HIST 1003 - Decolonization and Communism

Iranian Revolution

(1978-1979) a revolution against the shah of Iran led by the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, which resulted in Iran becoming an Islamic republic with Khomeini as its leader The Iranian revolution of 1979 *demonstrated the power of Islam as staving off secular foreign influences* *Islamist influences grew in Iran during Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi regime* (1919—1980). whom the CIA helped bring to power in 1953. *Money from Iran's lucrative oil industry helped finance industrialization under the shah. while the United States provided Iran with the necessary military equipment to fight communism in the region. By the late l970s, however, *opposition to the Shah*: government was coming from many quarters. *Shia Muslims despised the shah's secular regime*. *Iranian small businesses detested the influence of US. corporations on the economy.* and leftist politicians rejected the Shah's repressive policies. The shah fled the country in early 1979, and power was captured by the lslamist movement under the direction of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (1900—1989). The revolution took on a *strongly anti-US. cast. partly b/c the shah was allowed to travel to the United States* for medical treatment. In retaliation. Shia militants captured sixty—nine hostages at the US. embassy in Tehran, fifty-five of whom remained captives until 1981. In the meantime, *Iranian leaders shut US. military bases and confiscated U.S.-owned economic ventures*. This Islamic power play against a developed nation like the United States inspired other Muslims to undertake terrorist actions. Both cold war politics and decolonization complicated events in southwest Asia in the decades following World War II. The existence of lsmlwincreasingly supported by the capitalist United States—encouraged the wrath of many Arab leaders who supported Palestinian rights. In addition. interference by both superpowers in the region led some Muslims in the region to turn to a fundamentalist interpretation of Islam as an alternate to the capitalist and communist worldviews

Partition and violence in India

*Jinnah had his way*. however. and when the *British withdrew from India in l947 two new flags were raised in place of the British Union Jack— with Jinnah leading Pakistan/ Nehru leading India* Gandhi condemned the dl n as a "vivisection" of his homeland and prophesied lhal "rivers of blood" would flow in i|s wake. His vision cume lrue as the terms of partition were announced and hundreds of thousands of Muslim and Hindu refugees migrated to either Muslim Pakislun (divided between parts of Bengal in lhe east and Punjab in the west) or Hindu India in order to escape religious persecution. By mid 1948 an estimated ten million refugees had made the tortuous journey to one or the other state. and between half a million and one million people had died in the violence that accompanied those massive migrations. Though mired in violence. Indian independence became E| reality with momentous consequences for the process of decolonization, Just as Gandhi's nonviolent resistance to British rule inspired nationalists around the globe before and after World War II. independence in India and Pakistan further encouraged anti—imperial movements throughout Asia and Africa. Moreover. once India left the British empire. there could be little doubt about the late of Britain's remaining imperial possessions.

India's Partition ed Independence: The Coming of Self-Rule

- After *Ww2* = became painfully *obvious to the British government that it could not continue to bear the financial burden of governing India.* particularly since nationalists made it clear that they would accept nothing less than complete independence. As the probability of Indian independence became more pronounced. the *issue of Muslim separatism grew in importance.* and Muslims increasingly *feared their minority status in a free India dominated by Hindus. Muhammad Ali Jinnah* (1876—1948).*leader of the Muslim League*, felt no qualms about frankly exp "ng Muslim concerns and desires for a separate Muslim Slater In response. Congress Party lenders like .lnwuharlal Nehru (1889—1964) and Mohandas K. Gandhi urged all Indians to act and feel as one nation, undivided by what came lo be known as communalism—emphasizing religious over national identity.

The Creation of Israel

-*1947*= *United Nations resolution proposed Palestine Mandate be divided into JEW AND ARAB state* - The Jews then proclaimed the state of Israel on May 14, 1948 -1945 the *Jews embarked violent resistance to British to compel recognition of Jew demands for self-rule.* The *British could not resolve the dispute* and in 1947 turned the region over to the newly created United Nations. -Before the UN could implement its own plans in the region, in May 1948 the *Jews in Palestine announced creation of the independent state of Israel*. claiming territories far larger than those that would have been granted by the UN. In response, the *outraged Arab statesU of Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq joined Palestinians in a war to destroy the new state -*Arab attacks, although boldly fought. were uncoordinated*, and the *Israelis achieved a stunning victory*. A *truce went into effect in early 1949 under UN auspices*, and the *partition of Palestine resulted* -*Jerusalem /Jordan River divided between the new Israeli state and the kingdom of Jordan*. while Israel controlled the coastal areas of Palestine and the Negev Desert to the Red Sea

Chinese Nationalism (youths/intellectuals looked to who as models of reform?, peacemakers approved Jap interference w/?, Shartfei pledged to rid China of ____, some Chinese became interested in Marxist thought + SU eco experiments, Mao Zedong)

-*After Great War* = *nat sentiment developed in China* -*Youths/intellectuals* = *looked to Euro/US* as *Chinese reform models* eagerly *anticipated results of 1919 peace conference in Paris* -They *expected US. govt to support termination of treaty system* and *restoration of full Chinese sovereignty* -Instead, the *peacemakers approved incr Japanese interference in China*. That *decision rose May Fourth Movement*. -*led by students/intellectuals in China's urban areas* = all classes of *Chinese protested against foreign (esp Japanese) interference* -In speeches, newspapers, and novels, the movement's leaders—including student leaders such as *Shartfei—pledged themselves to rid China of imperialism and reestablish national unity* -Disillusioned by the cynical self-interest of the United States and the European powers, some *Chinese became interested in Marxist thought* and the social and *economic experiments in SU*. The anti-imperialist rhetoric of the *Soviet leadership prompted founding of Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in Shanghai in 1921* -Among its early members was *Mao Zedong (1893—1976), a former teacher/librarian viewing a Marxist-inspired soc rev as cure for China's problems*

Arab National States, the Problem of Palestine, and Islamic Resurgence

-*After World War II* = the *Arab states of SW Asia*" including Syria. Iraq. Lebanon. and Jordan *gained independence from France/Britain* -Yet significant *remnants of imperial rule disturbed Arab sovereignty* -The *battle to rid SW Asia of those remnants had twists and turns as the superpowers interfered* in the region. *drawn by its oil reserves* the lifeblood of the cold war's military complexes. -*Independent states responded to superpower interference* = including a *turn to rad fund interpretations of Islam* = *Palestine absorbed much of the region's energies and emotions*

India's Quest for Home Rule (Indian nat threatened British empire's?, building RR facilitated?, British elite of edu Indian admin the?, values of ____,_____,____)

-*Beginning of 20th c.* = *Indian nationalism threatened British empire's hold on India* - *Building of vast railway network across India* to *facilitate raw material exports contributed to nat unity* by *bringing ppl of subcontinent in easy reach of one another* -Moreover. *British created an elite of educated Indian administrators to administer the vast subcontinent* -*Euro system of education familiarized this elite w/ pol/soc values of Euro society.* -Those values. however—*democracy, individual freedom, and equality* = were the *antithesis of empire + promo nat movements*

The People's Republic of China

-*Birth of com China* = *ended* a long pd of *imperialist intrusion in China* + *transformed cold war* -Although *China wasn't been formally ruled by imperial power but countries intruded its sovereignty* in the 19th-20th c. -1920s = *2 groups rose in China to reassert Chinese control over internal affairs*: the *nats + coms* *World War I broke out* = NATS/COMS *engaged in a civil war* -*After Jap defeat* = it was clear by mid— 1948 that the *strategic balance favored coms*, who *inflicted heavy mil defeats on nats from 1948-49* -*Com People's Liberation Army controlled mainland China* = the *nat govt under Jiang Jieshi* (Chiang Kai-shek) sought *refuge on Taiwan/nation's gold reserves.* -Although *Jiang Jieshi proclaimed Taiwanese govt. as the legitimate govt of China* -*Mao Zedong, Chinese Communist Party,* = nevertheless *proclaimed People's Republic of China* on 1 October 1949. That declaration, much to the alarm of the United States, spawned a *close relationship btwn China/SU w/ Mao Soviet socialism imitation*

Cracks in Alliance

-*Chinese crash program of industrialization* = the *SU provided valuable assistance in the form of eco aid/ tech advisers* -MId 1950s = *SU was China's trading partner* Before long, however. *cracks in Soviet-Chinese alliance* -From the *Chinese perspective* = *Soviet aid programs were limited w/ strings attached* -*1955 SU supplied more eco aid to noncom countries(Egypt, India, China)* -friction between *China + India over Tibet* in 1961. The *Chinese were furious when Soviets announced neutrality in conflict* and then belied the announcement by *loaning to India* that exceeded any similar loan ever granted to China. -1964 = *SU/People's Republic of China* had become embarrassingly *public tension* engaging in namecalling. In addition, both nations *openly competed for Africa/Asia influence* esp recent independence ones. The fact that the *People's Republic conducted successful nuclear tests in 1964 enhanced its prestige*. -*Chinese/Soviet split* = *countries w/independent course in cold war by playing caps against coms* and by playing *Soviet communists against Chinese communists* -*l960s-70s* = *Mao transformed Euro com into Chinese com* + After l949 embarked on 2 programs to *accelerate Chinese development + distinguish Chinese com from Soviet com*: the *Great Leap Forward* (1958—1961) and the *Great Proletarian Cultural Rev* = *far-reaching policies* that *hampered pol/eco development that Mao sought*

Deng's China

-*Deng came to power 1981*. and the *l980s* = *years of "Deng's Revolution."* -*Deng limited Mao's commitment to Chinese self-sufficiency/isolation* + China's *entry into int fin trading system*, a move that was *facilitated by relations btwn China/US* in the 1970s. -*To push eco-development* of China = *Deng opened nation to influences suspect under Mao + foreign, cap values*. -Although *Deng didn't hesitate to crack down Chinese society that sought demo reform*—as *he did against students in Beijing's Tiananmen Square* in 1989—he *oversaw eco growth by selectively opening Chinese society to global trade*. -21st c. = *Chinese leaders still keep massive eco growth w/ centralized. com pol control established by Mao* in the early years of the cold war

Egypt and Arab Natlonalism

-*Egyptian mil leaders under Gamal Abdel Nasser* (1918—1970) *committed to opposing Israel + controlling Arab world*. -July 1952 *Nasser/officers staged a bloodless coup ending monarchy of Egypt's King Farouk* -I954. *Nasser named himself prime minister and took control of the government*. He then labored assiduously to *develop Egypt economically and militarily* = *fountainhead* of pan-Arab nationalism

Palestine

-*Great Britain = mandate power in Palestine* after the Great War. and before and during its mandate made *conflicting promises to Palestinian Arabs/Jews who hoped to establish homeland in Palestine*. -With the *Balfour Declaration of I917* = *british govt committed itself to Jew homeland— advocated by Zionists*. who were dedicated to combating anti-Semitism by establishing a national Jewish state. -Thus the *British were compelled to allow Jew migration to Palestine under their mandate* but they also *had to reduce fears of possessors: Palestinian Arabs*. The British therefore *limited the migration* and settlement of Jews and promised to *protected Arabs' pol/eco rights* -This British attempt to balance the causes of *two conflicting groups were unsuccessful*. and largctseale *violence was prevented through the use of imperial military* -*Palestinian Muslims perceived the Jews as alien interlopers* in their own land. At the same time, *Euro Jews under attack by the Nazis and *Zionists armed themselves to protect Jew settlers against Arab* reprises. -End of World War a battle brewed. As Arab states around Palestine gained their freedom from imperial rule, they developed a pan-Arab nationalism sparked by support for their fellow Arabs in Palestine and opposition to Jewish state there. The Holocaust. however. intensified the Jewish commitment to build a state capable ofdefending the world's remaining Jch

Sun Yat-sen (didn't like the communists' desire for ____, called for elimination of _______, wanted the country under _______, CCP members augmented _______, orgs availed themselves of assistance offered by _____)

-*Important nat. leader* = *Sun Yat-sen* *didn't like communists' enthusiasm for proletarian dictatorship*. -Sun's basic ideology called for *elimination of special privileges foreigners, nat reunification, eco-development, demo republican government of universal suffrage* -To realize those goals, he was *determined to bring entire country under Nationalist People's Party, or Guomindang control* -In *1923* = *CCP members augmented ranks of Guomindang* and by *1926 they made up 1/3rd the Guomindang's membership* -Both *orgs availed themselves of the assistance offered by SU* whose *advisors helped reorg Guomindang and CCP* into *effective pol org*. In the process, the Soviets bestowed upon China the basis of a new political system.

African Natlonalism and Independence

-*In Africa (and Asia) = increase in the superpowers' gIobaI influence after World War I* complicated the process of decolonization. -Also *complicating the decolonization process were internal divisions in African societies*. which *undermined attempts to forge national or pan-African identities* -*Tribal. ethnic. religious. and linguistic divides* within and between state boundaries. all of which colonial rulers had exploited. posed a *challenge to African leaders*. particularly once independence came and the imperial enemy departed. -Given the *variety of barriers to African independence*, then, it is not astonishing that independence to all the states in Africa came over the course of several decades—from the late 19503 until 1980.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (one of the most _____ leaders in the 20th c., grew up in a _____ household, study law at ____, went to SA for 22 years to ______, embraced ahimsa and satyagraha, beliefs?, returned and formed?, what 2 mass movements, cared ab what caste?)

-*Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi* (1869—1948). one of the *most remarkable/charismatic leaders of 20th c.* -*Gandhi grew up in prosperous/pious Hindu household, married at 13, left hometown in 1888 to study law in London* -*I893* = *went to South Africa to accept a position w/ Indian firm* + *became involved in organizing local Indian community against racial segregation making Indians second—class citizens* - *Spent 22 yrs in South Africa* = Gandhi *embraced a moral philosophy of tolerance and nonviolence (ahimsa)* and developed technique of *passive resistance satyagraha ("truth and firmness")* -*Belief in simple living* = *renounce material possessions, simple Indian peasant outfit. vegetarian* -*Returning to India in 1915* = *Gandhi became active in Indian politics, transformed Indian National Congress from elitist institution into mass org*. -*Gandhi's unique mixture of spiritual intensity/pol activism* appealed to *Indian pop* and in the eyes of many he quickly *achieved pol/spiritual leader* their Mahatma. or "great soul." -*Member of merchant caste* = *eradicate caste injustices* (esp casteless *Untouchables = hurijans*("children ofGod")) -2 mass movements: *noncooperation movement* (1920—1922) + *civil disobedience movement (1930)* -*economic self-sufficiency* = *prerequisite for self-govt.* = *boycott British goods, schools, offices, courts* and return to wearing homespun cotton clothing. Despite Gandhi's cautions against the use of force. violence often accompanied the protest movement. The British retaliated with arrests. That the British authorities could react brutally was shown in l9|9 in the city of Amritsar, where colonial troops fired on an unarmed crowd. killing 379 demonstrators.

Social and Economic Transformations

-*New People's Republic govt. created pol/eco/soc orgs that reorganized Chinese society* -*Pol power was monopolized by Communist Party* and a politburo chaired by Mao, while *opp was repressed* -*1955* = the *Chinese introduced 5 year plan to encourage industrialization/collectivization of agriculture* on the Soviet model. The Five-YearPlan *emphasized infrastructure/industry expansion for consumer goods* -A *series of agrarian laws* = *confiscated rich peasants/landlords lands + redistributed them* among the people *so that every peasant some land* -Quickly, however, *state-mandated collective farms replaced priv farming* -In the wake of *eco/soc reforms challenged or eliminated Chinese fam traditions*. Supporting equal rights for women. *Chinese authorities introduced marriage laws* that *eliminated child/forced marriages, divorce, abortion, and outlawed foot binding*, a symbol of women's subjugation.

ASIAN PATHS TO AUTONOMY (Paris Peace settlement indirectly affected the?, Nationalism was a powerful force in ___and ____, Indian/Chinese/Jap underwent _____, Indian quest for nat identity was complicated by disparity between ____and____, Chinese path was fraught with foreign/civil war as what 2 parties contended for power)

-*Paris peace settlement barely altered prewar colonial holdings of Euros* yet indirectly the *Great War affected relations btwn Asians + imperial powers* -*After Great War* = *nationalism developed into powerful pol force in Asia* (esp India/China) -*Twin ideals of independence from foreign powers/nat unity* = became a *dream of intellectuals + goal of new pol leaders* -*Searching for new identities* untainted by the dependent past = *Asians transformed Euro ideologies of nationalism/socialism* to fit indigenous traditions - *Indians/Chinese followed Japan who already adapted Euro/American eco strategies to its own advantage* - *Dissatisfied with its status* = *Japan used militarism/imperial expansion in the interwar years* to enhance its national identity. -*Indian. Chinese, Japanese societies* = underwent a prolonged *period of disorder/struggle until new order In India* the quest for national identity focused on gaining *independence from British rule* but was *complicated by sectarian differences between Hindus+Muslims* -*Chinese path* to national identity was fraught with *foreign/civil war as two principal groups—the Nationalist and Communist parties*—contended for power, *Japanese militarists made China's quest for national unity more difficult,* because Japan struggled to overcome its domestic problems through *conquests that focused on China.*

The Republic (plunged into integration ruled by?, Beijing central govt ran what? what were warlords responsible for? unequal treaties permitted what?)

-*Rev of 1911* = *didn't establish stable govt*. -*Republic plunged into pol anarchy/eco disintegration* *ruled by warlords* who were *disaffected generals of old imperial Chinese army* -Although the *Beijing central govt ran post office + other services* the warlords = provincial rulers -Because the *warlords were responsible for neglection of irrigation projs* for the *opium trade revival* and the *decline of eco investments* they *contributed to deterioration/instability of Chinese society* -Yet *warlords* = symbol of the *disintegration of the pol order* -*Relationship btwn native authority + foreign powers* was another -Since the *19th c, a collection of treaties in China as unequal treaties* = *established foreign control over Chinese economy* that *permitted foreign intervention in Chinese society* Foreigners did not control the state. but through their *privileges impaired its sovereignty*

China's search for order (Chinese empire underwent ____ from imperial powers, the rev forced _____ to abdicate, Qing empire fell and ______ who is a leading opp of old regime became pres)

-*Shanfei's life story* = suggested, *in first 1/2 of 20th c. China was in continual rev upheaval* -*Conflict's origins dated from 19th c. when Chinese empire underwent pressure from imperialist powers* -*Rev/nat uprisings* = *widespread support* + *rev in 1911 forced the Xuantong emperor*(child: Puyi) *to abdicate* -The *Qing empire fell* with relative ease. *Dr. Sun Yat-sen* (1866—1925). a *leading opponent of old regime* = *first prov pres of new Chinese republic* in 1912.

Cuba: Nuclear Flashpoint

-Ironically, the *cold war confrontation unleashing nuclear war took place not at the expected flashpoints in Euro/Asia but Cuba*. In 1959 a revolutionary movement headed by *Fidel Castro Ruz* (192(k) *overthrew the autocratic Fulgencio Batista y Zaldivar* (190l—l973).whose regime had gone to great lengths to *maintain the country's trad subservient relationship with US* Denouncing American imperialism. Castro seized *foreign properties and businesses. most of which were U.S. owned*. He also accepted assistance from the Soviet Union. The *US. govt cut off Cuban sugar imports to the U.S. market* and imposing a severe export embargo of U.S. goods on Cuba U.S. officials also cut diplomatic relations with Cuba and secretly began planning an invasion of the island. The severing of ties between Cuba and the United States gave the Soviet Union an unprecedented opportunity to contest the dominant position of the United States in its own hemisphere. Castro's regime accepted a Soviet offer of massive military and economic aid. including an agreement to purchase half of Cuba's sugar production. In return for the Soviet largesse. Castro loudly declared his support for the USSR's foreign policy at the UN General Assembly on 26 September I960

The India Act (gave India the institutions of ______, created _____, who disagreed?, who headed the Muslim League that focused on unified India with ____, Jinnah's proposal?)

-Sustained nationalist opp+ post-years of hesitation, the *British parliament enacted the Govt of India Act* which gave *India the institutions of self-gov state* -*Legislation allowed for autonomous legislative bodies in British India*, the creation of a *bicameral (two-chambered) nat legislature* and the *formation of an executive arm* under the control of the British government. -*Upon urging of Gandhi*= *majority of Indians approved 193 India Act* proved *unworkable b/c India's 600 sovereign princes refused to cooperate* + *Muslims feared Hindus would dominate nat. legislature* -*Muslims concerned b/c they already faced Hindu eco control during GD which severely impacted India* -*Muslims constituted majority of indebted tenant farmers* during the *Great Depression* + *unable to pay rents/debts to Hindu landlords* -*Muslims felt they were exploited by Hindus* + *aggravated tensions btwn 2 groups* -*Muhammad Ali Jinnah* (1876—1948). an eloquent/brilliant lawyer who *headed Muslim League* (*separate nat org in 1906*) that *focused on Indian Muslims* —wanted that a *unified India* In place of one India, he proposed two states. one of which would be the *"land of the pure," or Pakistan* -*Jinnah's proposal= uncomfortable reality of Indian division of Hindus and Muslims*

The Cuban Missile Crisis

1962 *crisis that arose between the United States and the Soviet Union over a Soviet attempt to deploy nuclear missiles in Cuba* On 22 October I962 President Kennedy went on national television to inform the public about the U.S. discovery of offensive nuclear missiles and launch sites in Cuba. He told the public that the deployment of nuclear missiles so close to the United States represented an unacceptable threat to US. national security. Kennedy also called on the Soviet leadership to withdraw all missiles from Cuba and stop the arrival of additional nuclear armaments. To back up his demand. *Kennedy imposed an air and naval quarantine on the island nation that went into effect two days later. *The superpowers seemed poised for nuclear confrontation. and for a week the world's peoples held their collective breath Understanding the seriousness of a nuclear showdown over Cuba. Nikita Khrushchev agreed to *Kennedy withdrew the missiles on the condition that the United States pledge not to invade Cuba.* He also received a private promise from Kennedy that U.S. missiles in Turkey would be removed. Khrushchev informed the public of the end of the crisis in a worldwide radio broadcast on 28 October. and global tension began to ebb. Nonetheless. the Cuban missile crisis revealed the dangers of the bipolar world—especially the ways in which cold war rivalries so easily drew other areas of the world into their orbit.

Indian National Congress (this went against what rule?, support of___, after Great War collab w/ British to bring self rule to _____, war led to scarcity of food/good and upsurge in _____, British govt responded with _____)

A movement and political party founded in 1885 to demand greater Indian participation in government. Its membership was middle class, and its demands were modest until WW1 (*NATIONALISM, RACISM/ANTI-SEMITISM, AND IMPERIALISM*). Led after 1920 by Mohandas K. Gandhi, appealing to the poor. *Most influential association against British rule* = *Indian National Congress in 1885* -This organization enlisted the *support of Hindus/Muslims* at first *stressed collaboration w/ British to bring self-rule to India but *after Great War the congress pursued that goal opp British* -During the *Great War* = *Indians rallied to the British cause* + *nat movements remained inactive* -As the *war led to scarcities of goods, food* *social discontent w/ British rule led to an up surge in nationalist activity* -*Indian nationalists* also drew *encouragement from ideas emanating from Washington. DC, St, Petersburg, Woodrow Wilson's 14 Points* (which called for national self—determination) and *Lenin's appeal for a united struggle by proletarians/colonized* -The *British govt responded to increased nationalism* in this period *w/ repressive measures precipitating a wave of violence/disorder throughout the Indian subcontinent*

Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution

A movement launched by Mao Zedong that attempted to purge the Chinese Communist Party of long-serving bureaucrats and recapture the revolutionary fervor of his guerrilla struggle and carried out by red guard. -*1966* = *Mao tried to mobilize Chinese + reignite rev spirit* w/ inauguration of Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution + *root out foreign bourgeois/anticom values in Chinese* life. -Cultural Revolution *subjected people to humiliation, persecution, death.* -The *elite constituted major targets of Red Guards* = *youthful zealots empowered to cleanse Chinese society of opp to Mao*. -*Victims were beaten, killed, jailed.* or *sent to corrective labor camps* or to toil in the countryside. -Cultural Revolution which *cost China years of stable development* and *gutted edu system*. remained undiminished until after Mao's death in l976. It *FELL to one of Mao's heirs DENG Xiaoping* to heal the nation.

Apartheid in South Africa

Afrikaans for apartness, it was the segregation of blacks in South Africa from 1948 to 1994. It was created to keep the white minority in power and allow them to have almost total control over the black majority. The ability of whites to resist majority rule had its roots in the South African economy. the strone gest on the continent This strength had two sources: extractionof minerals and industrial development. which received a huge boost during World War It. In 1948. *white South Africansrwho feared the black activism and political reform that seemed to he stirring in the nationibrought the Afrikaner National Party to power. Under the National Party the government instituted a harsh new set of laws designed to control the restive black population*. These new *laws constituted the system known as apartheid. or "separateness.* ' which was designed to divide the peoples of South Africa by skin color and ethnicity and to reserve South Africa's re» sources for whites. Apartheid. however, generated tremendous re ance to white rule. The African National Congress (ANC). formed in I912. gained new young leaden like Nelson Mandela 091872013), who inspired direct action cartipaigns to protest apartheid, Yet because its goals directly challenged white rule, the ANC, along with all other black activists in Saudi Africa, faced severe repression. indeed. protests against white rule frequently erupted into violence. One notorious incident, for example, occurred in Sharpeville in l960, when white police killed sixty-nine black demonstrators and wounded almost two hundred others. However, even though government forces captured and imprisoned the leaders of the ANC'.' military unit in [963. including Nelson Mandela, protests against the system persisted throughout the l970s and l980s

Civil War in China (After Sun Yat-sen death, Guomindang fell to _____, aimed to unify under _____, turned against com + ended _______ alliance, nat forces occupied?, what happened to foreign trade?, nats controlled part of China leaving it in?, Red Army long march, Mao Zedong became?, peasants over proletariat)

After the *death of Sun Yat-sen in I925*, the leadership of the *Guomindangfell to Jiang Jieshi* (Chiang Kaishek) "(87 N75) *young gen. trained in Japan/SU* -Launched *pol/military offensive* = *Northern Expedition* = *AIMED TO UNIFY CHINA under Guomindang Rule* -*1927* = Jieshi brutally/unexpectedly *turned against com allies* bringing *alliance btwn Guomindang/CCP to a bloody end* -1928 = *Nat. forces occupied Beijing* + *set up central govt. in Nanjing* and *declared Guomindang the off govt of a unified/sovereign Chinese state -*GD* = *foreign trade in tea/silk declined made up small part of China's eco* + *dominated by domestic markets* -*New Chinese govt avoided global eco devastation* it did have to *confront 3 major probs during the 1930s* -*Nationalists controlled part of China leaving country in warlords* -1930s = *com rev was major threat* -*Guomindang faced incr Japanese aggression* -*Jiang Jieshi gave priority to eliminating the CCP* -*Unable to ward off relentless attacks of nat forces* *Coms took flight in October 1934 to avoid annihilation* and *85 thousand troops and auxiliary personnel of' the Red Army began the legendary Long March* an epic journey of 10.000 kilometers (6.215 milest After traveling across *difficult terrain/fighting for survival against hunger, disease, Guomindang forces* those marchers who had not perished *arrived in remote Shaanxi province in northwestern China* in October 1935 and established *headquarters at Yan'an*. During the Long March. *Mao Zedong emerged as the leader/principal theoretician of the Chinese com movement* -*Chinese form of Marxist/Leninism/Maoism, an ideology grounded in the conviction that peasants rather than urban proletarians were the foundation for a successful rev in China*

Afrlcan Independence

Agitation for independence in Africa took on many forms. peaceful and violent. and decolonization occurred at a different pace in different nations. Ghana became independent in I957. but independence came much later—and after bloody conflicts— to Algeria (I962). Angola (I975). and Zimbabwe. formerly Southern Rhodesia (I980). In many instances. African nations sealed their severance from imperial con» trol by adopting new names that shunned the memory of European nile and drew from the glory of Africa's past empires. Ghana set the pattern. and the map of Africa soon featured similar references to precolonial African places: Zambia. Malawi. Zimbabwe.

Iran-Contra Scandal

Although Congress had prohibited aid to the Nicaraguan contras, individuals in Reagan's administration continued to illegally support the rebels. These officials secretly sold weapons to Iran in exchange for the release of American hostages being held in the Middle East. Profits from these sales were then sent to the contras. The brutality, corruption. and pro-U.S. policies of the Somoza family alienated other Latin American nations as well as Nicaraguans. In the early 19605, a few Nicamguans created the Sandinista Front for National Liberation in honor of the murdered Augusto Sandino. The Sandinistas. as they became known. launched guerrilla operations aimed at overthrowing the Somozas and finally took power in 1979. Although the Sandinislas were recognized by the administration of then president Jimmy Carter. when the staunchly anticommunist Ronald Reagan came to the presidency in l98l this recognition was reversed. Because Reagan be— lieved that the Sandinistas were helping communist rebels elsewhere in Central America, such as El Salvador. he halted aid to Nicaragua and instituted an econorttic boycolt of the country, Then. in [983, Reagan offered increasing support—monetary and military—to the Centres, a CIA

Internal Colonialism In South Africa

As in Kenya, the presence of large numbers of *white settlers in South Africa delayed the arrival of black freedom*, For decades after World War 1]. South Afr ' majority hlack population remained disposv sessed and disenfranchised. Anticolonial agitation thus w ignillcantly different in South Afr than in the rest of subhan Afrlc it was a struggle against internal colonia sm, against an oppressivewhite regime that *denied basic human and civil rights to tens of millions of South Africans.*

The Great Leap Forward

China's second five-year plan under the leadership of the impatient Mao, it aimed to speed up economic development while simultaneously developing a completely socialist society. This plan failed and more than 20 million people starved between 1958 and 1960. -*Mao envisioned GLF overtaking industrial prod of developed nations* + and to that end *worked to COLLECTIVIZE LAND/manage business + industrial enterprises* collectively. -*Priv ownership was abolished + farming/industry became largely rural/communal*. *"Giant Step Backward" FAILED.* -Most disastrous was its *impact on agricultural prod in China*: the *peasants couldn't meet quotas* + *bad harvests caused famines* in history. Between 1959 and 1962 as many as *20mil Chinese died of starvation and malnutrition* in this crisis.

Ghana

Ghana's success in achieving its freedom from British rule in 1957 served as a hallmark in Africa's end of empire. Under the leadership of Kwame Nkrumah (1909—1972). political parties and strategies for mass action took shape. Although the British initially subjected Nkrumah and other nationalists to jail terms and repressive control. gradually they allowed reforms and negotiated the peaceful transfer of power in their Gold Coast colony. After it became independent in 1957. Ghana em» boldened and inspired other African nationalist move» merits. Nkrumah. as leader of the first sub-Saharan African nation to gain independence from colonial rule. became a persuasive spokesperson for pan-African unity

Fighting the French

However. the French. humiliated by their country's easy defeat and occupation by the Germans. sought to reclaim their imperial possessions—including Vietnam—as a way of regaining their world-power status. By 1947. they seemed to have secured their power in much of the country. Yet that security proved to be temporary. Much like the Chinese communists in their battles against the Japanese and then against the nationalists in the postwar years. the Vietnamese resistance forces. led by Ho Chi Minh and General Vo Nguyen Giap (1912»2013). mounted a campaign of guerrilla warfare. The Vietnamese communists increasingly regained control of their country. especially after 1949 when communist China sent aid and arms to the Viet Minh. Thus strengthened, they defeated the French at their fortress in Dien Bien Phu in 1954. The French had to sue for peace at the conference table.

Islamism

I-n southwest Asia, peace seemed a distant prospect given the *political turmoil caused by Israel in the midst of Arab-Islamic states* + *allied themselves w/ SU as Israel became a staunch ally ofthe US* -The *region could hardly be ignored by superpowers, b/c of oil dictating superpowers* vie for favor~and interfere when necessary—in the Arab states. -One response to *US. and Soviet interference in southwest Asia and north Africa was a revival of Muslim traditions*. which found expression in lslamism. At the heart of *Islamism was the desire for the reassertion of Islamic values in Muslim politics.* Many Muslims had become skeptical about European and American models of economic development and political and cultural norms, *which they blamed for eco/pol failure as well as the breakdown of traditional social and religious values.* The solution to the problems faced by Muslim societies lay. according to Islamists, in the revival of *Islamic identity, values. and power*

Bay of Pigs

In April 1961, a group of Cuban exiles organized and supported by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency landed on the southern coast of Cuba in a failed effort to overthrow Fidel Castro. When the invasion ended in disaster, President Kennedy took full responsibility for the failure. Cuba's alignment with the Soviet Union spurred newly elected president John F. Kennedy (19I7—l963) to approve a plan to invade Cuba and overthrow Castro. In April I961 a force of 1,500 anti-Castro . Cubans trained. armed. and transported by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) landed on Cuba at a place called the Bay of Figs. The invasion, however, was a complete failure and actually strengthened Castro's position in Cuba as well as his commitment to communism. It also likely encouraged Castro to accept and the Soviets to deploy nuclear missiles in Cuba as a deterrent to any future invasion.

Nat. struggles in Vietnam

In contrast to India. Vietnam could not keep its nationalist struggle for independence separate from the complications of the cold war. Rather. Vietnam became deeply enmeshed in the contest between capitalism and communism. which meant that decolonization there was a long and bloody process

Suez Crisis

July 26, 1956, Nasser (leader of Egypt) nationalized the Suez Canal, Oct. 29, British, French and Israeli forces attacked Egypt. UN forced British to withdraw; made it clear Britain was no longer a world power -*Like India's Nehru* = **Nasser refused to align himself w/ US or SU*. because he believed that *cold war power pols were a new form of imperialism* -In fact, *Nasser ridded Egypt/Arab world of imperial interference* -However. *Nasser sealed his reputation during the Suez crisis of 1956*. when he decided to *nationalize the Suez Canal and use the money for internal Egyptian projects*. -When *he did not bow to int pressure to provide multinational control of Suez Canal*. British, French, and *Israeli forces combined to wrest control of the canal away from him. Their *mil campaign was successful, but they failed diplomatic level* and tore at the fabric of the bipolar world system. -*They had not consulted w/ US* + *condemned the attack and forced them to withdraw* - The *SU objected forcefully. thereby gaining a reputation for being a staunch supporter of Arab nationalism*. - Nasser gained tremendous prestige, and Egypt solidified its position as leader of the charge against imperial holdovers in southwest Asia and north Africa. Meanwhile. the Suez crisis further tangled cold war power politics because it *divided US and its allies in western Europe.*

End of Apartheid in South Africa

Meanwhiler international opposition lo oppressive white South African rule grewi Eventually, the combined effects of massive black agitation and a powerful international antlsaparlheid boycott led to a growing recogni~ tion that ifit were to survive. South Africa had to change. Thus. when F. W. de Klerk (l936-) became president of South Africa in I989, he and the National Party hcgan to dismantle the apartheid system. De Klerk released Mandela from jail in 1990. legali/ed the ANC. and worked with Mandela and the ANC to negotiate the end of white minority rule. Collahorat» ing and cooperating. the National Party. the ANC. and other African political groups created a new constitution and in April I994 held elections that were open to people of all races. The ANC won overwhelmingly. and Mandela became the first black president of ' South Africa. in l994, as president, he proclaimed his nation "free at last

The Demo Rep of the Congo

The experience of some African countries, however, demonstrated the dangers of beconting entangled in cold war politics after World War II, This was the case in the land once known as the Belgian Congo. which was reconfigured as Zaire in 1971 and renamed the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 1997. The region won independence from Belgium in 1960 under the popular leadership of Patrice Lumumba (1925—1960. who was also a Maoist Marxist. The general Mobutu Sese Seko (19304997), a contender for power. killed Lumumba the very next year in a mili— tary coup supported by the United States. Although Mobutu ruled Zaire as a dictatorand devastated the economy in the process of enriching himself. his government continued to receive support from the United States and other European democracies hoping to quell the growth of communism in Africa. Thus the convergence of de» colonization with the politics of the cold war helped to undermine the possibilities for lasting stability in an independent Zaire.

Nonalignment

The nonalignment movement remained weak because many nonaligned states needed and accepted aid from either the United States or Soviet Union. -Another way in which Indian independence inspired other nations was Nehru's strategy for grappling with decolonization in the midst of a cold war. Nehru called his strategy nonalignment. arguing that "each country has not only the right to freedom but also to decide its own policy and way of life." In April 1955 leaders from twenty~threeAsian and six African nations including Nehru#met in Bandung. Indonesia to discuss nonalignment as an alternative to choosing between the United States and the Soviet Union. Besides discussing neutrality in the cold war, the Bandung Conference also stressed the struggle against colonialism and racism. Bandung was the precursor of the broader Nonaligned Movement, which held occasional meetings so that its members could discuss their relations with the United States and the Soviet Union. The movement's primary goal was to maintain formal neutrality. However. although theoretically nonaligned with either cold war superpower. many member states had close ties to one or the other. and this situation caused division within the movement. For example. the Philippines and Cuba clearly supported the US. and Soviet camps. respectively. NevERtheless. other individual states avoided becoming pawns in the cold war by announcing the policy of nonalignment advocated by Nehru. Since winning its independence. India has stood out among deColonized nations not just for its advocacy of nonalignment. but also for it. bility to maintain its politi— cal stability and its demoer' 'ystcm. Indeed. even though India has faced many of the same crises that have shaken other developing nations—ethnic and religious conflict. wars. poverty.political assassinations. and overpopulation— Nehru's heirs have remained committed to free elections and a critical press

The Geneva Conference and Partial Independence

The peace conference. held in Geneva in 1954. determined that *Vietnam should be temporarily divided at the seventeenth parallel; North Vietnam would be controlled by Ho Chi Minh and the communist forces. and South Vietnam would remain in the hands of noncommunists.* Leaving all of Vietnam in the hands of Ho's communists was unthinkable for the United States. especially after the globalization of the cold war that had accompanied the Korean War. The US. had already aided the French in their struggle against Ho—now they did the same with the government of South Vietnam. Violating the terms of the Geneva Agreements. which *required elections that would Likely have brought Ho to power. South Vietnam's leaders. with US, military support. avoided elections and sought to build a government that would prevent the spread of communism in South Vietnam and elsewhere in Asia. However. the leaders ofSouth Vietnam did not have the support of the people. who quickly grew discontented enough to resort [0 arms

Amicolonial Rebelllon In Kenya

The process of attaining independence did not always prove as nonviolent as in Ghana The battle that took place in the British colony of Kenya in east Africa demonstrated the complexity and difficulty of African decolonization. The situation in *Kenya turned tense and violent in a clash between powerful white settlers and nationalists. especially the Kikuyu. one of Kenya's largest ethnic groups*. Beginning in 1947. Kikuyu rebels embarked on a violent campaign against Europeans and African collaborators. The *settlers who controlled the col govt in Nairobi refused to see the uprisings as a legitimate expression of discontent with colonial rule*. Rather. they branded the Kikuyu tribes as radicals—calling them Mau Mau subversivcs or communists—bent on a ra< cial struggle for primacy. In reality. *Kikuyu radicalism and violence had much more to do with nationalist opposition to British colonial rule. especially land policies in Kenya*. In the [9305 and 19405. white settlers had pushed many Kikuyu off the most fertile highland farm areas and reduced them to the status of wage slaves or relegated them to overcmwded "tribal reserves." Resistance began in the early 19405 with labor strikes and violent direct-action carnpaigns. but attackson white settlers and black collaborators escalated in the I9505. In 1952 the British established a state of emergency to crush the anticolonial guerrilla movement. Unable or unwilling to distinguish violent activism from nonviolent agitation. the British moved to suppress all nationalist groups and jailed Kenya's nation~ alist leaders. including .Iomo Kenyatta 0895-1978) in 1953. Amid growing resistance to colonial rule. the British mounted major military offenses against rebel forces. sup porting British army troops with artillery. bombers. and jet fighters. By 1956 the British had effectively crushed all military resistance in a conflict that claimed the lives of tens of thousands of Africans and one hundred Europeans. Despite military defeat. Kikuyu fighters broke British resolve in Kenya and gained increasing international recognition of African grievances. The British resisted the radical white supremacism and political domineering of the settlers in Kenya and instead responded to calls for Kenya's independence. In 1959 the British lifted the state of emergency, altd as political parties formed. nationalist leaders like Kenyatta reenterged to lead those parties. By December l963 Kenya had negotiated its independence.

Neoimperialism in LA

The uneasy path to independence in Asia and Africa also affected states on the otherside of the world—states that had gained their freedom from colonial rule more than a century before postwar decolonization but that were still in many ways subject to the grasp of imperialist forces. Indeed. after World War 11 nations in Central and South America along with Mexico grappled with the conscrva» tive legacies of Spartish and Portuguese colonialism par~ ticularly the political and economic power of the landowning elite of European descent. Latin America. moreover. had to deal with neocolonialism. because the United States not only intervened militarily when its in— terests were threatened but also had long influenced economies through investment and full or part ownership of enterpriseslike the oil industry. In addition, during the cold war the establishment of communist and socialist regimes—or the instigation of programs and policies that hinted of anti-Americanism— regularly provoked a response from the United States. To be sure. the United States had insisted on the right to interfere in Latin American affairs since the enunciation of the Monroe Doctrine in 1823, and by the early 19205 Latin America had become the site of fully 40 percent of U.S. foreign investments. Yet after World War [1 cold war imperatives also shaped many U.S. actions in Latin America.

Fighting the Japanese

Vietnam's nationalist communist leader. Ho Chi Minh (1890—1969). had been struggling for autonomy from French imperialism for two decades when World War ll broke out in Europe. Thus the Japanese invasion of his homeland after the fall of France in 1940 seemed to Ho like the replacement of one imperialist power with another. During the war. Ho fought against the Japanese and in the waning days of the war helped oust them from Vietnam altogether. With both the French and the Japanese gone. Ho took the opportunity to establish himself as leader of an independent Vietnam.

Decolonization and the Global Cold War

While the cold war was in the midst of dividing western Europe and the United States from eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. another global process had already begun to transform the postwar world in equally important ways: decolonization. By the end of World War II. nationalist movements devoted to the cause of independence from imperial rule had become irrepressible in both Asia and Africa Independence came at different times in different places. depending on local circumstances and the attitude of the imperial power In some places. the course of independence was intricately tied to the politics of the cold war because both new super» powers frequently offered support to nationalist leaders who pledged allegiance to their political and ideological agendas. While most former British colonies in both Asia and Africa avoided the complication of becoming tied up in superpower struggles for influence. others— such as Vietnam and Angola—found that they were caught squarely in the middle of nationalist and cold war politics. Yet despite sometimes long and protracted struggles, more than ninety nations became independent between the end of World War II and 1980. while others that had not been formally controlled—especially in Latin America—also sought to throw off the shackles of foreign influence.

Fraternal Cooperation

between China and SU. common enemy: US. China recognizes Moscow's auth. in comm. in exchange for mil. and econ. aid. Cracks: SU strings-attached-aid. China v. India, loans in Korean War, influence in Africa/Asia. -*Moscow/Beijing drew closer during cold war b/c of common socialism* + *US establishing anticom protections in Asia* -Most disconcerting to Soviet and Chinese leaders was the *American~sponsored rehabilitation of former enemy. Japan, South Korea, Taiwan.* -The *Chinese-Soviet partnership* matured during the early 1950s and took on a distinct form when *Beijing recognizes Moscow's authority in world com. for Russian military equipt/eco aid*

cold war stalemate (Vietnam)

nationalists communist Viet Cong attacks on government of south Vietnam johnson launches bombing campaign-sent group troops in 1965 us troops trapped in quagmire nationalists communist Viet Cong attacks on government of south Vietnamjohnson launches bombing campaign-sent group troops in 1965us troops trapped in quagmireIn 1960 South Vietnamese nationalists—with the aid of weapons and troops from the north—formed the National Liberation Front to fight for freedom from South Vietnamese rule and to end US. military interference in the area. In North Vietnam. the government received economic and military assistance from the Soviet Union and China. which in turn reinforced the US. military commitment in the south. The participation of three major world powers in the Vietnamese conflict ensured thatthe war would be a long. bloody. and expensive stalemate. UltiA mately. United States forces withdrew from this unwinnable war in 1975. and in 1976 North Vietnam conquered the south. united the country. and at long last declared independence. Although the Vietnamese ultimately did achieve their longawaited independence, their experience demonstrated the dangers of what could occur when independence movements became entangled with the politics and logic of the cold war