HD Ch 4.3

gender constancy

- (4-5 years old)- the realization that one will always be either a male or female. - The child often identifies with the same gender parent. - Is increasingly interested in appearance and function of own body and in the bodies of others.

child abuse and psychological maltreatment

- 5 children are killed daily by caretakers - 140,000 are physically injured - 3 million are abused or neglected annually in US

resilient infants (werner)

- Socially pleasant, outgoing, good communication skills - Relatively intelligent, independent

uninvolved parents

- Show no interest in their children - Display indifferent, rejecting behavior - Detached emotionally and see their role as feeding, clothing, and providing shelter.

permissive parents

- provide lax and inconsistent feedback - require little of their children - Place little or no limits on the child's behavior - Don't feel responsible for how the child turns out

Developing Initiative in Preschooler

- Encourage use of child's imagination, planning, and creativity - Limit punishment to acts that are truly dangerous or wrong - Reinforce appropriate behavior - Affirm emotional experiences and set aside time each day to review them - Help preschooler learn about different feelings and how to express and cope

Psychosocial Development According to Erikson's theory

- An 8 stage theory of psychosocial development, from infancy to old age - To pass through the stages, a conflict/crisis must be resolved at each stage - From age 3 to 6, children experience the INITIATIVE-VERSUS-GUILT STAGE- - children experience conflict between independence of action and the sometimes negative results of that action

The preschool years are marked by increased interactions with the world

- Around age 3, children begin to develop real friendships.  - Peers come to be seen as individuals with special qualities.  - Relationships are based on companionship, play, entertainment, and carrying out shared activities - Try to avoid and/or solve disagreements.

Effects of play on social and personality development

- Associative and cooperative play generally do not emerge until the end of the preschool years. - The nature of a child's play is influenced by their social experiences.  - According to Vygotsky, children are able to practice activities that are part of their particular culture and broaden their understanding of the world through pretend play. - Play becomes increasingly unrealistic and more imaginative during the preschool period - Pretend play increases (using a box as a radio) - Child may have an imaginary playmate (20%) - Cultural background also results in different styles of play.

How children grow with different parenting styles

- Authoritarian parents = withdrawn, socially awkward children - Permissive parents = dependent, moody children with low social skills - Uninvolved parents = emotionally detached, unloved, and insecure children - Authoritative parents = independent, friendly, self-assertive, and cooperative children

why does abuse occur?

- Children are more likely to be victimized when they are: - Fussy - Resistant to control - Slow to adapt to new situations - Overly anxious - Frequently wet bed - Developmentally delayed

moral and spiritual development

- Children learn by example - Children need simple explanations matched with daily practices to learn religion - Children need to learn about consequences of behavior on others. - Changes in children's views of what is ethically right and what is the right way to behave are an important element of growth during the preschool years.

children and television violence

- Children's television programs actually contain higher levels of violence (69%) than other types of programs (57%). - Research suggests that observation of televised aggression does lead to subsequent aggression.  - Studies have found that children's preferences for violent television shows at age 8 are related to the seriousness of criminal convictions by age 30. - Observation of media violence can lead to a greater readiness to act aggressively, bullying, and to an insensitivity to the suffering of victims of violence

Effects of play on children

- Develop and improve muscular strength, coordination, and balance - Gain mastery over their bodies - Acquire new skills - Release energy - Express imagination, creativity, and initiative - Imitate and try-out various roles - Cope with their emotions - Build self-esteem and develop a sense of identity - Have fun, express joy, and feel the pleasure of mastery - Receive cognitive stimulation - Learn to come to terms with some of their fears

empathy and moral behavior

- Empathy (the understanding of what another individual feels) lies at heart of some kinds of moral behavior - Roots of empathy grow early - Infants - Toddlers - Preschoolers - moral behavior = changes in our sense of justice and our understanding of behaviors related to what is right and wrong

authoritative parents

- Exert control and are demanding, but responsive to and accepting of the child. - Firm, setting clear and consistent limits, but try to reason with their children giving explanations for why they should behave in a particular way. - They are loving and emotionally supportive. - Balance between control, socialization, and individualization is maintained.

Warning Signs for Child Abuse

- Feelings of pain for unexplained reasons - Fear of adults or care providers - Inappropriate attire in warm weather - Extreme behavior - Fear of physical contact - Visible, serious injuries that have no reasonable explanation - Bite or choke marks - Burns from cigarettes or immersion in hot water - Dramatic changes or shifts in behavior without logical explanation warrant inquiry

disciplining children

- For most children in Western cultures, authoritative parenting works best - Spanking is never an appropriate discipline technique - Tailor parental discipline to the characteristics of the child and the situation - Use routines to avoid conflict

social learning perspective on gener

- Gender related behaviors and expectations learned from observing others - Books, media, television perpetuate gender related behavior and expectations  - One way gender is manifested is in play.

cognitive perspective on gender

- Gender schema or cognitive framework organizes relevant gender information - Preschoolers begin developing "rules" about what is right and what is inappropriate for males and females

Early childhood: Initiative versus Guilt stage

- Initiative - child desires to act independently of parents and become autonomous. - Guilt - sense of defeat, anger, and feeling shameful or deserving of punishment. - Guilt can come from excessive expectations, sibling rivalry, lack of opportunity, and lack of guidance. - Parents stifle initiative by doing things for the child or by frequently asking "Why didn't you do it better?" - Conflict occurs between the desire to become more independent and autonomous and the guilt that may occur if they don't succeed.

aggression

- Intentional injury or harm to another person - Aggression in early preschool years: - Often aimed at attaining desired goal - Declines through preschool years as does frequency and average length of episodes as children become more able to regulate their emotions and to use language to negotiate disputes. - Extreme and sustained aggression is cause of concern

psychological maltreatment

- Not all abuse is physical! - Psychological maltreatment - Occurs when parents or other caretakers harm children's behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or physical functioning - May take form of neglect in which parents may ignore or act emotionally unresponsive - Not as easily identified without outward physical signs

Learning to Play, Playing to Learn

- Play is critical to the overall development of young children - Becomes more sophisticated, interactive, cooperative over time - Gradually more dependent on social and cognitive skills

emotional self-regulation

- Preschool children improve in emotional control - Around age 2: - Talk about feelings and engage in regulation strategies - Preschoolers: - Develop strategies and social skills and learn to better cope with negative emotions - Learn to use language to express wishes - Become increasingly able to negotiate with others

Initiative-versus-guilt stage

- Preschoolers with supportive parents become independent & autonomous. - Preschoolers with restrictive, overprotective parents may feel shame & self-doubt. - The foundational concept of this stage is that children become aware that they are people too. They begin to make decisions and shape the kind of person they are to become.

Increasing Moral Behavior and Reducing Aggression in Preschool-Age Children

- Provide opportunities to observe others acting in a cooperative, helpful, prosocial manner - Do not ignore aggressive behavior - Monitor preschoolers' television viewing, particularly the violence that they view

What are consequences of psychological maltreatment?

- Some children survive and grow into psychologically healthy adults - Others suffer long-term damage - Low self-esteem, depression, suicide - Lying - Misbehavior - Underachievement in school - Criminal behavior - Book: A Child Called "It"

play in the preschool years: functional play

- Three-year-olds typically engage - involves simple, repetitive activities... that is, doing something for the sake of being active (playing with dolls, skipping, jumping rope, etc).

Abuse vs discipline

- Vague distinction between acceptable and unacceptable forms of physical discipline - Line between "spanking" and "beating" is not clear - Spankings can begin in anger and can escalate into abuse - Stepfathers are more likely to abuse stepchildren - Unrealistic expectations

Effective parenting: teaching desired behavior

- authoritarian: controlling, rigid, cold style, strict, unquestioning obedience - authoritative: set firm, clear, consistent limits - allow disagreement and use reasoning, explanations, consequences - supportive parenting - uninvolved: uninvolved in children's lives, set few limits - permissive: involved with children, place little or no limits or control on children's behavior

gender roles

- behaviors, interests, attitudes, skills and personality traits considered appropriate for males or females. - varies by culture

authoritarian parents

- demanding, impose many rules, expect instant obedience, and do not give reasons for rules. - no consideration of the child's point of view.  - Physical punishment often used to gain compliance.

social learning approaches to morality

- focus on how environment produces prosocial behavior - moral conduct learned through reinforcement and modeling

stressful environments increase likelihood for abuse

- poverty - single-parent homes - high levels of marital discord - substance abuse

self-concept

- term used for a person's set of beliefs about what he/she is like as an individual. - Skills are usually over-estimated in preschool children and not necessarily accurate. - Examples: "I'm a good runner" or "I'm a big girl"

resilience

Ability to overcome circumstances that place child at high risk for psychological and/or physical damage

play in the preschool years: constructive play

By age 4, children typically engage - involves manipulating objects to produce or build something (legos, puzzles, etc.) - allows children to: - test developing cognitive skills - practice motor skills - problem solve - learn to cooperate

resilient children

Exhibit ability to overcome circumstances that place child at high risk for psychological and/or physical functioning

associative play

Two or more children interact with one another by sharing or borrowing toys or materials, although they do not do the same thing.

cycle-of-violence hypothesis

argues that the abuse and neglect children suffer predisposes them to be abusive as adults

cooperative play

children genuinely play with one another, taking turns, playing games, or devising contests.

parallel play

children play with similar toys, in a similar manner, but do not interact with one another. (Most common in toddlers)

gender identity

the sense of being male or female, is well established in young children - 2 years old.