HDFS201 Chapters 9, 10, 11

Infants' Social Sophistication and Insight

Infants are more socially sophisticated and insightful at younger ages than was previously envisioned. Such sophistication and insight are reflected in infants' perceptions of others' actions as intentionally motivated and goal-directed, their motivation to share and participate in that intentionality, and their increase in emotional understand and communication by their first birthday.

Extraversion

-sociable or retiring -fun-loving or somber -affectionate or reserved

crying

babies cry even at birth. Crying can signal distress, but different types of cries signal different things

Cooing

babies first coo at about 2 to 4 months. These gurgling sounds that are made in the back of the throat usually express pleasure during interaction with the caregiver

Conceptualizing the self and personality

-social learning theorists reject the notion of universal stages of personality development, question the existence of enduring personality traits, and emphasize that people change if their environments change -from the social-learning perspective, personality is a set of behavioral tendencies shaped by interactions with other people in specific social situations

Agreeableness

-softhearted or ruthless -trusting or suspicious -helpful or uncooperative

semantics

Refers to the meaning of words and sentences Every word has a set of semantic features, which are required attributes related to meaning.

self-concept

domain specific evaluations of the self. Individuals can make self-evaluations in many domains of their lives—academic, athletic, appearance, and so on.

Chess and Thomas' Classification of Temperament

easy child, difficult child, slow to warm up child o In their longitudinal investigation, they found that 40 percent of the children they studied could be classified as easy, 10 percent as difficult and 15 percent as slow to warm up. 35 percent did not fit any of the three patterns o Young children with a difficult temperament showed more problems when they experienced low-quality child care and fewer problems when they experienced high-quality child car than did young children with an easy temperament.

Trait approach criticism

gives too little attention to environmental factors and puts too much emphasis on stability.

Self-esteem

global evaluations of the self. Also referred to as self-worth, or self-image.

Effortful control (self-regulation)

includes attentional focusing and shifting, inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity, and low-intensity pleasure. • Infants who are igh on effortful control show an ability to keep their arousal from getting too high and have strategies for soothing themselves. • Children low on effortful control are often unable to control their arousal; they become easily agitated and intensely emotional

Negative affectivity

includes fear, frustration, sadness and discomfort. These children are easily distressed; they may fret and cry often. Kagan's inhibited children fit this category

Extraversion/surgency

includes positive anticipation, impulsivity, activity level, and sensation seeking. Kagan's uninhibited children fit into this category

Developmental cascade model in attachment

involves connections across domains over time that influence developmental pathways and outcomes. • Can include connections between a wide range of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes, and also can involve social contexts such as families, peers, schools, and culture.

Temperament

involves individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding. With regard to its link to emotion, temperament refers to individual differences in how quickly the emotion is show, how strong it is, how long it lasts, and how soon it fades away.

syntax

involves the way words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences.

Easy child

is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and adapts easily to new experiences

Rothbart and Bates Classification of Temperament

o Argue that three broad dimensions best represent what researchers have found to characterize the structure of temperament o The description of temperament categories so far reflects he development of normative capabilities of children, not individual differences in children. Extraversion/surgency, negative affectivity, effortful control (self-regulation)

Biological Influences of Temperament

o Physiological characteristics have been linked with difference temperaments. o An inhibited temperament is associated with a unique physiological pattern that includes high and stable heart rate, high level of hormone cortisol, and high activity in the right frontal lobe of the brain. o Twin and adoption studies suggest that heredity has a moderate influence on differences in temperament within a group of people o Temperament dimensions develop and change with the growth of the neurobiological foundations of self-regulation

Identity statuses

o It involves four statuses of identity, or ways of resolving the identity crisis: identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, and identity achievement. -MARCIA

The stage-crisis view on adult personality development

o Levinson's Seasons of a Man's Life o Midlife Crises o Individual Variations

Chomsky's Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

o Linguist Noam Chomskey proposed that humans are biologically prewired to learn language at a certain time and in a certain way. o Children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD) A biological endowment that enables the child to detect certain features and rules of language, including phonology, syntax, and semantics Children are endowed by nature with the ability to detect the sounds of language o Theoretical construct, not a physical part of the brain

Identity and Peer/romantic relationships

o Linked to the quality of friendships and romantic relationships o Friends are a safe context for exploring identity-related experiences, providing sort of a testing ground for how self-disclosing comments are viewed by others o The extent of two individuals in a relationships secure attachment with each other can influence how each partner constructs his or her own identity

Infancy: vocalizations

o Long before infants speak recognizable words, they produce a number of vocalizations. The function of these early vocalizations are to practice making sounds, to communicate, and to attract attention crying, cooing, babbling

Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love

o Love has three main components—passion, intimacy, and commitment o Passion: physical and sexual attraction to another o Intimacy: emotional feelings of warmth, closeness, and sharng in a relationship o Commitment: our cognitive appraisal of the relationship and our intent to maintain the relationship even in the face of problems o Infactuation= passion only o Affectionate love= intimacy and commitment, lacking passion o Passion and commitment, no intimacy= factuous love, when one person worships another from a distance o Passion, intimacy, and commitment are all strong= consummate love, the fullest type of love

Stability and Change: Berkeley longitudinal studies

o Most longitudinal studies indicate that neither extreme stability nor extreme change characterizes most people's personality as they go through the adult years.

Adulthood development and aging positive and Negative Emotions

o Older adults experience more positive emotions than negative emotion that younger adults o Older adults react less strongly to negative circumstances than younger adults o Aging is linked to more positive overall well-being and greater emotional stability. o Happier people live longer

family influences: individuality

o Parents are important figures in the adolescent's development of identity.

Identity and social contexts: family influences

o Parents are important figures in the adolescent's development of identity. -individuality -connectedness

Romantic love

o Passionate love or eros: it has strong components of sexuality and infatuation, and it often predominates in the early part of a love relationship o Intermingling of emotions

Conclusions of Stability vs. Change studies

o People show more stability in their personality when they reach midlife than when they were younger adults o Cumulative personality model of personality development: with time and age people become more adept at interacting with their environment in ways the promote increased stability in personality.

Erikson's view of attachment

o Physical comfort also plays a role in ____'s view of the infant's development Physical comfort and sensitive care are key to establishing a basic trust in infants. The infants sense of trust is the foundation for attachment and sets the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and pleasant place to be

Developmental Context in temperament

o Physiological and hereditary factors likely are involved in continuity. o Links between temperament in childhood and personality in adulthood also might vary, depending on the contexts in individuals' experience o Many aspects of a child's environment can encourage or discourage the persistence of temperament characteristics.

Emotion-coaching approach

parents monitor their children's emotions, view their children's negative emotions as opportunities for teaching, assist them in labeling emotions, and coach them in how to deal effectively with emotions. Interact with their children in a less rejecting manner, use more scaffolding and praise, and are most nurturing Children are better at soothing themselves when they get upset, are more effective in regulating their negative affect, focus their attention better, and have fewer behavior problems Fathers emotion coaching is related to children's social competence

Emotion-dismissing approach

parents view their role as to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions. Linked with poor emotional regulation.

Commitment

personal investment in identity

Harlow's view of attachment

removed infant monkeys from their mothers at birth; for xi months they were reared by surrogate "mothers". One made of wire, the other made of cloth. Study demonstrated that feeding is not the crucial element in the attachment process and that contact comfort is important

Narrative identity

stories people construct and tell about themselves to define who they are.

Infinite generativity

the ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules.

Pragmatics

the appropriate use of language in different context When you use polite language in appropriate situations Pragmatic rules can be complex and differ from one culture to another

Self-understanding

the cognitive representation of the self, the substance of self-conceptions. o Ex: an 11 year old boy understands that he is a student, a boy, a football player, a family member, a video game lover and a rock music fan. o Self-understanding is based, in part, on roles and membership categories. o Provides the underpinnings for the development of identity

Personality

the enduring personal characteristics of individuals. is usually viewed as the broadest of the three domains and as encompassing self and identity

Difficult chld

reacts negatively and cries frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept change

phonology

the sound system of the language, including the sounds that are used and how they may be combined Ex. English has the initial consonant cluster spr as in spring, but not words begin with the cluster rsp Provides a basis for constructing a large and expandable set of words out of two or three dozen phonemes Phoneme: basic unit of sound in a language; smallest unit of sound that affects meaning

identity foreclosure

the status of individuals who have made a commitment but have not experienced a crisis. • When parents hand down commitments to their adolescents before adolescents have had a chance to explore different approaches, ideologies, and vocation on their own

Identity diffusion

the status of individuals who have not yet experienced a crisis or made any commitments. • Undecided about occupational and ideological choices and show little interest

Underextension

the tendency to apply a word too narrowly; when children fail to use a word to name a relevant event or object.

identity

who a person is, represtenting a synthesis and integration of self-understanding

Identity is complex

• More than occupational commitment o Ethnic identity o Values, religious, political o Relational styles, romantic, gender roles • All aspects of the "type" of person I am and who I may become • Includes ideal self and possible selves, in both positive and negative ways o Ideal self: the "ideal" of who you would be and what you would do with no limitations

Insecure resistant children

• Often cling to the caregiver and then resist her by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by kicking or pushing away • Cling anxiously and don't explore the play room and cry loudly when she leaves and pushes her away on her return

Erikson's Theory

• Psychoanalytic training • In comparison to Freud's theory: o Less focus on unconscious and sexual o More emphasis on conscious and rational • EPIGENETIC PRINCIPLE o Physiological Maturation (nature) o Social Structures/Demands (nurture) o As you mature you get placed in a social structure where you have the support you need for the demands you have • A Stage theory

Adolescent self-understanding: The fluctuating self

• Self-understanding fluctuates across situations and across time. • Characterized by instability until the adolescent constructs a more unified theory of self, usually not until late adolescence of even early adulthood

Insecure avoidant children

• Show insecurity by avoiding the mother • Engage in little interaction with the caregiver are not distressed when she leaves the room, usually do n

Emotional Competence

• Skills: o Having awareness of one's emotional states o Detecting others' emotions o Using the vocabulary of emotion terms in socially and culturally appropriate ways o Having empathic and sympathetic sensitivity to others' emotional experiences o Recognizing that inner emotional states do not have to correspond to outer expressions o Adaptively coping with negative emotions by using self-regulatory strategies that reduce the intensity or duration of such emotional states o Having awareness that the expression of emotions plays a major role in relationships o Viewing oneself overall as feeling the way one wants to feel • As children acquire these emotional competence skills in a variety of contexts, they are more likely to effectively manage their emotions, become resilient in the face of stressful circumstances, and develop more positive relationships

Self-regulation in adolescence

Advances in cognitive skills (logical thinking, for ex.) increased introspection, and the greater independence might lead to increased self-control. Advances in cognitive abilities provide them with a better understanding of the importance of delaying gratification in exchange for something desirable (such as a good grade in class) rather than seeking immediate gratification (listening to music rather than studying) An increased sense of invincibility (which can lead to risk taking) and social comparison might produce less self-control

evaluating the strange situation

As a measure of attachment, it may be culturally biased Critics stress the behavior in the strange situation might not indicate what infants would od in a natural environment

Infancy and Childhood: Locomotion

As infants develop the ability to crawl, walk, and run, they are able to explore and expand their social world. Allow infant to independently initiate social interchanges on a more frequent basis. Push for independence also is likely paced by the development of locomotion skills Locomotion is also important for its motivational implications

Early childhood self-understanding: understanding others

At age 4 to 5 children not only start describing themselves in terms of psychological traits, but they also begin to perceive others in terms of psychological traits. "My teacher is nice" 4 years olds realize that people may make statements that aren't true to obtain what they want or to avoid trouble Children are not as egocentric as Piaget envisioned Ongoing debate about whether young children are socially sensitive or basically egocentric. Social interactions and relationships with others contribute significantly to young children's development of the self and understanding of others

Attachment in Middle and Late Childhood

Attachment becomes more sophisticated and as children's social worlds expand to include peers, teachers, and others, they typically spend less time with parents Secure attachment is associated with a lower level of internalized symptoms, anxiety, and depression in children

Smiling

Critical as a means of developing anew social skill and is a key social signal. Reflexive smile: a smile that does not occur in response to external stimuli and appears during the first month after birth, usually during sleep. Social smile: a smile that occurs in response to an external stimulus, typically a face in the case of the young infants • Occurs as early as 4 to 6 weeks of age in response to a caregiver's voice • Can have a powerful impact on caregivers, efforts are rewarded 2 t o6 months, infants' social smiling increases considerably, both in self-initiated smiles and in smiles in response to others' smiles 6 to 12 months, smiles that couple what is called the Duchenne maker (eye constriction) and mouth opening occur in the midst of highly enjoyable interactions and play with parents. 2nd year: smiling continues to occur in such positive circumstances with parents, and in many cases an increase in smiling occurs when interacting with peers. Toddlers become increasingly aware of the social meaning of smiles, especially in their relationship with parents

Adolescent understanding others

Develop a more sophisticated understanding of others. They come to understand that other people are complex and have public and private faces 6th through 8th grade, girls engaged in more social perspective taking than did boys and they also experienced more empathic distress than boys did. A lower level of perspective taking was linked to increased relational aggression on year later in middle school students They monitor their social world more extensively than they did when they were children Engage in a number of social cognitive monitoring activities on virtually a daily basis

stage-crisis view: Levinson's Seasons of a Man's Life:

Emphasized that developmental tasks must be mastered at each of these stages In early adulthood you have to master exploring the possibilities for adult living and developing a stable life structure. 20s as a novice phase of adult development • Time of reasonably free experimentation and of testing the dream in the real world At the end of teens, a transition from dependence to independence should occur. 28 to 33: transition period in which he must face the more serious question of determining his goals. 30s: focuses on family and career development 40, reached a stable location in his career Four major conflicts: • Being young vs. being old • Being destructive vs. being constructive • Being masculine vs. being feminine • Being attached to others vs. being separated from them.

Adolescence Attachment: types of dating and developmental changes

Entry into romantic attractions and affiliations at about 11 to 13 years old Exploring romantic relationships at approximately 14 to 16 years old Consolidating dyadic romantic bonds at about 17 to 19 years old

Middle and Late childhood self-understanding

Five key changes characterize the increased complexity in self-understanding • Psychological characteristics and traits • Social descriptions • Social comparison • Real self and ideal self • Realistic

Infancy and Childhood attachment: social orientation

From early in their development, infants are captivated by their social world Face-to-face play often beings to characterize caregiver-infant interactions when the infant is about 2 to 3 months. • The focused social interaction may include vocalizations, touch, and gestures. • Such play results in part from many mothers' motivation to create a positive emotional state in their infants. By 2 to 3 moths, infants respond differently to people and objects, showing more positive emotion to people than to inanimate objects such as puppets. Still-face paradigm: method in which the caregiver alternates between engaging in face-to-face interaction with the infant and remaining still and unresponsive.

Adulthood self-awareness

How much a young adult is aware of his or her psychological makeup, including strengths and weaknesses. Awareness of strengths and weaknesses in th3ese and many other aspects of life is an important dimension of self-understanding throughout the adult years.

Strategies for increasing self-esteem

Identify the causes of low self-esteem and the domains of competence important to the self Provide emotional support and opportunities for social approval Take responsibility for one's own self-esteem Achieve goals Develop effective coping strategies

stage-crisis view: Midlife Crises

Levinson views midlife as a crisis, believing that the middle-aged adult is suspended between the past and the future, trying to cope with this gap that threatens life's continuity. George Vaillant concludes that just as adolescence is a time for detecting parental flaw and discovering the truth about childhood, the forties are a decade of reassessing and recording the truth about the adolescent and adulthood years. Vaillant study: grant study: only some experience a midlife crisis The stage theories place too much emphasis on crises in development, especially midlife crises; there often is considerable individual variation in the way people experience the stages

Adolescence Attachment: Dating and Adjustment

Linked dating and romantic relationships with various measures of how well-adjusted adolescents are Romantic relationships reported higher levels of social acceptance, friendships competence, and romantic competence but also higher level of substance use, delinquency, and sexual behavior.

Caregiving styles and attachment

Maternal sensitivity is linked to the development of secure attachment in infancy, however it is important to note that the relation is not especially strong Caregivers of avoidant babies tend to be unavailable or rejecting • Often don't respond to babies signals and have little physical contact with them • When they do interact, they may behave in an angry and irritable way Caregivers of resistant babies tend to be inconsistent; sometimes they respond to their babies; need, and sometimes they don't • They tend not to be very affectionate with their babies and show little synchrony when interacting with them Caregivers of disorganized babies often neglect of physically abuse them • Caregivers are depressed • Interactions with infants influence whether infants are securely or insecurely attached to the caregiver

Crying

Most important mechanism newborns have for communicating with their world. Basic cry: a rhythmic pattern that usually consists of a cry, followed by a briefer silence, then a shorter inspiratory whistle that is somewhat higher in pitch than the main cry, then another brief rest before the next cry • Some infancy experts stress that hunger is one of the conditions that incite the basic cry Anger cry: A variation of the basic cry in which more excess air is forced through the vocal chords. The anger cry has a loud, harsh sound to it, almost like shouting. Pain cry: a sudden long, initial loud cry followed by breath holding; no preliminary moaning is present • Stimulated by a high intensity stimulus

Attachment from early to late adulthood

Older adults have fewer attachment relationships than younger adults With increasing age, attachment anxiety descreases In late adulthood, attachment security is associated with psychological and physical well-being Insecure attachment is linked to more perceived negative caregiver burden in caring for patients with Alzheimer disease

Fear

One of a baby's earliest emotions is fear, which typically occurs at about 6 months of age and peaks at about 18 months. • Abused and neglected children show fear at about 3 months Stranger anxiety Separation protest:

Child Care

Parental Leave • Europe mandated a paid 14 week maternity leave • US currently allows 12 weeks of unpaid leave to care for a newborn • Denmark: unemployed mothers are eligible for extended parental leave related to childbirth • Sweden: parents can take an 18 month job protected parental leave with benefits that can be shared by parents and applied to full time or part time work Variations in Child Care • Child care in US has become a major national concern • Influencing factors: age of child, type of child care, and quality of the program • 15 percent of children 5 years and younger attend more than one child care arrangement • Increase in child care arrangements linked to an increase in behavioral problems and a decr

Infancy and Childhood: Intention, Goal Directed Behavior, and Cooperation

Perceiving people as engaging in intentional and goal-directed behavior is an important social cognitive accomplishment that initially occurs toward the end of the first year Joint attention and gaze following help the infant to understand that other people have intentions

Middle and Late childhood understanding others

Perspective taking • Thought to be important in whether children develop prosocial or antisocial attitudes and behavior. • Taking another's perspective improves children's likelihood of understanding and sympathizing with others when they are distressed or in need. • Children who make gains in perspective-taking skills reduced their emotional reactivity over a two-year period Executive functioning is a work in perspective taking through cognition inhibition (controlling one's own thoughts to consider the perspective of others) and cognitive flexibility (seeing situations in different ways). Children become more skeptical of others' claims.

Adulthood life review

Prominent in Erikson's final stage of psychosocial development, which is integrity vs. despair. Involves looking back at one's life experiences, evaluating them, interpreting them, and often reinterpreting them. Reminiscence therapy with older clients, which involves discussing past activities and experiences with another individual or group

Linking Infant Attachment to Adult Attachment

Romantic partners fulfill some of the same needs for adults as parents do for their children Adults may count on their romantic partners to be a secure base to which they can return and obtain comfort and security in stressful times

Adulthood Self-esteem

Self-esteem dropped in late adulthood Some adults don't interpret their losses as negative Older adults have higher self-esteem when they have a youthful identity and more positive personal experiences. Higher self-esteem more likely to be characterized by successful aging factors

stage-crisis view: Individual Variations

Stage theories focus on the universals of adult personality development and do not adequately address individual variations.

Selective optimization with compensation theory

Successful aging is linked with three main factors: selection, optimization, and compensation (SOC) Individuals can produce new resources and allocate them effectively to tasks they want to master. Selection is based on the concept that older adults have a reduced capacity and a loss of functioning, which require a reduction in performance in most life domains such as memory and physical skills Optimization suggests that it is possible to maintain performance in some areas through continued practice and the use of new technologies Compensation becomes relevant when life tasks require a level of capacity beyond the current level of the older adult's performance potential. Older adults especially need to compensate in circumstances that impose high mental or physical demands, such as when thinking about and memorizing new material very rapidly, reacting quickly when driving a car, or running fast. When older adults develop an illness, the need for compensation increases. Paul Bates SOC makes it explicit how individuals can manage and adapt to losses. Meaningful goals

Social Neuroscience and Attachment

The prefrontal cortex likely has an important role in maternal attachment behavior, as do the subcortical regions of the mother's amygdala and they hypothalamus. Importance of two neuropeptide hormones—oxytocin and vasopressin—in the formation of the maternal-infant blood Oxytocin is especially thought to be a likely candidate in the formation of infant-mother attachment Activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the nucleus accumbens motivates the mother to care for her baby Number of brain regions, neurotransmitters, and hormones are involved in the development of infant-mother attachment

Infancy and Childhood: Social Referencing

The term used to describe "reading" emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a specific situation. The development of social referencing helps infants to interpret ambiguous situations more accurately, as when they encounter a stranger and need to know whether or not to fear the person. Infants become better at social referencing in the second year of life. At this age, they tend to "check" with their mother before they act; they look at her to see if she is happy, angry, or fearful

Adolescence Attachment: Sociocultural Contexts and Dating

Values and religious beliefs of various cultures often dictate the age at which dating begins, how much freedom in dating is allowed, whether dates must be chaperoned by adults or parents, and the roles of males and females in dating Dating may be a source of cultural conflict for many adolescents

adulthood possible selves

What individuals might become, what they would like to become, and what they are afraid of becoming. As individuals get older, they often describe fewer possible selves and portray them in more concrete and realistic ways. Adults continue to revise their possible selves as they go through the adult years.

Childhood and Adolescence self-esteem

Young children provide inflated views of themselves, but by 8 years old most children give more realistic appraisals of their skills. Adolescents in general have long been described as having low self-esteem however, a majority of adolescence actually have a positive self-image. Gender differences in self-esteem emerge by early adolescence

Mothers and Fathers as Caregivers

stay at home fathers reported they tended to be ostracized when they took their children to playgrounds and were excluded from parent groups fathers have the ability to care for their infants as sensitively and responsively as mothers do. Infants who showed a higher level of externalizing, disruptive problems at one years old had fathers who displayed a low level of engagement at 3 months old.

Disorganized Attachment

-Behaves in contradictory ways (approach/avoidance), combining the resistant and avoidant attachment styles -apparent confusion -15% of North American Babies (more in high-risk families)

Securely Attached

-Hallmark: mom as a secure base for exploration -wants to contact quickly in reunion -quickly greets -warmly greets -quickly recovers from distress of separation -miss mother rather than fear strangers -play long: more innovative and curious -65% of all North American Kids -Only 9% of extremely pathological boys had ____ attachments

Avoidant Attachment

-Ignores the mom a lot -Doesn't use mom as a secure base for exploration -Little distress when mom leaves the room -Ignoring mom upon return -Easily comforted by strangers -Dependent on teacher -12-20% of North American Samples -In retrospective studies, about 24% of psychopathological boys had ______ attachments with their mothers

Eras of Life: Levinson

-Preadulthood: birth to 22 -Early adulthood: 17 to 45 -Middle adulthood: 40 to 65 -Late Adulthood: 60 to 85 -Late-late adulthood: 80+

Levinson's Theory of Life Course Development

-Primary sample 40 men -35-40 years old -each man seen 5-10 times over a period of 10-20 months -total of 10-20 hours of interview -Follow up 2 years later -100 additional men studied through autobiography -Lookin for universal sequences underlying unique, individual differences -identified 5 eras of life -primary task of each era is to build a life structure

Resistant Attachment

-Seems anxious or distressed even when mother there -Seeks contact then shows anger -Mixture of approach and avoidance -Either very angry or passive during separation -10% of North American Children -67% of all extremely psychopathological boys had ______ attachments with their mothers -in longitudinal, prospective studies 40% of all axiously attached kids end up manifesting some type of psychopathology

Components of the life structure: levinson

-Sociocultural world and historical events -participation in the world: roles and life events -Aspects of the self: personality and abilities

The Criteria of Emotional Maturity (Menninger)

-The ability to deal constructively with reality -the capacity to adapt to change -a relative freedom from symptoms that are produced by tensions and anxieties -the capacity to find more satisfaction in giving than receiving -the capacity to relate to other people in a consistent manner with mutual satisfaction and helpfulness -the capacity to sublimate, to direct one's instinctive hostile energy into creative and constructive outlets -the capacity to love

Neuroticism (emotional stability)

-calm or anxioius -secure or insecure -self-satisfied or self-pitying

Factors influencing stability and change in personality

-heredity (genetic predispositions) -lasting effects of early experience -environmental stability/change -Gene-environment correlations -biological factors (ex. disease) -Person/environment fit

Personality: Contemporary life events approach

-how life events influence an individual's development depends on the event, as well as mediating factors, the individual's adaptation to the event, life-stage context, and sociohistorical context -drawbacks: -too much emphasis on change, not enough on stability - daily experience may be primary sources of stress, not major life events

Openness

-imaginative or practical -interested in variety or routine -independent or conforming

Developmental Changes: Levinson

-once a construct of life structure, remain stable for a period of 6-8 years -transition periods last 4-5 years -transition periods: terminate existing life structure and initiate a new one. Includes reappraisal, exploration, crucial choices

Conscientiousness

-organized or disorganized -careful or careless -disciplined or impulsive

Levinson's Unique Contributions

-overlapping stages with stability/change cycles -comprehensiveness of "life structures" -Extensiveness of qualitative data

Crisis or change

-percentages of men experiencing mid-life crises: depends on definitions of crisis -levinson says 80% of middle aged men experience "a period of intense inner struggles and disturbing realizations" -most prevalent change: androgyny -"after changes upon changes we are more of less the same"

Issues in Mid-life research

-the "frontier" -Research base is only 30 or so years old... -scientific knowledge very limited -cohort effects -mid-life crisis for men at 45: focus on family -mid-life crisis fro women at 35: achievement -main questions surround stability vs. change -evidence for both

Overextension

: is the tendency to apply a word to objects that are inappropriate for the word's meaning

Stability

Beyond age 30, stability in the "BIG FIVE" -continuing adjustments into the 50s and 60s -multiply determined

Psychosocial moratorium

Erikson's term for the gap between childhood security and adult autonomy. o Society leaves adolescents relatively free of responsibilities, which allows them to try out different identities o Experimentation to figure out where they fit into the world

babbling

In the middle of the first year, babies babble—produce strings of consonant-vowel combinations, such as ba, ba, ba ,ba.

Strange Situation

Mary Ainsworth an observational measure of infant attachment in which the infant experiences a series of introductions, separations, and reunions with the caregiver and an adult stranger in prescribed order. Securely Attached children Insecure avoidant children Insecure resistant children Insecure disorganized children

Personality big five

Openness Conscientiousness extraversion agreeableness neuroticism (emotional stability)

attachment

a close emotional bond between two people

Language

a form of communication—whether spoken, written, or signed—that is based on a system of symbols. o Consists of the words used by a community and the rules for carrying and combining them o All human languages have some common characteristics o Rules describe the way language works

Crisis

a period of identity development during which the individual explore alternatives (exploration)

Narrative approach

asking individuals to tell their life sotires and then evaluating the extent to which their stories are meaningful and integrated.

trait situation interaction

both traits and situational (context) factors must be considered to understand personality.

the self

consists of all of the characteristics of a person

Stranger protest

crying when the caregiver leaves • Initially displayed by infants at approximately 7 to 8 months and peaks at about 15 months.

The contemporary life-events approach

emphasizes that how life events influence the individual's development depends not only on the event but also on the mediating factors (physical health and family support, ex.), the individual's adaptation to the life event (appraisal of the threat and coping strategies, ex.), life-stage context, and the sociohistorical context.

Emotion

feelings, or affect, that occurs when a person is in a state or an interaction that is important to him or her, especially to his or her well-being. • Infancy emotions have important roles in communication with others and behavioral organization. o Communicate joy, sadness, interest, and fear o Behavioral organization: emotions influence infants' social responses and adaptive behavior as they interact with others in their world. • Positive emotions: enthusiasm, joy and love • Negative emotions: anxiety, anger, guilt, and sadness • Emotions are influenced by both biological foundations and a person's experience. o Certain regions of the brain the develop early in life (such as the brain stem, hippocampus, and amygdala) play a role in distress, excitement, and rage Infants can display these emotions o Ability to regulate emotions is linked to the gradual maturation of the frontal regions of the cerebral cortex that can exert control over other areas of the brain • Social relationships provide the setting for the development of a rich variety of emotions. • Biological evolution has endowed human beings to be emotional, but culture and relationships with others provide diversity in emotional experiences.

Early childhood self-understanding

five main characteristics of self-understanding -confusion of self, mind, and body -concrete descriptions -physical descriptions -active descriptions -unrealistic positive overestimations -understanding others Young children's self-descriptions are typically unrealistically positive. Tend to confuse ability and effort, don't engage in spontaneous social comparison of their abilities with others, and tend to compare their present abilities with what they could do at an earlier age.

Slow to warm up child

has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood

Adulthood Avoidant attachment

individuals are hesitant about getting involved in romantic relationships and once in a relationship tend to distance themselves from their partner

Identity moratorium

individuals who are in the midst of a crisis but whose commitments are either absent or only vaguely defined

Identity achievement

individuals who have undergone a crisis and have made a commitment

Freud's view of attachment

infants become attached to the person or object that provides oral satisfaction.

Stranger anxiety

most frequent expression of fear in which an infant shows a fear and wariness of strangers • Usually emerges gradually • 6 months: wary reactions • 9 months: the fear of strangers is often more intense, reaching a peak towards the end of the first year of life. • Whether an infant shows stranger anxiety also depends on the social context and the characteristics of the stranger o Show less stranger anxiety when they are in a familiar setting

Kagan's Behavioral Inhibition Classifying temperament

o Another way of classifying temperament focuses on the differences between a shy, subdued, timid child and a sociable, extraverted, bold child. o Regards shyness with strangers as one feature of a broad temperament category called inhibition to the unfamiliar 7 to 9 month, inhibited children react to many aspects of unfamiliarity with initial avoidance, distress, or subdued affect. Shows some continuity from infancy through early childhood.

Middle and Late childhood self-understanding: psychological characteristics and traits

o 8 to 11 years old, children increasingly describe themselves in terms of psychological characteristics and trains, in contrast with the more concrete self-descriptions of younger children o "popular, nice, helpful, mean, smart, dumb"

Issues in Self-Esteem

o Adolescents with low self-esteem had lower life satisfaction at 30 years of age. o Low self-esteem also has been implicated in being overweight or obese, having levels of anxiety, engaging in acts of delinquency, and attempting suicide. o Self esteem is strongly related to happiness o Self-esteem is related to perceived physical appearance o Low self-esteem is related to depression o All studies are correlational rather than experimental: correlation does not equal causation.

Middle and Late Childhood Coping with Stress

o As children get older, they are able to more accurately appraise a stressful situation and determine how much control they have over it o Older children generate more coping alternatives to stressful conditions and make greater use of cognitive coping strategies. o Older children are also better at reframing or changing their perception of a stressful situation o Disasters and trauma can especially harm children's development and produce adjustment problems. Dose-response effects: the more severe the disaster/trauma (dose), the worse the adaptation and adjustment (response) following the disaster/trauma o Recommendations for helping children cope with stress of especially devastating events Reassure children of their safety and security Allow children to retell events and be patient in listening to them Encourage children to talk about any disturbing or confusing feelings Help children make sense of what happened Protect children from re-exposure to frightening situations and reminders of the trauma

What is Attachment?

o Attachment emerges from the social cognitive advances that allow infants to develop expectations for the caregiver's behavior and to determine the affective quality of their relationship Caregivers face, voice, and other features, as well as developing an internal working model of expecting the caregiver to provide pleasure in social interaction and relief from distress

Two-Word utterances

o By the time children are 18 to 24 months of age, they usually vocalize two-word utterances. o Relies heavily on gesture, tone, and context o Example: Identification: "See doggie" o Telegraphic speech: the use of short and precise words without grammatical markers such as articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives Not limited to two words "Mommy give ice cream"

Falling out of Love

o Can lead to depression, obsessive thoughts, sexual dysfunction, inability to work effectively, difficulty in making new friends, and self-condemnation

Childhood advances in pragmatics

o Changes in pragmatics also characterize young kid's language development o Young children begin to engage in extended discourse. o They're developing linguistic skills and increasing ability to take the perspective of others contribute to their generation of more competent narratives

Middle and Late childhood self-understanding: Real self and ideal self

o Children begin to distinguish between their real and ideal selves o This change involves differentiating their actual competencies from those they aspire to have and think are the most important

Middle and Late childhood self-understanding: Social descriptions

o Children begin to include social aspects such as references to social groups in their self-descriptions. o Describe herself as a Girl Scout

Middle and Late childhood self-understanding: Realistic

o Children's self-evaluations become more realistic o This change may occur because of increased social comparison and perspective taking

Middle and Late Childhood writing

o Children's writing emerges out of their early scribbles, 2/3 years old o Most 4 year olds can print their first name o 5 year olds can reproduce letters and copy several short words o They gradually learn to distinguish the distinctive characteristics of letters o Children should be given many writing opportunities— as their language and cognitive skills improve with good instruction, so will their writing skills o The metacognitive strategies needed to be a competent writer are linked with those required to be a competent reader because the writing process involves competent reading and rereading during composition and revision o 4th-12th grade strategy to improving student's writing quality Strategy instruction Summarization Peer assistance Setting goals

Affectionate Love

o Companionate love: the type of love that occurs when individuals desire to have the other person near and have a deep, caring affection for the person

Childhood early literacy

o Concern about the ability of US children to read and write has led to a careful examination of preschool and kindergarten children's experiences. o Instruction should be built on what children already kow about oral language, reading, and writing. o Include language skills, phonological and synaptic knowledge, letter identification, and conceptual knowledge about print and its conventions and functions. o Books can be valuable in enhancing children's communication skills Use books to initiate conversation with young children Use what and why questions Encourage children to ask questions about stories Choose some books that play with language

Stability and Change: Helson's Mills College studies

o Concluded that rather than being in a midlife crisis, what the Mills women experienced was midlife consciousness. o Commitment to the tasks of early adulthood helped women learn to control their impulses, develop interpersonal skills, become independent, and work hard to achieve goals.

Early Childhood Understanding Emotions

o During early childhood, young children increasingly understand that certain situations are likely to evoke particular emotions, facial expressions indicate specific emotions, emotions affect behavior, and emotions can be used to influence others' emotions. o Children's emotional understanding was linked to how extensively they engaged in prosocial behavior o 2 and 4: children considerably increase the number of terms they use to describe emotions and learn about the cause and consequences of feelings o 4 to 5: children show an increased ability to reflect on emotions They begin to understand that the same event can elicit different feelings in different people. Show a growing awareness that they need to manage their emotions to meet social standards o 5 years: most children can accurately identify emotions that are produced by challenging circumstances and describe strategies they might call on to cope with everyday stress

Vocab, grammar, and metalinguistics awareness in middle and late childhood

o During middle and late childhood, children begin to organize their mental vocab in new ways o At about 7, children begin to respond with a word that is the same part of speech as the stimulus word o The process of categorizing becomes easier as children increase their vocabulary o Children's improvement in logical reasoning and analytical skills in elementary school years helps them understand such constructions as the appropriate use of comparatives and subjunctives. o The advances in vocabulary and grammar during the elementary school years are accompanied by the development of metalinguistic awareness Knowledge about language, such as knowing what a preposition is or being able to discuss the sounds of a language Allow children to "think about their language, understand what words are, and even define them." o Children make progress in understanding how to use language in culturally appropriate ways—pragmatics

Children understanding phonology and morphology

o During the preschool years, most children gradually become more sensitive to the sounds of spoken words and become increasingly capable of producing all of the sounds of their language o By the time they are 3, they can produce all the vowel sounds and most of the consonant sounds o Two-word utterances= demonstrate a knowledge of morphology rules. o Begin using the plural and possessive forms of nounds o They put appropriate endings on verbs o They use prepositions

Emotional Expression and Social Relationships in Infancy

o Emotional expression is involved in infants' first relationships. The ability of infants to communicate emotions permits coordinated interactions with their caregivers and the beginning of an emotional bond between them o Infants can modify their expressions in response to their parents' emotional expressions. Mutually regulated Crying, Smiling, fear

Self-regulation in infancy and early childhood

o Emotional regulation is an important aspect of the overall development of self-regulation. o 12 to 18 months: infants depend completely on their caregivers for reminder signals about acceptable behaviors. o 2 to 3 years: children begin to comply with the caregiver's expectations in the absence of external monitoring by the caregiver o Preschoolers become better at self-control, learning how to resist temptation and giving themselves instructions that keep them focused.

Infancy Emotional Regulation and Coping

o First year: the infants gradually develops an ability to inhibit, or minimize, the intensity and duration of emotional reactions. At first, infants mainly depend on caregivers to help soothe their emotions Later in infancy, infants sometimes redirect their attention or distract themselves in order to reduce their arousal 2 years: toddlers can use language to define their feeling states and the context that is upsetting them o Infants must learn to adapt to the different context that require emotional regulation

Stability and Change: Costa and McCrae's Baltimore study

o Found a great deal of stability across the adult years in the Big five personality factors o New study found a low level of big five in early adulthood, peaked in middle adulthood and decreased in late adulthood

Gender/Culture in Temperament

o Gender may be an important factor shaping the environmental context that influences temperament. o The caregiver's reaction to an infant's temperament may depend in part on culture.

Middle and Late Childhood Developmental Changes in Emotion

o Improved emotional understanding Children in elementary school develop an increased ability to understand such complex emotions as pride and shame. These emotions become less tied to the reactions of other people; they become more self-generated and integrated with a sense of personal responsibility. A child may feel a sense of pride about developing new reading skills or shame after hurting a friends feelings. o Marked improvements in the ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions Children now sometimes intentionally hide their emotions o The use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings In the elementary school years, children reflect more about emotional experiences and develop strategies to cope with their emotional lives More effectively manage their emotions by cognitive means, such as using distracting thoughts o An increased tendency to take into fuller account the events leading to emotional reactions A fourth grader may become aware that her sadness today in influenced by her friend's moving to another town last week o Development of a capacity for genuine empathy. Two girls see another child in distress on the playground and run to the child and ask if they can help

Developmental Connections in Temperament

o In one study, children who had an easy temperament at 3 to 5 years were likely to be well adjusted as young adults o Many children who ahd a difficult temperament at 3 to 5 years, were not well adjusted as young adults o Behavioral inhibition at 3 was linked to shyness at age 7. o These studies reveal some continuity between certain aspects of temperament in childhood and adjustment in early adulthood.

Self-regulation in middle and late childhood

o Increased capacity for self-regulation characterized by deliberate efforts to manage one's behavior, emotions, and thoughts that lead to increased social competence and achievement. o Self-control increases from 4 to 10 years old and high self-control is linked to lower levels of deviant behavior o Increased capacity for self-regulation is linked to developmental advances in the brain's prefrontal cortex. Increased focal activation in the prefrontal cortex is linked to improved cognitive control Cognitive control includes self-regulation

Middle and Late childhood self-understanding: Social comparison

o Increasing reference to social comparison o Elementary school age children increasingly think about what they can do in comparison with others

Infants recognizing language sounds

o Infants can make fine distinctions among the sounds of the language. o From birth to 6 months, infants are "citizens of the world": they recognize when sounds change most of the time.

Infants self-understanding

o Infants cannot verbally express their views of the self o Rudimentary form of self-recognition—being attentive and positive toward one's image in a mirror—appears as early as 3 months of age. o A central, more complete index of self-recognition—the ability to recognize one's physical features—does not emerge until the second year o The mirror technique o Late in the second year and early in the third year, toddlers show other emerging forms of self-awareness that reflect a sense of "me".

Gestures

o Infants start using gestures, such as showing and pointing, at about 8 to 12 months of age o Pointing is considered by language experts to be an important index of the social aspects of language, and it follows a specific developmental sequence: pointing without checking on adult gaze to pointing while looking back and forth between an object and the adult. o Lack of pointing is a significant indicator of problems in the infant's communication system

First words

o Infants understand words before they can produce or speak them. o Between 5 and 12 months, infants often indicate their first understanding of words o First word usually occurs between 10 and 15 months (average 13) o The appearance of first words is a continuation of this communication process (gesturing and using their own special sounds) o On average, infants understand about 50 words by 13 months, but they can't say that many words until about 18 months receptive vocab, spoken vocab overextension underextension

Childhood changes in syntax and semantics

o Preschool children also learn and apply rules of syntax o Show a growing mastery of complex rules for how words should be ordered o Vocabulary development is drastic o Fast mapping: involves children's ability to make an initial connection between a word and its referent after only limited exposure to the word o Six key principles in young children's vocab development Children learn the words they hear most often Children learn words for things and events that interest them Children learn words best in responsive and interactive contexts rather than passive contexts Children learn words best when they access clear information about word meaning Children learn words best when grammar and vocab are considered.

Early Childhood self-understanding: concrete descriptions

o Preschool children mainly think of themselves and define themselves in concrete terms o "I know my ABC's" "I can count" o At about 4 to 5 years old, as they hear others use psychological trait and emotion terms, they begin to include these in their own self-descriptions.

Early Childhood Expressing emotions

o Pride, shame, embarrassment, and guilt are examples of self-conscious emotions Self-conscious emotions to do appear to develop until self-awareness appears in the second half of the second year of life o During the early childhood years, emotions such as pride and guilt become more common. o They are especially influenced by parent's responses to children's behavior.

Emotion in Infancy: Early Emotions

o Primary emotions: emotions that are present in humans and other animals Emotions appear in the first 6 months of the human infant's development Include surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fears, and disgust o Self-conscious emotions: require self-awareness that involves consciousness and a sense of "me". Include: jealousy, empathy, embarrassment, pride, shame, and guilt Most occur for the first time at some point after 18 months of age

Adulthood and aging emotion changes in the brain

o Reduced negative emotion in older adults may be associated with decreased physiological arousal of emotion due to aging in the amygdala and autonomic nervous system o More effective emotion regulation may be related to this reduction in subcortical activation and also to increased activation in the prefrontal cortex o Laura Carstensen: Socioemotional selectivity theory States that older adults become more selective about their activities and social relationships in order to maintain social and emotional well-being. Values emotion goals over knowledge goals as well as selectivity in social networks Older adults deliberately withdraw from social contact with individuals peripheral to their lives while they maintain or increase contact with close friends and family members with whom they have had enjoyable relationships Selective narrowing of social interaction maximizes positive emotional experiences o Social networks of older adults are smaller than those of younger adults

Infancy and Childhood attachment: social orientation/understanding

o Ross Thompson's view, infants are socioemotional beings who show a strong interest in the social world and are motivated to orient to it and understand it.

Adolescence Attachment to Parents

o Secure attachment to parents in adolescence facilitates the adolescent's social competence and well-being, as reflected in such characteristics as self-esteem, emotional adjustment, and physical health o SA lead to positive peer relations and emotional regulation

Self-regulation in adulthood

o Self-control plays an important role in adult development. Higher levels of self-control are linked to better health and adjustment. o Self-control increase in early adulthood and on into the middle adult years o Decline in perceived self-control of health and cognitive functioning in older adults

Developmental Changes in self-esteem

o Self-esteem fluctuates across the life span o Self-esteem decreases in adolescence, increases in the 20s, leveled off in the thirties, rose in the 50s and 60s, and then dropped in the 70s and 80s. o Self-esteem is usually higher in males than in females

Early Childhood self-understanding: unrealistic positive overestimations

o Self-evaluations during early childhood are often unrealistically positive and represent an overestimation of personal attributes. o "I know all of my ABC's" but does not or might comment "I'm never scared" which is not the case o Occur because young children have difficulty in differentiating their desired and actual competence, cannot yet generate an ideal self that is distinguished from a real self, and rarely engage in social comparison: exploring how they compare with others

Bilingualism and Second Language Learning

o Sensitive periods likely vary across different language systems For late language learners, such as adolescents and adults, new vocabulary is easier to learn than new sounds or new grammar. Adults tend to learn a second language faster than children, but their final level of second-language attainment is not as high as children's. o Children who are fluent in two languages perform better than their single-language counterparts on tests of control of attention, concept formation, analytical reasoning, inhibition, cognitive flexibility, cognitive complexity, and cognitive monitoring. o In the US, many immigrant children go from being monolingual in their home language to bilingual in that language and in English, and then eventually end up monolingual speakers of English This is called subtractive bilingualism and it can have negative effects on children, who often become ashamed of their home language o ELLS have been taught in one of two main ways: 1) instruction in English only 2) A dual-language approach. • Instruction is given in both the ELL child's home language and English for varying amounts of time at certain grade levels About 3-5 years to develop speaking proficiency and 7 years to develop reading proficiency in English

Biological influences in language

o The ability to speak and understand language requires a certain vocal apparatus as well as a nervous system with certain capabilities o Two regions involved in language were first discovered in studies of brain-damaged individuals Broca's area: a region of the left frontal lobe of the brain that is involved in producing words • Individuals with damage have difficulty producing words correctly Wernicke's area: a region of the brain's left hemisphere that is involved in language comprehensions. • Individuals with damage have poor comprehensions and often produce fluent but incomprehensible speech Damage to either of these areas produced types of aphasia, a loss or impairment of language processing. Chomsky's Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Early childhood self-understanding: active descriptions

o The active dimension is a central component of the self in early childhood o Preschool children often describe themselves I terms of activities such as play

Cultural and ethnic identity

o The collectivist emphasis on fitting in with the group and connecting with others o Identity development may take longer in certain countries than others o Ethnic Identity: an enduring aspect of the self that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group, along with the attitudes and feelings related to that membership. Bicultural identity: identify in some ways with their ethnic group and in other ways with the majority of culture

The life-events approach on adult personality development

o The contemporary life-events approach o Life-events approach places too much emphasis on change and it does not adequately recognize the stability that characterized adult development o It may not be life's major events that are the primary sources of stress, but our daily experiences (drawback)

Early Childhood Regulating Emotions

o The growth of emotional regulation in children fundamental to the development of becoming socially competent o Emotional regulation can be conceptualized as an important component of self-regulation or of executive function

Stages of Erikson's psychosocial development

o Trust vs. mistrust*** o Autonomy vs. shame and doubt o Initiative vs. guilt o Industry vs. inferiority o Identity vs. Role Confusion* o Intimacy vs. isolation** o Generativity vs. Stagnation** o Integrity vs. Despair

Middle and Late childhood reading

o Whole-language approach: stresses that reading instruction should parallel children's natural language learning. Taught to recognize whole words or entire sentences and use the context of what they are reading to guess the meaning fthe words. Reading is connected with listening and writing skills Integrated with other skills and subjects and focus on real world material o Phonics approach: emphasizes that reading instruction should teach basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds Involved simplified materials Only after they learn the rules they should be given text o Children can benefit from both approaches, but instruction in phonic needs to be emphasized

Stress and Gender Adulthood development and aging emotion

o Women and men differ in the way they experience and respond to stressors Women are more vulnerable to social stressors such as those involving romance, family, and work Women more likely than men to become depressed. When men face stress they tend to respond in a fight or flight manner • Become aggressive, withdraw from social contact, or drink alcohol When women face stress they are more likely to engage in a tend and befriend pattern • Seeking social alliances with others, especially friends

Early adolescence to adulthood identity

o Young adolescents must be confident that they have parental support, must have an established sense of industry, and must be able to take a self-reflective stance towards the future o Key changes in identity are most likely to take place in emerging adulthood (18 to 25). o Depth exploration of their identity. o Resolution of the identity issue during adolescence and emerging adulthood does not mean that identity will be stable through the remainder of life. o Identity consolidation: the process of refining and enhancing the identity choices that are made in emerging adulthood: continues well into early adulthood and early middle adulthood

Early childhood self-understanding: physical descriptions

o Young children also distinguish themselves from others through many physical and material attributes. o "I'm different from Jennifer because I ha

Early Childhood self-understanding: confusion of self, mind, and body

o Young children generally confuse self, mind, and body. o Most young children conceive of the self as part of the body o For them, the self can be described along many material dimesions such as size, shape and color

Trait Theories

state that personality consists of broad dispositions, called traits that tend to produce characteristic responses. o People can be described in the basic ways they behave

Ethological perspective of John Bowlby's view of attachment

stresses the importance of attachment in the first year of life and the responsiveness of the caregiver. Stresses that both infants and their primary caregivers are biologically predisposed to form attachments Attachment does not emerge suddenly but rather develops in a series of phases, moving from a baby's general preference for human beings to a partnership with primary caregivers. • Phase 1: birth to 2 months: infants instinctively direct their attachment to human figures. Strangers, siblings, and parents are equally likely to elicit smiling or crying from the infant • Phase 2: 2 to 7 months: attachment becomes focused on one figure, usually the primary caregiver, as the baby gradually learns to distinguish familiar fom unfamiliar people • Phase 3: 7 to 24 months: Specific attachments develop. With increased locomotor skills, babies actively seek contact with regular caregivers such as the mother or father • Phase 4: 24 months on: children become aware of others' feelings, goals, and plans and begin to take these into account in forming their own actions. o Researchers recent finding that infants are more socially sophisticated and insightful than previously envisioned by Bowlby's phase 4 and phase 3

The big five factors of personality

the view that personality is made up of openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (OCEAN) o Important aspects of a person's life such as health, intelligence and cognitive functioning, achievement and work, and relationships. o Related to changing historical circumstances o Linked to cultural influences suhc as changes in the traditional feminine role, etc.

receptive vocabulary

the words the child understand

spoken vocabulary

the words the child uses

Morphology

to units of meaning involved in word formation A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning; a word or a part of a word that cannot be broken into smaller meaningful parts Every English word is made up of one or more morphemes Describe the way meaningful units (morphemes) can be combined in words

family influences

two dimensions: mutuality, which involves sensitivity and respect t for others' view; and permeability, which involved openness to others' views.

Assumptions about stages: the eriksonian manifesto

• 1) Each stage in the life cycle has an optimal time o Sensitive time • 2) Each stage is accompanied by a CRISIS, or turning point • 3) Conflicting forces and focus at each stage: positive and negative valence • 4) Conflict resolution affects development o Satisfactory resolution yields positive development o Unsatisfactory resolution yields ego damage or a personality flaw • 5) Different components of the personality are determined by the manner of crisis resolution • 6) EARLIER ACHIEVEMENTS ARE FAILURES AND NOT PERMANENT • 7) Each person must adequately resolve each crisis to progress to the next in a healthy or adaptive fashion • 8) Resolution of crises is NOT pure, rather a blend o Mostly trust, but some reasonable amount of mistrust • 9) every stage is revisited for the rest of your life or anticipated before you get there

What is Identity?

• A self-portrait composed of many pieces, including the following o The career and work path the person wants to follow (vocational/career identity o Whether the person is conservative, liberal, or middle-or-the-road (political identity) o The person's spiritual beliefs (religious identity) o Whether the person is single, married, divorced, etc. (relationship identity) o The extent to which the person is motivated to achieve and is intellectually active (achievement, intellectual identity) o Whether a person is heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual (sexual identity) o Which part of the world or country a person is from and how intensely the person identifies with his or her cultural heritage (cultural/ethnic identity) o The kinds of things a person likes to do, which can include sports, music, hobbies, etc. (interests) o The individual's personality characteristics, such as being introverted or extraverted, anxious or calm, friendly or hostile, etc. (personality) o The individual's body image (physical identity)

Adolescent self-understanding: abstract and idealistic thinking

• Adolescence begin to think in more abstract and idealistic ways • Aolsescents are most likely than children to use abstract and idealistic labels when describing themselves.

Adult Development and Aging Emotion

• Adults adapt more effectively when they are emotionally intelligent- when they are skilled at perceiving and expressing emotion, understanding emotion, using feeling to facilitate thought, and managing emotions effectively • Changes in emotion are often characterized by an effort to create lifestyles that are emotionally satisfying, predictable, and manageable by making decisions about an occupation, a life partner, and other circumstances. • "adaptive integration of emotion experience in satisfying daily life and successful relationships with others"

Attachment and Love

• All close relationships are affected by and affect later attachment patterns o People with different attachment histories approach their marriages/relationships from different perspectives and with different needs and resources • Evidence that adult romantic relationships mirror attachment styles of infancy • When both partners had secure attachments, better trajectories for marriage and satisfaction

Ideal Selves

• Always higher than the future self • Present self significantly higher in middle age

Personality Development

• At the very core of who we are • Rooted in early temperament and emotional development o Regulation and expression both central • Influenced by goodness of fit and attachments • Confluence of all developmental realms o Bio-psycho-social-spiritual • Continually developing through the lifespan, though less change after age 30

Attachment Conclusions

• Attachment is: o Foundational in development for all systems (bio-pyscho-social-spiritual) o Continually influencing all social relationships and personal well-being across the lifespan o Continually developing as we relate to others

Adolescent self-understanding: Contradictions within the self

• Begin to differentiate their concept to the self into multiple roles in different relationship contexts they sense potential contradictions between their differentiated selves. • Internal conflict

Early Childhood language

• Between 2 and 3 years they begin the transition from saying simple sentences that express a single proposition to saying complex sentences

Adolescent self-understanding: Self-consciousness

• More likely than children to be self-conscious about and preoccupied with their self-understanding. • Self-consciousness and self-preoccupa

Environmental Influences

• Children learn language in specific contexts • The support and involvement of caregivers and teachers greatly facilitate a child's language learning o Provide young children with extensive opportunities to talk and be talked with. • Child-directed speech: language spoken in a higher pitch than normal with simple words and sentences • Recasting: rephrasing something the child has said, perhaps turning it into a question or restating the child's immature utterance in the form of a fully grammatical sentence • Expanding: restating, in a linguistically sophisticated form, what a child has said • Labeling: identifying the names of objects

Insecure disorganized children

• Disorganized and disoriented • Children might appear dazed, confused, and fearful. • Must show strong patterns of avoidance and resistance or display certain specific behaviors such as extreme fearfulness around the caregiver

Adolescent self-understanding: real and ideal selves

• Emerging ability to construct ideal selves in addition to actual ones can be perplexing and agonizing to the adolescent. • Possible selves include both what adolescents hope to be and what they dread they will become

An Interactionist View of Language

• Emphasizes that both biology and experience contribute to language development

Erikson's view of identity

• Erikson first understood the importance of identity questions to understanding adolescent development • Identity is now believed to be a key aspect of adolescent development because of erikson's masterful thinking and analysis. • Erikson's fifth developmental stage which individuals experience during adolescence is identity vs. identity confusion o During this time adolescents are faced with deciding who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life. o These questions become especially important for adolescents. • Psychosocial moratorium: Erikson's term for the gap between childhood security and adult autonomy. o Society leaves adolescents relatively free of responsibilities, which allows them to try out different identities o Experimentation to figure out where they fit into the world • Adolescents who do not successfully resolve this identity crisis suffer identity confusion o Takes one of the two courses: individuals withdraw, isolating themselves from peers and family, or they immerse themselves in the world of peers and lose their identity in the crowd

Must you have identity before intimacy

• Erikson says yes • Relational dissolution (divorce) rates in teen marriages and cohabiting couples support Erikson • Recent scholarship challenges Erikson, especially for females-Identity may grow out of intimacy or simultaneously o Giligan: a lot of identity comes out of intimacy

Personality development during adulthood

• Freud: To love and to work o He was right! • Erikson: Generativity

Generativity vs stagnation

• Generativity encompasses adults' desire to leave a legacy of themselves to the next generation. • Stagnation develops when individuals sense that they have done nothing for the next generation • Generativity is strongly linked to middle-aged adults' positive social engagement in the contexts such as family life and community activities

Adolescence Emotion

• Has long been described as a time of emotional turmoil • Emotional highs and lows increase during early adolescence • Girls are especially vulnerable to depression in adolescence.

Adulthood Secure Attachment

• Have positive views of relationships • Find it easy to get close to others • Not overly concerned with, or stressed out about, their romantic relationship • Tend to enjoy sexuality in the context of a committed relationship and are less likely to have a one night stand

Generativity

• I am what survives me • Concern for and commitment to promoting the next generation • Pyschologically- both an inner desire and an age appropriate demand • From standpoint of Society and Culture: a critical resource for support continuity and initiate social change.

Developmental changes in identity

• Identity begins with the appearance of attachment, the development of the sense of self, and the emergence of independence in infancy; the process reaches its final phase with a life review and integration in old age. • During adolescence for the first time, physical development, cognitive development, and socioemotional development advance to the point at which the individual can sort through and synthesize childhood identities and identifications to construct a viable path toward adult maturity.

Self-regulation

• Involves the ability to control one's behavior without having to rely on others' help o Includes the self-generation and cognitive monitoring of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in order to reach a goal o An individual might develop better self-control in the physical, cognitive, or socioemotional domain than in other domains • Individuals who engage in self-regulation are better achievers and are more satisfied with their lives than their counterparts who let external factors dominate their lives.

Adulthood and Aging Language

• Language development during the adult years varies greatly among individuals, depending on such things as level of education and social and occupational roles • Many adults "maintain or improve their knowledge of words and word meanings" • Tip of the tongue phenomenon: individuals are confident that hey can remember something but just can't quite seem to retrieve it from memory. • Nonlanguage factors may be responsible for some of the decline in language skills that occur in older adults. o Slower information processing speed and a decline in working memory.

Adolescent language

• Language development includes greater sophistication in the use of words • Increased abstract thinking: much better than children at analyzing the role a word plays in a sentence • They make strides in understanding metaphor, which is an implied comparison between unlike things • Better able to understand and use satire, which is the use of irony, derision, or wit to expose folly or wickedness. • Much better writers than children o Organize ideas before they write, distinguish between general and specific points as they write, string together sentences that make sense and organize their writing into an intro, body, and concluding remarks • Dialect with their peers that is characterized by jargon and slang

Adolescent self-understanding: self-integration

• Late adolescence and emerging adulthood, self-understanding become more integrative, with the disparate parts of the self more systematically pieced together.

Contemporary thoughts on identity

• Suggest that it is a lengthy process, in many instances more gradual and less cataclysmic than Erikson's use of the term crisis implies. • Resolution of the identity issue during adolescence and emerging adulthood does not mean that identity will be stable though the remainder of life. • An individual who develops a healthy identity is flexible and adaptive, open to changes in society, in relationships, and in careers ensures numerous reorganizations of identity throughout the individual's life • Identity formation neither happens neatly nor is it usually cataclysmic. o Identity gets done in bits and pieces

Regulation of Emotion

• The ability to control one's emotions is a key dimension of development. • Emotional regulation consists of effectively managing arousal to adapt to circumstances and to reach a goal. • Arousal involves a state of alertness or activation, which can reach levels that are too high for effective functioning o Ex. Anger often requires regulation • In infancy and childhood, regulation of emotion gradually shifts from external sources to self-initiated, internal sources o Increasing age, children are more likely to improve their use of cognitive strategies for regulating emotion, modulate their emotional arousal, become more adept at managing situations to minimize negative emotion, and choose effective ways to cope with stress. • Ineffective emotional regulation is linked with a lower level of executive function, problems succeeding in school, a lower level or moral development (weak conscience and lack of internalization of rules), failure to adequately cope with stress, and difficulty in peer relations. • Parents can play an important role in helping young children regulate their emotions.

Adulthood Anxious attachment

• These individuals demand closeness, are less trusting, and are more emotional, jealous, and possessive

Middle and Late Childhood langauge

• Upon entering school, children gain new skills that include increasing use of language to talk about things that are not physically present, knowledge of what a word is, and an ability to recognize and talk about sounds • Alphabetic principle: the fact that the letters of the alphabet represent sounds of the language.

Securely attached children

• Use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment.