Hindu Final Exam

the 4th image of Shiva (most popular)

4. Linga

Temples

Hindus are not required to go. Usually overseen by a Brahman priest who performs several services throughout the day. Usually has a story associated with it. Noisy in India, quiet in America. People come to fulfill vows or perform puja at the temple. Murtis of gods are ornamented.

Shiva

Ideal ascetic and ideal householder; also half-man and half-woman and has shakti

Differences between Shiva and Vishnu

Shiva has a Dionysian side whereas Vishnu is closely tied to the houesholder and is more austere.

Goddess of breast vs. goddess of tooth

Source of life vs. source of malevolence. Auspiciousness, bounty and fertility vs. eroticism, ferocity and danger. Controlled by Brahmanical structure vs. free to "attack men". Hot vs. cool aka passion vs. purity.

Ramanuja:

Sri Vaishnava theologian believed in qualified non-dualism, most famous Sri leader. Wrote in sanskrit but influenced by devotional poetry of Alvars.

Diwali:

festival of light celebrated on the darkest night throughout the Hindu world with lamps placed in windows, etc. to drive away inauspicious forces. Celebrates Rama's return after defeating Ravana

Rites of Passage/ samskaras

for birth, coming of age, marriage, death rites. Rituals mark an official change in oneself. Most important ones are probably upanayana and marriage.

Pilgrimage:

integral to Hinduism and modern times, journey to tirtha, a place for crossing over and divine world touches or meets the human world; mediation between two realms.

Holi

spring festival, ppl drench each other in water and colored powder

Samskaras (Rites of passages):

"occasional ritual occasioned by by a special occurrence" in contrast to daily rites. Bodily rites, transform an individual's identity, liminal states key. Include prenatal, birth, childhood, educational, marriage and death

Vrats:

"vow" taken by women for domestic well-being of families, circumscribed by family, caste, village, religion, etc. Often interpreted as women's secondary status in society, but also example of woman's auspiciousness in a different sense than man's

Saguna:

"with God", devotion to an image and form of God

Nirguna:

"without God", the ineffable absolute that has no face or form

Puja:

"worship," ritualistic way to experience darshan, everyday ritual done on your own time. Offerings of vegetarian food, flowers and incense. Receive prasada (food blessed by god) back, includes bathing icon.

Diksa

(with initiation) into the sampradaya, the disciple undertakes to abide by the values of the tradition and community, he/she receives a new name and a mantra particularly sacred to that tradition.

Path of mantras:

- Shaiva Siddhanta: dualist believing in eternal distinction between soul and Lord. Women can only worship vicariously through husbands - Kapalika Shaivism: forms basic ritual and theological system of PoM, focused on worship of ferocious forms of Shiva, sacrificed sexual fluids, blood, etc. Achieve power by breaking social taboos - Kaula Tradition: goddess-oriented cult - Kashmir Shaivism: monistic, similar to Siddhanta - Southern Shaiva Siddhanta: absorbed bhakti poetry and ritual, focuses on love of God

Distinctions between Vaishnavism, Shaivism:

- Vaishnavism more orthodox, emphasize the love of God and love for God rather than practice and ritual. Devotion is more important - Shaivism more orthoprax, very concerned with ritual (particularly tantrism) and discipline

Hindu political nationalism

Hinduism as a religion is used to unify India. Nationalist parties include the RSS (cultural organization) and BJP (political Hindu nationalist party). Foundation includes Arya Samaj. These groups protect the interests of Hindus against Muslims, Christians, and communists, apparently. The BJP wants to establish a Hindu values system in India versus a secularized one. Hindu nationalism contrasts sharply with universal or globalized Hinduism seen with other Hindu renaissance actors.

Liminal period/state:

Inherent, ambiguous nature of ritual passage between pre-ritual and transition into new state. However anti-structure in nature, still serves to reinforce structure of the state. Transformative process linking states (state=hierarchy, process=liminality).

Shiva Nataraja

King of Dance

Dvaita vedanta:

Madhva taught this, brahman and atman are separate, union comes through grace. Complete distinction of self and absolute.

Sri Vaishnavism:

Nathamuni is credited with having founded this tradition and legitimizing it. Salvation from samsara was viewed as going to Vishnu's heaven and united with the Lord in a loving relationship. Split into northern and southern cultures, the former emphasizing bhakti-yoga, the latter emphasizing surrender to the Lord's grace (monkey and cat schools)

Navaratri/Durga Puja

Nine Nights of the Goddess. Also Pan-Indian. Goddess Durga, the epitome of power or shakti, is worshipped during Navratri. 4 Navaratri's occur a year, but the autumn one is the most popular. Though Navratri is a mix of various themes, the common factor is the destruction of evil or the victory of good over evil (Durga over the buffalo demon, Rama over Ravana). The nine days are divided into three sets of three days each to worship the three different attributes of the Goddess: Durga, Lakshmi, Sarasvati. In the eastern and northeastern states of India, the Durga Puja is synonymous with Navratri, wherein goddess Durga battles and emerges victorious over the buffalo demon to help restore Dharma. In the northern and western states, the festival is synonymous with "Rama Lila" and Dussehra that celebrates the battle and victory of god Rama over the demon king Ravana. Durga Puja, also called Durgotsava, is an annual Hindu festival in the Indian subcontinent that reveres the goddess Durga.[4][5] It is particularly popular in West Bengal, Bihar[6][7], Odisha, Assam, Tripura, Bangladesh

Upanayana

Usually reserved for twice-born men. Ritual of transition to adulthood. Male relative recites the Gayatri Mantra to initiate the boy into the student stage (age 8-11). Delayed recently, celebrated more publicly in U.S. context so there is an equivalent to bar mitzvah or Christian confirmation. Non-brahmans might just have the boy don a dhoti (traditional male garment wrapped around lower body) instead. Girls might wear a sari for the first time.

Important Pilgrimage Sites (Tirumala)

Venkateshvara temple in Tirumala, where a manifestation of Vishnu resides .

Narsinghnath

Temple in Odisha. Not the same as the half-man, half-lion incarnation of Vishnu. Cat keeps demon stuck in hole. Also, Rama and Sita had stopped here. Identifies a sub-region. Annual festival: Baisakhi

Advaita Vedanta

absolute monism. Sankara (of above) wrote many texts and hymns. Sankara was a renouncer who entered the body of a king to experience pleasure. Vedanta/Upanishads become the center of absolute monism

Vaishnevite Theology

also has dualistic and monistic elements? Bhakti still separates our selves from the divine, even if it's a false separation

Goddess

ambivalent figure. Both "mother" and "hot" deity, who is ferocious and bloodthirsty. Can reinforce status quo with pliant, obedient mother and in ostracizing the ferocious deities to the fringe tantra movements, who are for lower castes anyways.

Sacrifice:

animal sacrifice is often associated with deity appeasement and royal power. Most often the buffalo is sacrificed to honor Durga. The sacrificial victim is a stand-in for an individual or a community

Heterodox

anything else that is not orthodox

Death Rituals

bodies are polluting, so mourners must cleanse themselves before reentering society. Up to 13-day period, followed by feast that marks the end of ritual pollution. Bodies are cremated in Hindu traditions, buried in Islam, which sometimes creates tension when saints are claimed by both

Hindu Renaissance

characterized by: truth of the Veda, rejection of icon worship (how does this match up to the popularity of puja, though?), rejection of some elements of caste, child-marriage, and widow-burning (sati), and the construction of Hinduism as an ethical spirituality equal or superior to Christianity and Islam

Tamil Vedas:

contains songs of emotional power, expressing the poet's devotion to Vishnu. Poems intended to be sung. Not formal Sanskrit poetry. Emotional devotionalism tied to weeping, dancing, and singing of the devotee, possessed by the god. Emphasizes expression of emotions and the mutual relationship with the divine rather than yoga or control

Ram Mohan Roy:

despised image worship and would influence the same in others. His employment with the East India Company planted the seeds for future Hindu nationalist movements.

Purpose of Tantras

To attain magical powers or to reach higher realms rather than moksha. Possession also a part of tantrism, where the god(dess) inhabits the body, but the practitioner tries to control the god(dess). Divination of the worshipper. Activities are all highly polluting to a Brahman priest.

Swami Vivekananda:

disciple of Ramakrishna, became a renouncer and entered same state as teacher. He held the philosophy of the vedantic period that the divine, the absolute exists in all things despite social class. Spread beliefs of tolerance and acceptance of all religions to the West, specifically Chicago in 1893

Madhva:

dualist theologian, monastic renouncer

Dvaita Vedanta

dualistic, self is separate from Brahman. Madhva is the founder. Release from samsara comes through grace. Must devote yourself to saguna Brahman.

Mimamsa

schools of inquiry. Exegetical (critical explanation or interpretation of a text, especially of scripture) tradition. Tries to understand ritual and dharma

Sampradaya:

sect, order or tradition, specifically focused on a deity, often a regional character, into which a disciple is initiated by a guru. Developed within the wider mainstream of brahmanical worship based on Smrti texts (especially the Puranas)

Vrats

vows made for auspiciousness. Made to a deity to undertake a particular ritual, series of rituals, or pilgrimage. Usually taken by women for their families. Can include fasting, cooking special foods, performing specific rituals, reciting a story to the deity, or asking for fulfillment of a request or for well-being. When men do take vrats, it's for themselves and not for the women in their families. Domestic (private) vrats are for women, temple (public) vrats are for men. Vrat kathas=stories that are orally performed as part of rituals. Kathas tie together karma of performing action, bhakti to a deity, and the vrat itself.

Santana or Parampara

when each guru is seen within a line of gurus and originating with the founding father or possibly the deity.

Seven Pilgrimage Sites

7 sites of pilgrimage: Ayodhya (Rama's capital), Mathura, Hardwar, Varanasi (along Ganges. Abode of Shiva), Ujjain, Dwarka, and Kanchipuram.

Varanasi:

pilgrims bathe and bodies cremated here; to die here is to attain moksha upon death, center of the cosmos. Large power of place

Most common features of tantras:

- concerned with practice including ritual, initiation and yoga - Purification of the body through "symbolic destruction" meaning creation of body through mantras, internal worship and external worship - Hierarchical cosmologies - The body is divine and contains cosmic hierarchy of male deity and female energy; their unione is symbolic expression of liberation - Concerned with the attainment of magical powers as well as exorcism and possession

1 of the 4 Images of Shiva (yoga)

1. Lord of Yoga: meditating on a mountain with matted hair. The river Ganges is pouring through his hair. His weapon is a trident

Dussehra:

10 days dedicated to Durga-puja celebrating her conquering the defeat of the buffalo demon.

2 of the 4 Images of Shiva

2. ideal family man with Parvati, Ganesha, Murugan, and his vahana/animal vehicle Nandi the bull.

3 of the 4 images of Shiva

3. Shiva Nataraja; Lord of Dance

Poet saints (Alvars):

Alvars ("those immersed in god") are poet-saints, who wandered around singing the praises of Vishnu. Wandering poet-saints who try and convert people to worship Vishnu and stop growth of Buddhism and Jainism. Poet-saints are typically in the South

Tantrism

Believed to have been revealed by Shiva himself through sage intermediates. Revelation was "progressive" aimed towards lower level attainment, and was the esoteric culmination of Vedic orthodoxy. Famous for ritual sex and consumption of alcohol, but stand on four feet (pada) that are doctrine, ritual, yoga and discipline.

Puranic Shaivism:

Believes in vedic purity and dharma, heavy on puranic puja to Shiva, and the cycle of samsara is prevalent.

Parts of worship of hot deities

Blood sacrifice, alcohol, and ritual sex

Myth of Daksa:

Daksa is the son of Brahma and the father of Sati. Sati becomes the wife of Shiva to Daksa's dismay, rebukes Shiva and then Sati kills herself through yogic power out of rage. Variations of the ending include Shiva murdering Daksa and resurrecting him with a goat's head, Shiva dancing across the universe with Sati's corpse. This myth exemplifies Shaivism, as he was outside of the vedic fold and therefore excluded from Daksa's sacrifice that enraged Sati.

Vivekananda (1863-1902)

Developed Hindu self-understanding and helped formulate the West's view of Hinduism. Vedantic philosophy that the absolute exists in all beings regardless of social status. Responsible for the belief that the East is spiritual while the West is materialistic. This dichotomy reinforces the image of India as the West's "other" (GF 258). Vivekananda claimed that Hinduism is pluralistic and accepts all religions as aspects of one truth. First to clearly articulate Hinduism is a world religion alongside others

Images of Goddess

Durga, slew the buffalo demon; Kali, blood-drinker and violent; as consorts of gods, ie., Lakshmi (goddess of wealth and auspiciousness, married to Vishnu), Parvati (married to Shiva), Sarasvati (married to Brahma), also Radha and Sita. Various village deities. Also, as male and female mediums when they possess people during festivals. Goddess also associated with maya, illusion

Ramakrishna (1836-86)

Ramakrishna declared the unity of all religions. Like Jainism's doctrine of relativism, he argues that all religions are different paths to the One, eternal undivided being. Different gods represent different aspects of the same reality. Calls himself Vivekananda towards the end.

Visistadvaita vedanta:

Ramanuja taught this, separateness of brahman and atman is not illusion, and self is not illusion. There is no illusion, the one and the many are real, but the many are the one's form of expression.

Example of sanskritization

Tamil deities and forms of worship were adapted to northern Sanskrit forms → tamil deities became identified and absorbed into Aryan, vedic deities. The Tamil deities Mudvalan and Tirumal became identified with Siva and Visnu, Korravai the goddess of war with Durga, and the important deity Murukan, with Siva's son, Skanda, the god of war.

Advaita Vedanta:

Sankara taught this, non-dualist, absolute monism aka brahman and atman are one. Removal of superimposition allows for actualization of atman's unity with brahman.

Communitas:

When you're in the ritual, everybody is the same. Social standing doesn't matter when you're in a liminal state. But at the end of the liminal period, the old status quo is restored. Also, this is problematic because priests usually control things like who enters trances, so even in liminal state, arguably, the status quo remains in place

Communitas

a Latin noun commonly referring either to an unstructured community in which people are equal, or to the very spirit of community. When you're in the ritual, everybody is the same. Social standing doesn't matter when you're in a liminal state. During pujas, pilgrimages, people are the same. But, at the end of the liminal period, the old status quo is restored. Also, this is problematic because priests usually control things like who enters trances, so even in liminal state, arguably, the status quo remains in place

Ramakrishna:

a mystic in 1800s that had visions of Krishna and other gods and goddesses through heavy devotion to Kali

Sati

a practice banned by the British whereby Hindu widows would throw themselves on their deceased husband's funeral pyre. Not always voluntary.

Hindu Renaissance

a religious and national political movement closely related to Indian nationalism. Reaction to colonialism. Hinduism as a global religion emerged in part from this renaissance.

Possession

during public rituals like festivals, people become possessed by the deity. Usually for lower-caste groups and often for women. Divine becomes manifest during trance and the devotee/god usually dances. Accompanies the procession of the murti, or when drumming begins. Usually grammadevatas are the ones who possess, not the puranic deities like Vishnu or Shiva. The god(dess) is then invited to leave by someone holding a lit oil lamp and incense.

Qualified non-dualism:

even though atman and Brahman are made of the same essence, they aren't the same like Sankara wants them to be; bhakti is the way they become united through devotion to saguna brahman. Considered qualified because atman and brahman are separate.

Mimamsa:

exegetical, enquiry tradition in understanding ritual and dharma. Correct action in correspondence with dharma, correct knowledge with brahman.

Diwali/Deepavali

festival of light. Lamps placed in windows and around doors. Gifts are exchanged. In October or November. Celebrates Rama's return and shows success of dharma over adharma. End of monsoon season. Lights can be in clay pots

Holi:

festival- celebrated during spring, people drench each other in water and colored powder.

Bhakti traditions:

focused on relationship between disciple and Lord, modelled on human relationships. The love of God takes many forms. A strong element of personal seeking and devotion, however molded by disciple's personal place within social, Brahmanical hierarchy.

Gaudiya Vaishnavism:

focused on the love relationship with the Lord, particularly with Krishna the Cowherd, and emphasizes a romantic relationship with the god. Eventually would create poetry like that of the Gitagovinda. Eroticism is transcendent not worldly

Sakta tradition:

followers of female power or energy of the universe, less defined than other traditions. Aspects of the goddess are incorporated into all Hindu traditions, sakti is revered everywhere. The independent Goddess demands blood sacrifices, in tantric traditions women are more powerful than men because they contain sakti

Gender and Upanayana

girls typically undergo their upanayana when they start menstruating. Public celebration in South India, but typically hidden in North India (no coming of age ritual is performed, actually, according to page 176 of JBF). One woman in the U.S. wanted her daughter to be equal to her son, so she recited the Gayatri Mantra to her, though this is usually reserved for boys.

Women have sakti

giving them power, although this does not reflect social realities, and in response to sakti, males have to control and contain them

Sankara:

philosopher that opposed Buddhism. Believed that knowledge breaks ignorance, everything is an illusion

Sankara's Theology

ignorance/illusion is caused by superimposition of what is not-self onto the self. Strictly non-dualist/monist. Brahman is nirguna, not saguna. Atman and Brahman are the same, and the more we give Brahman a face, the more we further the illusion that we're separate. So, bhakti keeps us stuck in samsara (circle of death and rebirth)

Svetasvatara Upanishad:

important in evolution of Hindu thought and theism. Establishes the Lord is cause of the cosmos, produces the world through his power, and the Lord is transcendent. The seeds of bhakti are here, yet have not developed

Ganesha Chaturthi

in August or September. Large procession to take the murti and immerse it in a body of water. Also, murtis are made for domestic shrines, making it a personal and intimate festival. Festival lasts for ten days, the image is submerged on the eleventh. Puja done twice a day for Ganesha's murti. Women in family make the murti. Images are larger in villages, and even larger in big cities

Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833)

influential during British Raj. Advocates a tolerant position that states all religions are essentially one, that we all worship the same God, who cannot be known in his ineffable essence. Roy was influenced by the Upanishads, Shankara, Sufi theology, and deism. Roy vehemently condemned sati, wrote to the British House of Commons, and is credited by Flood for influencing the British government to ban sati in India. Reason and ethics are also central for Roy. He believes karma and reincarnation should be rejected as irrational. In 1828, he founded the Brahmo Samaj movement. Not appealing to villages or lower castes, where puja is still important. Roy, a highly educated intellectual, did not understand the deep devotion to deities of the rural poor.

Gandhi:

leader of the Congress Party opposing the BJP, spread non-violence as peaceful resistance and emancipation of the Untouchables. Believed god and self (sat and atman) are one in essence

Dayananda Sarasvati and Arya Samaj (1824-83)

lost faith in power of image worship. Dayananda founded the Arya Samaj (Aryan Society) to promote Hindu reformation. Advocated a return to a purer form of vedic religion. Remove all devotional aspects of the religion. Reinterprets caste as based upon differences in character, qualifications, and accomplishments. Not pluralist, but supports an aggressive Hindu nationalism, based on a return to ancient Vedas and critical of any developments thereafter.

Tamil poetry:

love or love-making poetry that's very focused and in-tune with nature. Emphasizes the essence of emotional expression within the Tamil culture. Allows for "wholehearted adoption of bhakti"

Characteristics of Shiva's Followers

more likely to be caught in trances, ecstasy of the dance, or to follow an ascetic lifestyle.

Ritual

occurs in temples, the home, at shrines, places of pilgrimage. Mark special occasions, ask for blessings, mark rites of passage. Are a connection to early Vedic traditions. Perhaps the most unifying aspect of Hindu religious traditions, esp. w/something like bhakti. Original sacrificial flame (agni) still present as lit incense. Offerings to deity include vegetarian and non-vegetarian offerings (meat for hot deities. Brahmans would consider it polluting). Are a source of identity for Hindus.

Most important manifestation

of Goddesses Durga, the goddess comprised of all the gods and given their weapons, who then slew the buffalo demon. Her festival is Durga Puja. Can go either way, cause the male gods couldn't kill the demon, and normal docile woman wouldn't be strong or warlike. Or, really Durga is just a combo of the male gods and her sakti (female power) isn't really distinct or independent of them.

Pashupata Shaivism:

oldest Shaiva sect, very misogynistic within associated texts, initiates had to be high-caste males.

Baisakhi (Annual Festival @ Narsinghnath)

on the 14th day of the brightest moon of the month Baisakh (may/June) when hundreds of thousands of pilgrims find their way to the isolated jungle temple.

Cult of Vithoba:

origin of the Sant tradition, meant "good man" referring to saints. Taught path to liberation through devotion to the Lord's name, one's guru and devotional meetings. Did not exclude women and members of low castes

Ritual:

orthopraxy, rituals have existed since the beginning of Hinduism and slowly changed over time. Ritual is almost independent of social, economic and political influence, existed prior to theology. Purity of pollution is central to ritual

Shaiva theology

outside orthodox Vedic system. Dualistic. Brahman/Shiva and our transcendent selves are distinct but equal. There is also a monistic element that states that our selves (atmans) are part of a unifying Brahman/Shiva. This is all tied to Tamil bhakti

Festivals:

pan-Hindu or local, can be specific to temples where procession of temple icon on carriage occurs. To witness this icon is to have darshan and to receive its blessing

Jataras

place-bound festivals. Usually dedicated to village goddesses. Celebrated at edge of villages or at central crossroads; not typically domestic or temple-oriented, but village-wide. Men dress as women to become Gangamma, who is most powerful during her jatara. Sometimes to fulfill a vow, sometimes because the goddess is so powerful that only women can present themselves to her. Women have shakti, however. Clay face is built at the end of the festival. Give her food offerings.

Gandhi (1869-1948)

political philosophy of non-violence and passive resistance. Used Indian nationalism to oust the British in 1947. Fundamental idea is that Truth, God, who is the supreme being, is one in essence with the self (atman). Believed in emancipation of untouchables (casteless). Ethical Hinduism, where ritual and deities are subordinated to a vision of tolerance, peace, and truth.

Visistadvaita Vedanta

qualified non-dualism. Brahman and atman are the same in essence, but separate enough that separateness is not an illusion. If Brahman is not an illusion, then neither are we. Ramanuja is the theologian. Says that we experience union through bhakti. to achieve union, you must have knowledge and understanding of Brahman. Based more on path of knowledge than path of devotion alone that's seen in Dvaita Vedanta

Cult of Rama:

refers to Vishnu's incarnation of Rama, advocates for devotion to Rama and Sita that is devoid of eroticism. Servant devoted to master instead of love relationship; Ramlila is most popular festival.

Orthopraxy

right action. More consistent than orthodoxy. Rituals maintain, fix, and set hierarchies. Puja is similar across the board. Sanskrit still recited in temples. Caste drives ritual, which has remained fairly static.

Orthopraxy vs. orthodoxy:

right belief vs. right practice. Hinduism is a mostly orthopraxy religion, making it a culture; what you do religiously you do socially, so rituals maintain, fixed and set hierarchies.

Orthodox

right belief. Tradition passed down, reinforcing the power structure. The older something is, the more we consider it legitimate. The mainstream. In this context, the Brahmanical structure. Has changed over time as it absorbs little traditions to survive. Started as Aryan Vedic system, then absorbed pantheon of gods, bhakti traditions. Shiva was outside, but was then absorbed into the Brahmanical structure. The Bhagavad-Gita was a Brahmanical text that allowed for other practices to see off threats. Then absorbed Vaishnavism as well. Remaining challenges are Tantra and some forms of Shaivism, ie. Hot goddess worship and low-caste practices are difficult to sanskritize, as is Tantra.

Ganesha Chaturthi:

sacred to elephant-headed Ganesha, both domestic and communal, celebrated with giant clay idols of Ganesha.

Mantra

sentences, phrases, or words that are recited or chanted for ritual or soteriological purposes. Most important one is om, the sound of the universe in the Bhagavad-Gita.

Sthala Purana

stories about the power of a specific place. Not every temple has a story associated with it, however. Deities of that place are the most powerful at that particular temple/site. There are many sacred places in India

BJP:

the Bharatiya Janata Party is the political faction of the Hindu nationalist movement, seeking to uphold rights of Hindus and abolish secularist views in India, and instead impose a traditional value system

Marriage

the most important rite of passage for a Hindu. After marriage, women come into their auspiciousness. They lose this auspiciousness when they become widows and lose significant social status. Great variation between regions, castes, sub-sects, and families. Usually arranged and to same caste. Dowry or bride-prices. Bride-to-be blessed by married women. Women usually given talis, which are necklaces and function like rings. Argument over whether the tali symbolizes man giving women their auspiciousness or whether they already have it. Talis are source of female power, tucked away in South India. Divorced or widowed women remove them.

Festivals

there are many. Some are pan-Indian, like Diwali/Deepavali, others are local or regional. Can occur at pilgrimage sites, where people take vows to go to them. Can involve processions where murtis of the gods are taken through the streets so people can take darshan, and are then installed in a new location. Usually tied to seasons.

Ayodhya:

thought to be the birthplace of Rama and setting of the Ramayana

Goddesses need

to be appeased with blood and meat. Many local festivals, but pan-Hindu deity festival is Durga-puja

Pilgrimages

undertaken during temple festivals, to fulfill a vow, or to accrue auspiciousness. Not required. The journey is part of the ritual. For those who endure more "hardship," considered more auspicious. Range of personal shrines to deities to power of darshan in a specific place. In GF pg 212-213: restrictions fall away during period of pilgrimage (liminal state). Sacred rivers are places of pilgrimage, especially the Ganges. There are traditionally four sacred points at four compass points in India also. People go to all four in a clockwise direction

Durga

vahana (animal mount) is a lion. Explanation above. Combo of male gods. Goddess challenges the brahmanical system in empowering women, but is also absorbed via Sanskritization. Mother= Amma. High-caste women view her as paragon of motherhood, a role model.

Grammadevatas

village deities, fall within the hot category and take the form of a rock or stones, etc. Nave a name and specific location and need to be appeased when disease outbreaks.

Liminal period (GF 201: Victor Turner. **know 201 really well-Barnsley)

when in ritual itself, one is between states. Neither purely in the pre-state nor the post-state. For example, when one is a student, one is neither a child nor an adult. It is a transformative period. Can enter liminal period through such things as taking off shoes before entering temple, saying a prayer, purifying the self with water. Do something to separate us from the outside world and permit us entry into the sacred space (like a temple). Rites of passage exclude rather than include. Can't change from a Dalit to a Brahman, ie. Samskaras are about maintaining dharma.

Gender

when women perform vrats for long lives of their male relatives, could be about their own agency. Also, prepubescent girls are seen to have auspiciousness. As such, marriage does not give them agency, only gives them the opportunity to express it (JBF 165).

Local goddesses associated

with disease (esp. smallpox apparently. Pustular diseases), protect a specific location, and tend to be hot deities.

Satyagraha:

word used by Gandhi to denote his movement for INdian nationhood, "born of Truth, Love and Nonviolence"; included strict moral code

Smarta

worship based on smrti and was pervaded by forms and concepts derived from a non-vedic revelation (the Tantras), but incorporated these forms in a vedic way

Puja

worship of a Hindu deity. The most important part of bhakti, which is the path of devotion. Predominant form of Hinduism today. Puja is a ritual that can be performed in the home or at a temple. Offerings of vegetarian food, flowers, and incense to a deity. The hot goddesses accept blood-sacrifice, alcohol, and meat as offerings. People usually place marks on their forehead (of vermillion powder. Called a tilaka.) after experiencing darshan with the divine, the mutual seeing. Icons/murtis are gods incarnate, not mere representations. Once the deity blesses the food offerings, people eat it as prasad. Deities are bathed, dressed, fed, woken up, and put to sleep. During rituals, camphor lamps are waved in a circular motion before the deity. Devotees then hold their hands over the fire then bring it to their faces to bring the blessings of the deity to themselves. Priests at temples can perform bhajans/songs as form of devotion. At temple, wake up the god(dess) with a bell. Can also dance, as Shiva Nataraja is Lord of Dance

Smriti:

writings containing traditions concerning law, rituals, teachings of the sages, the epics, and the Puranas