HIST 220 Final Exam Term Identifications

Helen Stephens

Helen Stephens was an American athlete and was accused by Germany of being a man after she won a gold medal during the 1936 Games. She was very muscular and the world believe that she did not resemble a typical female, so she was forced to go under examination to verify her sex.

Zola Budd

A Great Britain Olympian who ran barefoot. She was originally from South Africa, but Great Britain gained citizenship for her. Budd was a symbol for South African Apartheid and she was protested everywhere she went. She held the world record for the women's 3000m going into the 1984 Los Angeles Games. She was involved in a scandal with Decker-Slaney, an American runner who claimed that Budd tripped her, but she was found innocent and was the gold medal winner in the 3000m.

Agenda 2020

Agenda 2020 is a vision for the future of the Olympic Games. Some see this as a real effort to change the Olympic Games for the better, while others see this as a way to rebrand and continue to make money off of the games. As bids to host the games have become scarce, Agenda 2020 is a plan to make hosting the games look more attractive and beneficial to the host city.

"The Dream Team"

A group of athletes who played basketball for the USA at the 1992 Barcelona Games. These were also professional athletes. Following years of amateurism (and rule breaking) at the Olympics, the IOC changed its charter in the early 1990s to allow professional athletes to play on national teams. Professionalism was most readily obvious on this team of some of basketball's most famous names, including Charles Barkley, Larry Bird, and Michael Jordan.

Much Wenlock Games

A sporting festival created in 1850 by Dr. William Penny Brookes that includes tilting-at-the-ring, archery, footraces, drinking, singing, and dancing. This event still exists, but it is normally English only. There are no qualifications and anyone can participate. This is thought to be the seed of the modern Olympic Games.

Abebe Bikila

Abebe Bikila was an ethiopian athlete and the first black african to win a gold medal. He won the gold medal for the Marathon in 1960 and in 1964. He is remembered by showing up to run the race with no shoes on.

Alice Milliat

Alice Milliat was an activist for women's sports in France and around the world. Milliat held a Women's Olympics that would include all sports, rather than just the restricted amount that were allowed at the IOC's Olympic Games. So many people came to watch the Women's Olympics and the athletes who participated were such a success, the IOC decided the change their mind and include more women's events in 1928.

Union of Free Eastern European Sportsmen

At the 1960 Rome Olympic Games, 10 displaced athletes competed under the olympic flag as the refugee olympic team. This idea had been proposed by the Union of Free Eastern European Sportsmen in 1952 as the refugees were seeking residency and did not have a nation to represent at the Games. They intended to say that communism was a corrupt system and the real motivation for establishing this organization was political for counter propaganda.

Seeds of Hope

At the 2016 Rio Games, athletes were given seeds that were supposed to be planted after the games. These seeds were intended to help offset the environmental impacts of hosting the Olympic Games, however, the seeds have still not been planted.

"Barcelona Model"

At the Barcelona Games of 1992, the city was completely transformed into a perfect tourist destination. The idea behind this model is that if you redevelop the city, more tourist will come and more money will come with them.

Ben Johnson

Ben Johnson was one of the top 4 finishers in the 100m at the 1988 Games who was taken to a control room to be tested for drugs. His urine tested positive for steroids in both of the containers and the gold medal was given to the second place finisher, Carl Lewis. It is believed that a friend of the second place finisher put the steroids in the beer he was drinking before taking his test and attempted to set him up to fail.

Black September

Black September was an organization of Palestinian terrorists who stormed into the Olympic Village in 1972 and took Israeli athletes hostage. They demanded that Israel release the Arab prisoners in return for the Israeli athletes who were being held hostage.

Avery Brundage

Brundage is the most important American in Olympic history. He was a former Olympian and competed in the decathlon in 1912. He was the president of the AAU, the AOC from 1929-1952, and the IOC from 1952-1972. Brundage was a true believer of Olympism, meaning that politics should be kept out of the Games, the Olympics should occur every four years, and that athletes should come together to play sports to ease global tensions. He was very conservative, racist, anti-semitic, and anti-communist.

Caster Semenya

Caster Semenya won a gold medal in 2016 in the 800m and began to face accusations about her unfair biological advantage of too much testosterone. Her female competitors called her half man because she wore longer running shorts and did not shave her armpits. After a blood test revealing that she had hyperandrogenism and that her testosterone levels were above the limit, she was told that she must take medications to alter the level of testosterone in her body before she can continue to compete

Caster Semenya

Caster Semenya won a gold medal in 2016 in the 800m and began to face accusations about her unfair biological advantage of too much testosterone. Her female competitors called her half man because she wore longer running shorts and did not shave her armpits. After a blood test revealing that she had hyperandrogenism and that her testosterone levels were above the limit, she was told that she must take medications to alter the level of testosterone in her body before she can continue to compete.

Cathy Freeman

Cathy Freeman was an Aboriginal Australian sprinter who carried the flag of her country on her back when she won her events, paying tribute to her heritage. Her heritage helped forge Aboriginal reconciliation at the Games (some criticized it as being a sell-out for a feel good moment, but it was widely regarded as a symbol of hope)

Damien Hooper

Damien Hooper is an Australian light heavy weight boxer. He entered the ring wearing a shirt with the Aboriginal flag a symbol of pride, unity and identity. His actions were said to be a violation of Rule 50 because it was interpreted as a "political demonstration." He did it for the purpose of honoring his heritage though. Illustrates issues with Rule 50: people being denied rights to represent their heritage and culture in areas where colonialism created issues with native people and forced assimilation.

Dora Ratjen

Dora Ratjen had faced accusations about being a male but was never pressed for verification because she had placed 4th in her event. A few years later, someone noticed her on a train and said that she had facial hair. Many believed that she was a man dressed as a woman, which is illegal in Germany, and was taken off the train to be examined. Because of her ambiguous genitalia, she was determined to be an intersex athlete. She eventually changed her name and decided to be male because she had felt like she was a male as she got older.

USSR v. Hungary (Water Polo 1956)

During the water polo match at the semi finals, the Hungarians had a 2-0 lead and started taunting the Soviet athletes. As a result, a fight broke out among the players and with a minute left in the match with a 4-0 lead, a soviet athlete threw his elbow at a Hungarian player and the match was cancelled in the last minute leaving "blood in the pool". The match already had high emotions before it ever started. There was animosity towards the USSR in Hungary; Hungary wanted reform and freedom from the communist government.

Emil Zátopek

Emil Zatopek was a long distance runner best known for winning three gold medals at the 1952 Helsinki Games. He is known for his last minute decision to run the marathon, an event he had never done before, and won gold by 2 full minutes. He became a hero and was held up by the Czech government because he grew up working in a shoe factory so the government saw this as an example of the socialist system working.

Fanny Blankers-Koen

Fanny Koen is an athlete from Holland and is best known for winning 4 gold medals at the age of 30 years old during the 1936 Games. She was nicknamed "the flying housewife" and helped eliminate the traditional belief that age and motherhood were barriers to success in women's athletics. Some believe that she put women's sports on the map.

Pierre de Coubertin

Father of the modern Olympic Games and IOC president from 1896-1924. He was a true French-man and loved his country, but he was embarrassed for them after their loss of the Franco-Prussian War. He wanted France to have sports system like England because he thought this would sharpen their minds, make them more courageous, and have a better military. Coubertin was very conservative and believed that white males should be the face of the Olympics and that women and people of color did not belong in sports and strongly believed in Olympism.

Dassler Brothers Sports Shoe Company

German brothers who owned a shoe company together but eventually split into their own companies; Puma and Adidas. Jesse Owens wore them in 1936 at the Berlin Games, which catapulted the company to international recognition. This association with a celebrity athlete was crucial in their rise to success. Abebe Bikila had deal with Puma, and Mark Spitz had deal with Adidas. These sponsorships were technically forbidden under the rules of amateurism, but many athletes had secret shoe deals as a means of earning money.

Grigory Rodchenkov

Grigory Rodchenkov's job was to catch the athletes who were doping in Russia, however, he was actually helping master mind the doping system. WADA believed that the containers they were using to test the athletes were tamper proof but the bottles were being opened and switched out so that Russian athletes would not get caught for drugs. He went public with his story but said that he has no idea how they managed to tamper with the containers. Because of this, Russian athletes were banned.

Heidi Krieger

Heidi Krieger was a German athlete unknowingly doped by East German officials and started having male characteristics. She transitioned into a male after this occurred but made it clear that he wishes he could have made the decision on his own rather than being altered by a drug that he was not aware he was taking.

Jim Thorpe

Jim Thorpe is an American Indian from Oklahoma. He won a gold medal in both the decathlon and the pentathlon in 1912. Thorpe played other sports as well and because of his participation as a professional baseball player was stripped of his medals for violating the rules of amateurism.

Knud Jensen

Knud Jensen is a Danish cyclist who fractured his skull on the pavement during the Rome 1960 Games after falling and died. It was later found out that he was using amphetamines. This was the beginning of the amphetamine outbreak, which lead to drug testing beginning in 1968.

Mexico City Massacre (1968)

Mexico City students protested against the Games and the president of the Institutional Revolution Party, Ordaz, because they did not believe that their country was modern and believed that money spent on the Games could have gone to resources such as health care and education. The students protested, unarmed, and during this they were trapped by police officers who opened fire on the crowd. This lead to 300 protestors being killed and 100 of them being arrested and tortured. Brundage was in Mexico City during the time and believed that although something terrible had happened, the Games must go and that they could offer an escape from the rebellions of the time.

Milkha Singh

Milkha Singh witnessed many of his family member's death as they attempted to flee from Pakistan to India. He was able to escape and grew up in a refugee camp. He began running in the Army and was nicknamed "the flying sikh". He had success at the 1958 British Commonwealth Games winning a gold medal, first Indian to do so. He is almost as famous for his loss in the 1960 Rome Olympics, finishing 4th, than his win at the BCG.

Mo Farah

Mo Farah was a long distance runner and won gold at the 2012 london olympics. People were really excited about Farah because he represented a new, modern, cosmopolitan British identity and culture in which people valued diversity. Farah was born in eastern Africa and arrived in London at age 8 as a refugee; also a practicing Muslim. However, in 2016, during the Brexit vote, many argued that Britain had become too diverse and that there were too many immigrants. Brexit ultimately passed.

Peter O'Connor

O'Connor was a track athlete from Ireland and won the gold medal in the long jump in the Intercalated Games of 1906. O'Connor wanted Ireland to be free from Great Britain but the program listed Ireland along with Great Britain instead of separating them. Because of this, when the flag was displayed, O'Connor climbed up, tore it down, and displayed one of his own instead. This brought politics into the games but he faced no immediate punishments.

Olga Korbut

Olga Korbut was a gymnast for the USSR at the young age of 17. She won the all around competition in 1972 but made a mistake in her best event the uneven bars. TV captured her getting emotional after far from perfect event and people fell in love with her. Spectators looked at her a a little girl and not as a strong female athlete. After her mistake she came back and won gold in the balance beam and her floor exercise. She is also known for the "Korbut flip" but was the only one to ever perform the move in competition as it was banned for being too dangerous.

Oral Turinabol

Oral Turinabol was a drug that many athletes were being given without them knowing about it.

Peter Ueberroth

Peter Ueberroth transformed the way the Olympic Games are run. He was a member of the LA Olympic Committee and was the first time the games were privately funded. His methods consisted of using pre existing stadiums, university dorms, volunteers, corporate investors, etc. which resulted in a surplus of over $200 million. His model showed people a new way to host a successful Games without it ending in debt.

2010 Winter Games Bylaw

The 2010 Winter Games Bylaw banned any poster, banner, etc. that was anti-Olympic. These anti Olympic signs were considered illegal even on private property.

Dorando Pietri

Pietri was an Italian long distance runner and one of the three people who was expected to win the Marathon during the 1908 Games. Pietri came through first but fell down three times while he was making his way to the finish. He was picked back up and pushed over the finish line as another competitor was coming in. The other competitor claimed that it was not fair for Pietri to get help from others while crossing the finish line so he was disqualified from the race.

South Korean President Chun Doo Hwan and Seoul 1988

President Chun Doo Hwan wanted to use the 1988 Games to prove South Korea's global power, wealth, etc. As protests began regarding freedoms and Chun Doo Hwan feared losing the games, he compromised and began offering political freedoms. The IOC used this to prove what the Olympics are capable of doing by bringing democracy to South Korea.

Roger Bannister

Roger Bannister was an athlete from England as well as a medical student. At a track meet in 1954, Bannister ran the first mile in under 4 minutes, something that no one else had been able to do.

"Femininity Passport"

The "femininity passport" was something that all women had to show at the Games before they could participate to prove that they were a female and not a male trying to participate in female events. This was one of the methods of sex verification that was used as the IOC began to test everyone to determine their sex.

"Coca-Cola Olympics"

The Atlanta Olympics of 1996 were called the "Coca-Cola Olympics" because of their partnership with Coca Cola.

Olympic Project for Human Rights

The Olympic Project for Human Rights (OPHR) was proposed by Harry Edwards. He believed that African American athletes were being used and wanted to protect against racial segregation in the United States and racism in sports in general. The group advocated for a boycott in Mexico City unless four conditions were met. South African and Rhodesia uninvited from the Olympics, the restoration of Muhammad Ali's world boxing title, Avery Brundage to step down as President of the IOC, and to hire more African American assistant coaches. He got none of these. Pins were worn on the medal stand after the men's 200m by Tommie Smith and John Carlos of the United States and Peter Norman of Australia.

Anthropology Days

This was a part of the World's Fair during the St. Louis Games of 1904. A section of the World's Fair consisted of a human zoo that was comprised of "primitive people" from around the globe. It was for American citizens to look at them as if they were animals and for the Americans to reinforce their cultural superiority. Some of the people that were part of the exhibit were forced to compete against the white athletes, who were seen to be the superior athletes. This proved to be true because the events were poorly planned out and many of the "primitive" athletes had never competed in the sports before.

"Miracle on Ice"

The Soviet Union dominated hockey in the Olympics from 1964-1976, which they won the gold medal all four times. The "Miracle on Ice" game occurred during the 1980 Winter Olympics. The Soviets were the overall better team; they were Soviet soldier playing American students. There were many major historical events that this hockey game took place during, including the aftermath of the Vietnam War, Energy and Gas Line Crisis of the 1970s, the Iran Hostage Crisis, and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. There were a lot of emotions in this game and American coach Herb Brooks encouraged his team of average hockey players to play American hockey, full of physical contact. This strategy worked and despite being defeated by the Soviets earlier, not as talented as the Soviet team, and looked at as having no chance of winning, the Americans won. The Americans ended up winning the gold medal. President Jimmy Carter claimed that this win proved that the American way of life was superior and many sports writers claimed that these Games were more about politics than sports.

Summit Series (1972)

The Summit Series was a hockey event where the USSR and Canada competed against each other. This was a symbol for their political systems, socialist vs capitalist.

"Apostles of Amateurism"

This was an ideal that the IOC had in the early years of the modern Olympics. Amateurs played sports for the love of the game, nothing else. The main idea of the apostles of amateurism is that Olympic athletes should not be paid athletes because when money enters the Games, they become corrupt with cheating, scandals, etc.

The Committee for Fair Play in Sports

This was created by Americans to urge American Olympians to boycott the Berlin Games of 1936. They believed that there was discrimination against Jews that was occurring in Germany. Americans were weary of Hitler and of his regime and did not like the way he treated citizens, although there was racial discrimination occurring in the United States as well.

"Shamateurism"

The idea that some athletes were not true amateurs. Some examples of this is the Soviet Union sponsoring athletes and participating in sports as their careers and NCAA giving college sports scholarships.

Vladimir Putin

The leader of Russia that was responsible for bringing the winter Games to Sochi in 2014. These Games were to celebrate Russia as a world-power and to remind the world that they have not lost their world superpower title. He also managed to spend the most money on any Games to date, $51 billion. Putin is also very conservative and has made laws to discriminate against the LGBTQ community. Many athletes spoke out against the laws and the United States choose an all LGBTQ delegation to embarrass Putin and Russia.

Coalition to the Ban the Soviets

This was created by a group of California citizens who were not in favor of the Soviet Union attending the 1984 summer Games. They claimed that they would protest if they attended, but they did not have to because the Soviets did not attend.

The Olympic Program (TOP)

The olympic program is a small, select group of corporate sponsors who pay extremely large amounts of money to advertise at the Olympics. The partnership also enables the sponsors to use the Olympic rings in their advertising.The development of TOP resulted from the commercialization of the Games and the addition of corporate sponsorships to help fund the games. By limiting the number of sponsors, companies had to bid against each other which drove the prices up.

Citizens for Colorado's Future

The winter Games of 1976 were supposed to be in Denver, Colorado, but the citizens of Colorado voted against hosting the Olympics. The citizens of Colorado got enough signatures to contest a vote by the citizens. The main reasons they opposed hosting the Games were the cost of the Games and the environmental effects that the Games would have as well. The vote was 3/2 in favor of no taxes to pay for the Olympics.

International Workers Olympiad

These Games occurred after a rise is worker's consciousness after WWI; labor unions were popular during and after the war. These games were created by the socialist workers sports international (SWSI) and were inspired by the IOC's Olympic Games, but they believed that the regular Olympics were for the wealthy class so at the International Workers Olympiad they welcomed all of the working class and even included women. These games ended up drawing more athletes and spectators than the regular olympics and were very successful.

Goodwill Games

These games occurred from 1986-2001 and they were exclusively for the United States and the Soviet Union. They were ultimately a money making venture, but they were promoted as wanting to bring together athletes like the Olympics used to. The Goodwill Games turned out to be a financial failure, due to the lack of exposure and the loss of the story-line of the Cold War.

BRIC

This is the acronym for the world's major emerging countries, Brazil, Russia, India, and China. These are places with rapid industrialization and a growing economy. Many of the world's largest sporting events have been held in these countries over the last 10 years. China hosted the Summer Olympics in 2008 and are scheduled to host the Winter Games in 2022. Brazil hosted the World Cup in 2014 and the Summer Games in 2016. Russia hosted the Winter Olympics in 2014 and the World Cup in 2018.

"Olympism"

This is the idea that if people come together every four years to compete in sports, then peace will stay and war will cease

"Capitalism at Play"

This is the idea that the Olympics have become a for profit spectacle and the only people that benefit from the Olympics are the IOC, television networks, and corporate sponsors.

IOC Rule 50

This is the rule that states that athletes must remain focused on their sporting events and not be involved in any protest or make a certain statement during their athletic event(s). IOC Rule 50 states that athletes must wear appropriate gear at all times and that if they wear anything other than what was approved by the IOC, the athlete will be under investigation.

"Celebration Capitalism"

This refers to cities using a lot of money on the Games instead of using money to improve education, health care, and affordable housing. This also refers to how large and commercial the Games have become over the years.

"Edifice Complex"

This term refers to all the all the huge new stadiums built - desire to build larger, more grandiose stadiums in the hopes that this will build toward a positive image for the city. An example of this was when the Montreal Mayor accumulated billions of dollars of debt for the city.

Weimar Germany

This was Germany's government from 1919-1933 and was a period of democracy and hope after WWI. The IOC gave the 1936 Games to the city of Berlin because if the Weimar government, making the Games political from the start.

South African Non-Racial Olympic Committee

This was a committee created by Dennis Brutus, a South African activist, who realized that there needed to be outside pressure for the IOC to ban South Africa from the Olympic Games. The SANROC appealed that South Africa be banned from the 1960 Olympics. Their appeal was not granted because the IOC claimed that South Africa did not have discrimination in sports and they did not want to get involved in politics. The SANROC asked again in 1964, when the world knew more about Apartheid in South Africa, and the IOC denied their appeal again. South Africa was banned from the Olympics in 1964 because African nations were going to boycott if they were there. SANROC asks the IOC to ban South Africa again in 1968, but Brundage insisted on them attending. South Africa was expelled from the Games until they reformed their Apartheid politics because of boycott threats of countries from the global South, black American athletes, and the Soviet Union.

Stop the Seventy Tour

This was a movement in Great Britain in 1969. Citizens attempted to make the tour so bad for the South African rugby team, the Springboks, that the South African Cricket team would not want to come the following year. The citizens of Great Britain were opposed to the racist Apartheid policies in South Africa and they did not want them playing against their team and in their country. This was a success because no cricket tour happened the following year and this was the last time the Springboks traveled to Britain.

Prague Spring

This was during a time of global revolutions in 1968. Socialists came to power in Czechoslovakia and thought it needed to be reformed. Dubcek, leader of Czechoslovakia, called it socialism with a human face. The Soviet Union feared they were losing their grip on the country, so Brezhnev, leader of the Soviet Union, sent troops and tanks into Prague. Many civilians were killed and communism was forced back into Czechoslovakia. Many Olympic athletes were in support of political reform, such as Věra Čáslavská and Emil Zátopek, who were vocal about their opinion, but paid the price by having their careers taken away from then and Zatopek was forced to be a manual laborer.

"Rape of Belgium"

This was the German mistreatment of Belgian civilians during WWI. Belgians were murdered, raped, and abused by the Germans. This mistreatment was one of the reasons for the formation of the League of Nations, which allows the world to come together to make the world a better and safer place. The League of Nations was responsible for how to treat and punish the Germans for their actions in WWI. Because of the "Rape of Belgium", the Belgians were given the authority to decide if Germany was allowed to compete in the 1920 Games and they did not allow Germany to attend.

"Darfur Olympics"

This was the nickname for the 2008 Beijing Games because of China's support of Darfur. By association, China came under fire for human rights violations. Pressure by activists (especially in Hollywood).

Věra Čáslavská

Vera Caslavska won 7 gold medals in her Olympic career. She was also very political and in support of the reform by signing the "two thousand words manifesto". At the Mexico City Games in 1968, she was declared the winner in her event. After a complaint to the judges that there was an error, the judges came back and said there was a tie. During the medal ceremony, she would not acknowledge the Soviet flag and bowed her head in embarrassment during the playing of the Soviet national anthem and as a result was forced to retire.

World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA)

WADA was created in 1999 by the IOC to test Olympic athletes for drugs. Within this, WADA had the "whereabouts system" that said all athletes must let WADA know where they are at all times so they can test you for drugs whenever they want.

1928 Women's 800m

Women collapsed after this event and this allowed for those opposed to women athletes to prove that they should not compete in this event, but in athletics in general. This was the last time that women ran this event until 1960.