arrangement of atoms
principles of superposition and later continuity
an undeformed sequence of sedimentary rocks is exposed in a large river canyon. Which two principles would be demonstrated by the rock
continental rise
an underwater feature found between the continental slope and the abyssal plain
stream
any body of water, large or small, that flows over the land surface and river for the major branches of a large stream system
Asbestos
any natural mineral fiber with an aspect ratio greater than 10
Rocks
any naturally occurring solid mass of mineral or mineral-like matter
Isotope
any of two or more forms of a chemical element, having the same number of protons in the nucleus, or the same atomic number, but having different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus, or different atomic weights
climate model
any representation of the climate system that can produce one or more aspects of its behavior
Luster
appearance in reflected light
Deep-ocean trenches
are deep and relatively narrow depressions that make up only a small portion of the ocean floor
Seismometers
are instruments that sense earthquake waves and transmit them to a recording device
Seamounts
are small volcanic structures that dot the ocean floor
Oceanic ridges
are the most prominent feature on the ocean floor and are composed of igneous rock that has been fractured and uplifted
Continental margins
are the portion of the seafloor adjacent to major landmasses
Deep ocean basins
are the portions of the seafloor between the continental margins and the oceanic ridges
ripples
are very small diners with heights raining from less than a centimeter to several centimeters whose long dimension is formed at right angles to the current
rain shadows
areas of low precipitation on their leeward slopes
hot dry rock
areas with abundant heat but little natural underground water
____________ was the highly influential, ancient Greek philosopher noted for his writings and teachings on natural philosophy and on the workings of Earth
aristotle
Caldera
as a magma chamber drains, the collapse begins, which is called a ____.
the mantle and crust
as a result of partial melting, magma originates in ___.
crystals form
as magma moves...
retrograde
as the rocks are returned to the surface during uplift and erosion they are progressively cooled and depressurized and may undergo this type of metamorphism reaction which generally occurs under fluid absent conditions
The ________ is not a part of the Earth's physical environment.
astrosphere
Where is the most likely location for molten rock to cool and minerals to form quickly?
at earth's surface
unsaturated zone
at shallow depths, the material is unsaturated: the pores contain some air and are not completely filled with water
covalent bond
atoms combine by sharing electrons from overlapping outer shells
ions
atoms that have lost or gained electrons
Aa
basaltic lava with rough, jagged surface with sharp edges and spiny projections.
Pahoehoe flow
basaltic lavas of the Hawaiian type that form a smooth skin that wrinkles as the still molten subsurface lava continues to advance Looks like twisting braids in ropes
"Strength" Layers
based on material propertoes and physical state
Compositional Layers
based on mineralogy and density
why do we know so little about the ocean crust?
because most of the geology we study on land is related to the structure of the continental crust
why are ophiolites poor examples of ocean crust?
because most rocks in ophiolites are altered during the thrusting process so geologists have to reconstruct the original rock types from their altered remnants
why is the ocean crust so young?
because of subduction: oceanic crust tends to get colder and denser with age as it spreads off the mid-ocean ridges. It gets so dense, that it sinks in the upper mantle (=subduction).
how do some metamorphic rocks lack foliation?
because they were formed at low pressure around the contact of igneous bodies or they are made up predominantly of non planar minerals
glacial cycle
begins when a gradual decline I'm temperature of about 6 degrees Celsius to 8 from a warm interglacial period to a cold glacial period or ice age
twentieth-century warming
between the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twenty-first, the average annual surface temperature rose .6 degrees Celsius
oceanic ridge
big ridge where the plates are divergin, about 1400 km wide, can rise up to 3000 m above it's surroundings. midi-atlantic ridge is 70000 km long
desert varnish
black layers of Mn oxides
channel
bottom of a valley, trough through which water runs
groundwater table
boundary between unsaturated and saturated zone
aquicludes
bounded above and below by low permeability beds, such as shales
Fracture (brittle)
breaking (type of deformation)
Physical (mechanical)
breaking of rocks into smaller pieces (disintegration)
clastic
breccia, conglomerate, sandstone, shale, mudstone are all examples of what type of sedimentary rocks
how do we define the lithosphere/ athenosphere boundary?
by difference in response to stress
stalagmite
calcite deposit that builds up from the floor of a cave
Organic
carbon-rich remains of once living organisms.
talus
cemented sandstones ina rid environments resist erosion and break into large blocks, forming steep, bare bedrock slopes above and gentler slopes covered with broken rock
Biochemical
cemented shells of organisms.
core
center of an object (in these terms Earth)
island arcs
chains of volcanoes or coastal mountain ranges caused from subduction of the oceanic plate.
positive feedbacks
change in one component is enhanced by the changes it induces in other components
negative feedbaks
change in one component is reduced by the changes it induces in other components
Geothermal gradient
change in temp. with depth Average of 20 degrees C- 30 degrees C in the upper crust At depth of 100km temp. is between 1200 degrees C and 1400 degrees C
- black to dark-green - silicate minerals - contain iron and magnesium
characteristics of ferromagnesian silicates
pot hole
circular pot holes can be worn into solid rock in the bed of a stream or river
metallic bond
closely packed atoms share electrons in higher energy shells, weaker than the other 2 bonds
organic
coal and oil shell are examples of what type of sedimentary rocks
Gneiss
coarse crystals (fewer micas than schist) forming coarse layering along foliation planes
igneous processes within Earth produce ____ ____ igneous rocks.
coarse-grained; intrusive
rhyolite, granite
felsic
internal heat
comes form radioactivity (mostly) but also from accretionary heat from all the meteorite that hit its surface
All of the following provide evidence or clues to the composition of Earth's interior except for __________.
comets
In sedimentary rocks, lithification includes __________.
compaction and cementation
pumice
compose of non-mineral matter, have no crystal structure, can float
crust
composed of low density silicates, which are rich in aluminum and potassium, from higher density silicates of the mantle, which contain more magnesium and iron
Color
composition (unreliable for ID)
soil profile
composition and appearance of soil
conduction vs. convection
conduction and radiation move heat. convection moves mass and heat
continental rise
consists of a thick wedge of sediment that moved downward from the continental shelf and slope to accumulate on the seafloor
how do silica tetrahedral form complex structures?
corner sharing of oxygens
impact crater
crater formed by the impact of a meteorite
The relatively stable interior portion of a continent is known as a __________.
craton
why is assimilation a less important process than crystal fractionation?
crystal fractionation is the early removal of crystals and is the main differentiation process while assimilation generally accounts for less than 20% of the overall differentiation process
ecosphere (five components)
earth, rock, air, water, life
mare basalt
dark, solidified lava that covers the lunar maria
Sedimentary
debris cemented from preexisting rock. Breakdown of existing rocks sediments Sediments deposit in water, cement together over time Minerals can precipitate in water
alluvial fans
defined mountain fronts, typically steep fault scarps streams drop large amounts of sediment in cone or fanshaped accumulations
Bowen's Reaction Series
depicts the sequence that minerals crystallize from magma of average composition under laboratory conditions
atoms are bonded in a regular, repetitive, internal structure
descriptions of a mineral
lithified or consolidated aggregate of different mineral grains
descriptions of a rock
River Gradient
determined by calculating the change in elevation over the distance the river flows
Relative Age Dating
determines when something formed or happened in relation to other things
biochemical
diamictite, limestone, chert are all examples of what type of sedimentary rocks
Declination
difference between geographic North and magnetic North
Transportation
dispersal by gravity, wind, water, and ice.
Carbonates
dissolves with weak acids
The Great Rift Valley or East Africa is an early stage
divergent boundary.
chemical
dolostone is an example of what type of sedimentary rocks
Amphibole Group
double chains of tetrahedra
mass movements
downslope movements of masses of soil, rock, mud, or other materials under the force of gravity
atomic mass
element (protons+neutrons)
Ridge-push
elevated MOR pushes lithosphere away.
relief
elevation difference between high and low spots
dunes
elongated ridges of sand up to many meters high that form in flows of wind or water over a sandy bed
caliche
evaporated groundwater leaves behind a layer of CaCO3 and/or CaSO4
semi-plastic behavior
ex: the asthenosphere which is solid but can slowly flow as the individual mineral grains within it are bent and recrystallized
Nonconformity
exists between sedimentary rocks and metamorphic or igneous rocks when the sedimentary rock lies above and was deposited on the pre-existing and eroded metamorphic or igneous rock.
Salt crystal growth
expansion of salt crystals in pores that cause materials to weaken and flake
Plate Tectonic Theory
explains plate motion and most major geologic phenomena (volcanoes, earthquakes, etc)
Fine Grained
extrusive rocks are...
Climate is the state of the atmosphere at a given time in a given place over s short period of time.
f
The concentration of methane in the atmosphere has been shown to be increasing for the last 1,000 years, indicating that humans are not responsible for its generation.
f
extrusive igneous rocks cool ___.
fast
superposed stream
flows through resistant formations because its course was established at a higher level, on uniform rock, before downcutting began
flux melting
fluid induced melting in the mantle when slabs heat up
outer core
fluid layer thick and mostly compressed of mostly iron snd Nickel
how can some sedimentary rocks be clastic, biological and chemical all at once?
for example transported animal parts that's chemically precipitated? idk because the categories are overlapping an not discrete?
deep-sea trench
form at subduction zones. lowes area of the earth's surface. next to island arcs.
igneous rocks
form from liquid rock (magma) in several different ways.
double diffusive convection
form of convection driven by two different density gradients
tephra
frag mental material material erupted by a volcano that is classified or subdivided on the basis of the average particle size
volcanic plume
gas clouds that rise from the central vent of a volcano
convection
general process in which hotter materials rises and cooler material sinks
Induction
general truth is gathered from the particular cases
Sheeting (Exfoliation)
generates onion-like layers and exfoliation domes
Weathering
generation of detritus via rock disintegration.
continental rise
gently sloping surface at the base of the continental rise
According to the principle of uniformitarianism,
geologic processes we observe today have operated in the past.
Slab-pull
gravity pulls a subducting plate downward.
According to Weichert's hypothesis, the chemical layering of Earth is mainly due to...
gravity.
high to low pressure areas
groundwater flows from _
meteoric water
groundwater forms as raindrops and melting snow in filtrate soil and other unconsolidated surface materials and even sink into cracks and crevices of bedrock
Sulfate
gypsum is a type of
anthracite
hard coal, 92 to 98% carbon
turbulent flow
has a more complex pattern of movement, in which streamlines, mix, cross, and forms soils and eddies
isotope
has the same number of protons, different number of neutrons
electron
have a negative charge Atom
proton
have a positive charge
triple junction
he place where three tectonic plates, and three plate-tectonic boundaries, meet
accretionary heat
heat from countless meteorites hitting the planet
what is "positive heat flow"?
heat that flows from the interior to the exterior
What causes rocks to melt into magma
heat, pressure
earth's deep subsurface
high temperature, high pressure (high-grade) metamorphism
Mafic
high temperature, low silica
Rhyoloitic Lava Flow
high viscosity lava flow
The asthenosphere is...
hot and weak.
seismic waves
how do we know the earths interior
the periods of the time scale were constructed based on ranges of fossil organisms
how is the geologic time scale related to the fossil record?
Crystal Size
how to tell apart from intrusive or extrusive?
outer planets
huge balls of gases. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
rift valley
huge crack that runs along the oceanic ridge.
oil shale
hydrocarbon trapped in kerogen as fine grained sediments that have never been buries to depths where it would be converted to oil
Drowned Coasts
i. Estuaries - flooded river valleys that formed as sea level rose. ii. Fiords - flooded glacial valleys that formed as sea level rose. iii. Relationship to glaciation - melting of glaciers led to rise in sea level.
hydrosphere composition (percentages)
ice: 2% groundwater: .5 % oceans: 97.5% 71% of the earth's surface is covered in water.
why can magmas absorb volatiles (mostly water) at depth, but release them near the surface?
ie volatile transfer ???
all of the organisms had to be alive when the rock was deposited
if a rock contains ten different kinds of fossils, which of the following must be true
all of the sedimentary units must have been deposited and lithified before being cut by the fault
if a sequence of sedimentary units is cut by a fault, what does the principle of cruss cutting relationships tell a geologist.
flowing artesian well
if a well is drilled into an aquifer where the pressure surface is both above the aquifer and the ground, a _ is formed.
50:50
if one half-life has lapsed, what is the radioactive parent to stable daughter isotope ratio?
extrusive rock
igneous process on or near Earth's surface
intrusive rocks
igneous process within Earth
hypabyssal
igneous rock that shares characteristics of both plutonic and volcanic
mass wasting
includes all process by which weathered and unweathered Earth materials move downslope in large amounts and in large single events, usually by means of gravity
climate systems
includes all the earth system components that determine climate on global scale and how climate changes with time
suspended load
includes all the material temporarily or permanently suspend in the flow
geologic record
information preserved in the rocks that have been formed at various times throughout Earth's history
andesite, diorite
intermediate
saltation
intermittent jumping motion along the bed
Dike
intrude when crust undergoes horizontal stretching - go vertically
Sill
intrudes between layers - go horizontally
Coarse Grained
intrusive rocks crystals are...
Ionic bonding
involves electron transfer
Covalent bonding
involves sharing of electrons
what are the major differences between ionic and covalent bonds?
ionic:attraction between a negatively charged atom(anion) and a positively charged atom(cation) -minerals are symmetrical. -dissolve easily in H2O, -good cleavage, -brittle, -non conductors of electricity, -moderately high melting point, - moderate hardness covalent:single electron shared between 2 atoms - less symmetrical -do not dissolve in H2o -poor/moderate cleavage -brittle -non conductors -high melting temp -high hardness
Ductile deformation
irreversible change (type of deformation)
abyssal plain
is a flat feature of the deep ocean basin
continental shelf
is a gently sloping region of continental crust extending from the shore
continental slope
is a relatively steep dropoff that extends from the continental shelf to the deep ocean floor
how do we define the crust/mantle boundary?
it is within the the Mohorovicic discontinuity "Moho" and defined by a contrast in seismic velocity
How heat effects chemical bonds
it makes them weaker
Arete
knife edged ridge between two valleys
kettle
lakes formed where large blocks of glacial ice are buried in outwash and then form collapsed depressions when they melt
Bombs
larger than lapilli ejected as hot lava more than 64 mm (2.5 inches)
Blocks
larger than lapilli hardened lava more than 64 mm (2.5 inches)
earth's surface
lava cooling and undergoing crystallization to form extrusive igneous rocks
Aa lava
lavas that are lower in temp and have higher viscosities
pahoehoe lava
lavas that erupt at the highest temps and have the lowest viscosities
soil
layers of material, initially created by fragmentations of rock during weathering
Law of Lateral Continuity
layers of sediment extend in all directions horizontally. Later, a separation might be caused by a geological events such as erosion or movement during an earthquake.
Skarn
lime-bearing siliceous rock produced by the metamorphic alteration of limestone or dolomite
layers of the earth
lithosphere: made up of crust and upper mantle. (silicates) asthenosphere: plastic (silicates) mesosphere: solid (silicates) outer core: liquid (iron) inner core: solid (iron)
Lapilli
little stones- walnut sized pyroclasts (commonly called cinders) 2-64 mm
Clastic
loose rock fragments (clasts) cemented together.
Felsic
low temperature, high silica
Basaltic Lava Flow
low viscosity lava flow
basalt, gabbro
mafic
earth's deep subsurface
magma cooling and undergoing crystallization to form intrusive igneous rocks
Extrusive
magma cools quickly on Earth's surface - fine grains (rhyolite)
Intrusive
magma cools slowly within existing rock- coarse grains (granite)
sill
magma that solidifies in a horizontal fracture
dike
magma that solidifies in a vertical fracture
pluton
magma that solidifies in roughly spheroidal or ellipsoidal magma chambers
plutonic
magma which loses its heat to the upper crust and solidify (igneous rocks that are generally course grained and are classified on the basis of minerals actually present in the rock) ex: gabbro, granite
Laccoliths
magma which makes a lens shape
Sustainability
maintaining the ability to accommodate three important sources of change
antecedent river
maintains its original course and pattern despite the changes in underlying rock topography (the cake moves up against the knife)
The asthenosphere is actually a part of the ____________ of the Earth.
mantle
Stony meteorites are similar in composition to Earth's...
mantle.
What did most scientist thought about continents prior to 1960?
many geologists believed that the positions of the continents and ocean basins were fixed
topset beds
materials deposited on top of delta, typically sand, make up horizontal
element
matter composed of only one kind of atom
topography
measured with respect to sea level, a smooth surface set at the average level of ocean water that conforms closely to the squashed spherical shape expected for the rotating Earth
Andesitic Lava Flow
medium viscosity lava flow
metamorphic rock
melting, forming magma
non foliated
metamorphic rocks NOT containing a planer layering of fabric (ex:marble)
foliated
metamorphic rocks containing a planer layering of fabric (slate, phyllite, schist, gnesis)
burial
metamorphism
Slate
microscopic crystals/thin foliation; no visible mineral layering along foliation planes
New oceanic crust is created at
mid-ocean ridges.
lower mantle
middle sphere, between depths of 660 km and 2900 km, ridgid and hot, capable of gradual flow.
The primary difference between felsic and mafic igneous rocks is:
mineral composition
phosphate
minerals are mined for making fertilizers, detergents
hydrothermal deposits
minerals deposited from hot waters, usually associated with igneous intrusions
Chemical
minerals that crystallize directly from water.
solid solutions
minerals with a range of compositions between fixed end- members ex: olivine can be a pure iron end member(Fe2SiO4) or pure magnesium end member (Mg2SiO4)
polymorphs
minerals with the same composition but different crystalline structure ex: diamond and graphite are both carbon (different structure because of different conditions)
What was so odd about the ancient glaciation of the southern hemisphere?
modern glaciers form on land and move to sea while these appear to have been off the coast in the present oceans (no clear continental source)
compound
molecules made from more than one element
Lava
molten rock exposed on surface
Silicates
most abundant class of mineral in the earth's crust
Oxygen and Silicon
most common elements in crust
SiO2
most common oxide in crust
black shale
most common sedimentary rock being formed on the deep ocean floor
silicate minerals
most igneous rocks are primarily composed of:
dendritic drainage
most rivers follow the same kind of irregular branching pattern
Schist
mostly intermediate size mica crystals with some other minerals; produces thin layering along foliation planes
absolute motion
motion relative to an external reference frame
mons
mountain on a celestial body
long shore drift
moves sand parallel to the shore and builds up as sandbars, eventually returns to the oceans as rip tides
dunes
moving sand piles up as dunes
Ion
name given to an atom that gains or loses electrons in a chemical reaction
mineraloid
naturally occurring substances that do not meat all of the criteria for minerals
subduction In Convergent
ne plate descends below another; oceanic crust is "consumed" Plates to one another - recycled back into the mantle
aybssal plains
near continents, sediment from the continents covers the hills and forms flat regions.
Electron
negatively charged particle
Ocean pH
neutral 7, lately has been slightly basic (8.1)
neutron
neutral charge
Neutron
neutrally charged particle
Silicates
not all minerals are ______
atomic number
number of protons
Color
obvious, but not diagnostic
pseudomorphs
occurring only when one mineral replaces another but retains the EXTERNAL shape of the ORIGINAL mineral
abyssal floor
ocean floor, lots of sediment, flat, huge region.
The most prominent feature on the ocean floor are the __________.
oceanic ridges
meanders
on a great many floodplains, stream channels follow curves and bends
residence time
on average a molecule of the chemical spends a certain amount of time
graded stream
one in which the slope, velocity, and discharge combine to transport its sediment load, with neither net sedimentation nor net erosion in the stream or its floodplain
Clay minerals
one of the mineral groups that exhibit a sheet-like silicate structure
Yucca Mountain
only candidate for permanent underground storage site for 70,000 tons of high-level radioactive wastes from commercially operated power plants
mineral cleavage
orientation and number of planes of weakness within a mineral.
The ____________ is thought to be a liquid, metallic region in the Earth's interior.
outer core
core
outer: liquid. circulatoin causes the earth's magnetic field. inner: solid
Mantle
over 82% of the earths volume. Solid, rocky shell 2900 km deep.
What are the 5 most abundant elements in the whole earth
oxygen, magnesium, iron, silicon, and aluminium (in that order).
abyssal hill
part of the abyssal floor
thermohaline circulation
part of the large-scale ocean circulation that is driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and freshwater fluxes
ppm
parts per million
plaster
paste that hardens to a smooth solid and is used for coating walls
Lignite
peat first converts to lignite, 70% carbon, brown coal
milankovitch cycles
periodic variations in earths movement around the sun
droughts
periods of months or years when precipitation is much lower than normal
permineralization
petrified wood is an example of what type of fossil preservation?
Weathering
physical or chemical
kames
piles of outwash that collected in depressions the surface of a glacier and were left as hills once the glacier melted
theory of plate tectonics
plates move stuff happens.
Hypocenter (Focus)
point of rupture
Epicenter
point on surface
Leachate
polluted liquid produced by water passing through buried wastes in a landfill
Mafic
poor in silica; dark colored
Hardness
relative resistance to scratching
Proton
positive charged particle
Streak
powdered mineral
Re-crystallization
preexisting minerals recrystallize to form new crystals that are different sizes and shapes
infiltration
process by which water enters rock or soil through cracks or small pores between particles
Absolute Age Dating
process of determining when something formed or happened in exact units of times such as days, months, or years
ash and cinders
pyroclastics debris from a volcanic eruption can include ___.
Luster
quality and intensity of light reflected from a mineral; metallic:
A granite is mainly composed of...
quartz, feldspar & mica
REEs
rare earth elements
Deduction
reasoning which proceeds from a universal premise to a particular conclusion.
Environmental Geology
refers to geology as it relates directly to human activities
hydrothermal
relating to or denoting the action of heated water in the earth's crust.
Erosion
removal of sediment grains from parent rock.
talus slope
result of individual rock falls
sea floor spreading
result of the seafloor moving away from the oceanic ridges due to rising magma
Elastic deformation
reversible change in shape or volume (type of deformation)
Felsic
rich in silica; light colored
natural levees
riders of coarse material that confine the stream within its banks between flood, even when water levels are high
ocean basin
rock above the oceanic crust. oceanic crust is about 8 km thick
Metamorphic
rock altered by pressure and temperature. Igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been changed
how is the fact that there are not absolute boundaries for rock types reflected in the difference between mineral names and rock name?
rock names/definitions are generally chosen because they represent types of rocks with particular sets of characteristics (the names can therefore provide alot of info about a rock without having to write an entire description)
Anorthosite
rock of aluminum and calcium silicates found in the lunar highlands
Bedrock
rock still attached to the Earth
pro grade
rocks that are slowly buried and progressively metamorphosed at higher and higher temperatures and pressures are said to undergo this type of metamorphism reaction which occur with excess fluid present b/c it is likely to liberate water and the minerals are generally courser and better preserved than retrograde
tholus
round building; dome; cupola
pillow bassalt
rounded blobs of volcanic basalt that cooled underwater
A'a
rubbly volcanic surface
Sabkhas
salt deposits in the upper part of soil or the ground
abrasion
sand and pebbled the stream carries create sandblasting action that wears away even the hardest rock
what is the difference between schist and gneiss?
schist-mineral grains clearly visible, rich in micacaneous minerals(sparkly stuff), minerals intermixed Gneiss- course grain size, segregation of minerals into layers (during barrovian metamorphism schist changes into gneiss)
glacial scratches
scratches on bare rock surfaces made when ice drags a large rock across the surface
stable platform
sediment deposited over the basement rock, flatter. Like the great plains.
shield
sediment scraped off by glaciers, basement rock exposed
earth's shallow subsurface
sediment undergoing lithification
lithification
sedimentary rock
biostratigraphic unit
sedimentary rock unit based on a particular fossil assemblage within a rock
geodynamo
self sustaining process responsible for maintaining the earths magnetic field in which kinetic energy of convection motion of the earths liquid core is converted into magnetic energy
Micas (biotite and muscovite)
sheets of tetrahedra
mantle
shell of silicate rich rock
Raised beaches
shorelines stranded at higher elevations than the present shore and are an indication of an emergent coast
hanging valley
side valleys that have floors above the level of the main valley where they join
Pegmatite
silica rich fluid magmas, major source of Nb and Ta
Felsic igneous rocks contain more ___ and are ___ in color compared to mafic igneous rocks.
silica; lighter
Main silicate minerals
silicon & oxygen. aluminum, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium.
Loess
silt sized particles carried by wind, build up to form thick deposits
how does the distribution of plants and animals in South America and Africa compare with that from 200mil years ago?
similar plant and animal fossils occur in South America and Africa prior to 200mil years ago but the continents have very different fossil assemblages after that time and their plant and animal species are quite distinct ex: glossopteris far continents share fossils but its not possible they were carried over an ocean so the continents had to be closer 200 mil years ago
Proxene Group
single chains of tetrahedra
Olivine Group
single tetrahedra
Esker
sinus ridges of outwash that collected in stream beds on the surface of a glacier, or beneath the glacier, and were left as ridges of stream gravel once the glacier melted
texture
size of crystal: coarse-grained fine-grained
what is the difference between slate and schist?
slate - very fined grained, dull, no minerals visible, prominent cleavage schist- mineral grains clearly visible, rich in micacaneous minerals(sparkly stuff) (both are foliated metamorphic),
What kind of cooling history do porphyritic textures indicate?
slow then fast
Surface waves
slowest (Love and Raleigh waves) Cause the most damage, strongest waves
creep
slowest type of unconsolidated mass movement
Intrusive igneous rocks cool ___.
slowly
fumeroles
small gas release vents on the sides or flanks of a volcano that result from gas that migrate upward along fractures from a magma chamber beneath the volcano until it reaches the surface
Phyllte
small metamorphic mica crystals formed along thin foliation planes; gives the rock shiny, plastic-like appearance
distributes
smaller streams that receive water and sediments from the main channel, branch off downstream, and thus distribute the water and sediment into many channels
subsystems
smaller system that make up the big system. Hydrologic system, tectonic system, rock cycle, humans.
Bituminous
soft coal, 80 to 93% coarbon
inner core
solid
inner core
solid metalli sphere suspended in the liquid outer core
geosystems
specialized subsystems that produce specific types of activity, such as climate change or mountain building
Law of Cross Cutting
states that any feature that cuts across a rock or body of sediment must be younger than the rock or sediment that it cuts across
Cirques
steep circular headwalls at the tops of valleys
badlands topography
steep narrow zones of hummocky topography
volcanic dome
steep sided masses of vicious lava that may follow or precede explosive eruptions
horns
steep sided, faceted mountain peaks
Fjord
steep walled, deep estuaries where valleys meet the sea
Venifacts
stones polished and faceted by the wind
salt dome storage
storage for salt domes
geochemical reservoirs
storage of carbon and other chemicals linked by processes that transport chemicals among them
Disappearing Streams
stream or river that loses water as it flows downstream; the water goes underground
covalent bond
strong and hard, atoms share elections
ionic bond
strong bond, electron transferred between atoms,
rip tide
strong current, returns sand back to the ocean
what geological features are associated with convergent plate boundaries?
subduction zone/ earthquakes trenches volcanoes
Theory
tested and confirmed hypothesis
runoff
sum all precipitation that flows over the land surface
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), there is a 90-99% probability that increases in global temperatures are due to the increase in human-generated greenhouse gases.
t
Glaciers have the ability to record atmospheric composition through time.
t
Nitrogen is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere.
t
sill
tabular igneous body that was intruded PARALLEL to the layering of preexisting rock
Dike
tabular shaped bodies that cut through surrounding rock.
Divergent boundary
tectonic plates move apart.
Convergent boundary
tectonic plates move together.
Transform boundary
tectonic plates slide sideways. Plate material is neither created nor destroyed.
terraces
tectonic uplift can result in flat, steplike surfaces in a stream or valley that line the stream above the flood plain
Cleavage
tendency to break along planes of weak bonding
Cleavage
tendency to break in preferred directions (flat surfaces)
Hypothesis
tentative or untested explanation
Which of the following is a divergent plate boundary?
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
capacity
the Toal sediment land carried by a flow
relative humidity
the amount of water vapor in the air, expressed as a percentage of the total amount of water the air could hold at the same temperature if it were saturated
continental shelf
the area of seabed around a large landmass where the sea is relatively shallow compared with the open ocean. The continental shelf is geologically part of the continental crust.
isotopes of the same element
the atoms have different numbers of neutrons and the same number of protons
permeability
the capacity of a solid to allow fluids to pass through it
Silicates
the configuration of atoms in the tetrahedron can be portrayed in different ways
carbon cycle
the continual movement of carbon between different components of the earth system
plate tectonic system
the convecting mantle and its overlying mosaic of lithosphere plates
Volcanism or cooling and Later Uplift then the cycle...
the cycle begins again
hydrologic cycle
the cyclical movement of water- from the oceans to the atmosphere by evaporation, to earths surface by precipitation to streams through runoff over and under the ground and back to the oceans
solar forcing
the cyclical variation in the input of solar energy
density
the degree of compactness of a substance.
Angularity
the degree of edge or corner smoothness.
calcium carbonate compensation depth
the depth at which calcium carbonate is dissolving at a faster rate than it is being supplied
Clast size
the diameter of fragments or grains. Range from very coarse to very fine.
Relief
the difference in elevation between the highest and lowest parts of an area
Contour Interval
the difference in elevation from one contour line to the next
weathering
the disintegration and decomposition of material at or near the surface
base level
the elevation at which it ends by entering a large standing body of water, such as lake or ocean, or another stream
valley
the entire area between the tops of slopes on both sides of the stream
Supernova
the explosion of a star that causes the star to become extremely bright
delta
the floor of the lake or ocean slopes to deeper water away from the shore, the deposited materials build up a large, flat topped- deposit
efflux
the flowing out of a particular substance or particle
albedo
the fraction of solar energy reflected by a surface
continental rise
the gently sloping surface located at the base of teh continental slope
erosion
the incorporation and transportation of material by a mobile agent, usually water, wind, or ice
recharge
the infiltration of water into any subsurface formation
Batholiths
the largest intrusive igneous bodies, form in linear groups up to 100km wide, thick Made of granite or diorite shaped like bath tubs
Regolith
the layer of unconsolidated rocky material covering bedrock.
Troposphere
the lowest layer of the atmosphere
point bars
the outside of banks are eroded, sediments are deposited to form curve sandbars
fossil range
the period of time when an organism first and last appears in the sedimentary record
saturated zone
the pores are completely filled with water
U.S Public Land Survey System
the primary way that land is subdivided in the US by using a grid system based on the 4 cardinal directions
fossil succession
the principle of _ states that organisms succeed one another in a definite, determinable order that can be used to recognize a specific time.
Law of Inclusion
the principle that the bits of rock and other sediment found in rocks must be older than the rock they are found in because they had to exist before they could be made into the new rock
Principle of uniformitarianism
the processes we see in action on Earth today have worked in much the same way throughout the geologic past
hydraulic gradient
the ratio of the vertical drop to flow distance
laminar flow
the simplest kind of fluid movement, straight or gently curved streamlines run parallel to one another without mixing or crossing between layers
creep
the slow gradual slip along a fault zone without major damaging earthquakes
larger
the slower the rate the ____ the crystals
atom
the smallest particle that retains the properties of a chemical element .made of protons, neutrons and electrons
what are unit cells?
the smallest repeat structures units within a crystal structure, they are able to repeat in 3D to create a solid mineral with length, width and height
settling velocity
the speed with which suspended particles of various weights to settle to the bed
Geology
the study of the Earth
continental shelf
the submerged margin of a continental mass extending from the shore to the first prominent slope, which usually occurs at a depth of about 120 m
Environment
the sum of all features and conditions surrounding an organism that may influence it. continually changing
mass wasting
the transfer of rock material downslope under the influence of gravity
Chemical
transformation of rock into one or more new compounds (decomposition) - most important agent is water
greenhouse effect
trapping of heat in the atmosphere
true
true or false: The fossil record is biased toward preserving organisms with hard parts.
Physical and Chemical
two kinds of weathering
Law of Unconformities
unconformity surfaces represent gaps in the geologic record that formed when layers were not deposited for a time or layers were removed by erosion
where is heat flow the highest?
under the mid ocean ridges
Continental crust
underlies the continents. Average thickness 35-40 km less dense
Oceanic crust
underlies the ocean basins. average thickness 7-10 km more dense
isometric
unit cells are cubes with side lengths a=b=c corner angles of 90,90,and 90 degrees ex: dice, sugar cube
orthorhombic
unit cells are rectangular prisms with sides a,b,&c of unequal lengths corner angles of 90,90,90 degrees ex: a book, door, cardboard box
Aquiclude
units in which the flow of water is greatly prohibited
Aquitard
units in which there is little or no water flow
Aquafier
units or zones of rock under the surface that are able to hold and transport water
why are the boundaries between rock types not absolute boundaries?
unlike minerals it does not have specific compositions and internal structures, in many cases there is a continuous gradation from one rock type to the next or from one group to the next
metallic bond
valence electrons are free to migrate from one to another. The mobile valence electrons serve as the electrical glue.
caldera
volcanic depressions generally greater than 1 kn in diameter that form from collapse triggered by the removal of magma chambers below the caldera
crater
volcanic depressions generally less than 1 kn in diameter that form from explosive eruptions
Lahar
volcanic mudflow
Igneous Rock
volcanic or putonic
9-10
water expands ____% upon freezing - > 25,000 psi
artesian flow
water moving through a confined aquifer
potable
water that tastes agreeable and is not dangerous to human health
precipitation
water vapors condense into tiny droplets of water that form clouds and eventually fall as rain or snow
asthenosphere
weak sphere. is under the lithosphere is soft and weak
van der waals bonding
weakest, no transferring of electrons
Spheroidal weathering
weathering attacks a corner, face and edge on 2 sides
earth's surface
weathering, transport, deposition
continental fit, fossils, glaciers
what evidence do we have for plate movement
wind glaciers rivers
what following agents move sediment from one place to another?
putting events in order from first to last
what is the definition of relative dating?
Proton and Neutrons
what particles take place in the nucleus?
cooling and solidification of magma
what process forms igneous rocks?
Silicon and oxygen
what two elements are found in all silicate minerals?
Ground failure
what type of earthquake hazard causes landslides, liquefaction
outcrop
when a mass of crustal rock is exposed
outcrop
when a mass of crystal rock is exposed
liquefaction
when the ground becomes saturated with water, the planes of weakness within the solid material are lubrictaed, the friction between particles is lowered, and the particles or larger aggregates can move past one another more easily, so that the material may start ti flow like a fluid
What is seafloor spreading?
when the seafloor at the mid-oceanic ridge, moves horizontally away from the ridge axis toward the oceanic trench
when the amount of water flowing toward the well equals the amount of water being pumped out of the well
when will a cone of depression stop enlarging?
Angular Unconformity
where horizontally parallel strata of sedimentary rock are deposited on tilted and eroded layers, producing an angular discordance with the overlying horizontal layers
folded sedimentary layers were originally laid down flat and later deformed
which of the following describes the principle of original horizontality?
alpha particle emission, beta particle emission, electron capture
which of the following includes all common types of radioactive decay?
erosive surface
which of the following is a common feature that all unconformities exhibit?
younger sedimentary strata overlie uplifted and weathered igneous or metamorphic rocks
which of the following is an accurate description of a nonconformity?
a stream running across an irregular surface
which of the following is associated with an erosive surface
groundwater moves over large distances, over longer timescales
which of the following is true regarding groundwater as you move deeper below the surface?
sedimentary rocks
which of the following rock types is most abundant on earth's land surface?
more daughter products accumulate over time
which of the following statements regarding radioactive decay is true?
scallop
which organism from the video is the least useful for relative dating
granite
which rock is best suited for radiometric dating?
the rocks formed at great depth below the surface
while working in the field, you discover an outcrop of metamorphic rocks. What can you conclude from this observation?
continental margin
zone of transition between continent and ocean basin
Metamorphic rocks
• Formed by "changing" preexisting igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks • Driving forces are heat and pressure
Sedimentary rocks
• Sediments are derived from weathering of preexisting rocks • Sediments will lithify into sedimentary rocks • Accumulate in layers at Earth's surface
Melting is caused by:
◘Pressure release (mid ocean ridge) ◘Heat transfer (hotspot... mantle plume) ◘Volatile addition (island arc... subduction zone)