History 159 Final

APO

(german for extra-parliamentary opposition), it was a political protest movement in west germany during the end of the 60s and early 70s. It formed a central part of the German student movement and its membership is mostly young people disillusioned with the grand coalition of the Social Democratic Party of germany (SPD) and the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) -The APO provided an outlet for student dissent and it's most prominent member/ spokesman was Rudi Dutschke, -The APO demanded a democratization of university politics and they criticized society's repression of the crimes of National Socialism through its parents' generations.

gaullists

- Supporters of Charles de Gaulle characterized by their conservatism, nationalism, and advocacy of centralized government. ** -n France, the Gaullist Party is usually used to refer to the largest party professing to be Gaullist. Gaullism claim to transcend the left-right divide (in a similar way to populist republican parties elsewhere such as Fianna Fáil in Republic of Ireland) but in practice the current Gaullist party is the centre-right Republicans. -The "fundamental principle" of Gaullism is a "certain idea of France" as a strong state.[1] This idea appears in de Gaulle's War Memoirs, in which he describes France as "an indomitable entity, a 'person' with whom a mystical dialogue was maintained throughout history. The goal of Gaullism, therefore, is to give precedence to its interests, to ensure that the voice is heard, to make it respected, -In order to strengthen France, Gaullists also emphasize the need for "a strong economy and a stable society." -As part of a strong state, de Gaulle emphasized the need to base state institutions on a strong executive.[1] This was a departure from the French republican tradition, which emphasized the role of the elected assembly.[1] De Gaulle, during his time in office, sought to establish authority by holding direct universal votes and popular referenda and by directly engaging with the nation -Gaullists supported decolonization, which freed France from the burden of empire.[1] This was reflected in de Gaulle's resolution of the Algeria crisis

Reykjavik Summit

- A summit meeting between US president Ronald Regan and the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev in oct 1986 -Gorbachev made a series of radical proposals such as scrapping SS-20 Missiles as he was disturbed by the conseuquences of the chernobyl nuclear power plant disaster. Regan had hoped to get Gorby to agree abolish nuclear weapons altogether while continuing SDI (strategic defence initiative). In 15 hours of negotiations they thought they had agreed to abolish all nuclear warheads. However, it quickly fell apart since Reagan insisted on developing his defense program. -These negotiations may have been too bold, it did start the crucial shift towards the second detente and thawed the cold-war that "made subsequent agreements possible."

Congress for Cultural Freedom

- The Congress was founded at the Titania Palace in West Berlin on 26 June 1950 to find ways to counter the view that liberal democracy was less compatible with culture than communism.[3] It may have been started in response to srries of events, like a March 1949 peace conference at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York City at which many prominent U.S. leftists and pacifists urged for peace with Joseph Stalin's Soviet Union. - Anti-communist advocacy group founded in 1950 in West Berlin. It was later revealed that the CIA was very much involved in establishing and funding the Congress, as a weapon against Communism. The Congress had 35 member countries at its peak. -Led by journal-ists like Melvyn Lasky, the Congress of Cultural Freedom sought to counteract socialist appeals to equality with democratic promises of liberty in highbrow journals like "Encounter".

Martial Law

- The imposition of direct military control of normal civilian functions by a govt. - period of time from dec 13 1981 to july 22 1983, when the authoritarian communist govt. of the Polish People's Republuc drastically restructed normal life by introducing martial law to crush political opposition. -sig because thousands of opposition activities were jailed or killed, especially members of the solidarity trade union

Americanization

-"The key concept with which Europeans debated the advance of mod-ernism was Americanization, since they saw many of the new de-velopments as coming from the United States. Quite correctly, they believed that the techniques of scientific management that helped continental business to prosper had been developed in the New World. They also attributed the restless spirit of individual initiative and social mobility to the freedom of America" -Finally, in popular culture, they used the slogan "coca- colonization" to indicate the trans-formative power of Hollywood films and rock 'n' roll in reshaping popular lifestyles. Most observers believed that modernization inev-itably meant Americanization, making Europe part of the informal U.S. "market empire." -This perceived Americanization of Europe triggered a visceral anti- Americanism among the pessimistic enemies of modernity. Con-tinental elites had a long history of criticizing U.S. egalitarianism, fearing the rule of the masses as a dangerous form of populism. Eu-ropean competitors complained about the aggressive business prac-tices of American companies, while trade unions deplored the anti-Jarausch_Out of Ashes.indd 55612/23/14 10:43 AMPop and Prosperity 557labor bias of U.S. market capitalism. Defenders of high culture railed against the lack of tradition and refinement in the New World, see-ing a cultural wasteland characterized as "barbarism." -Overriding such objections, Americanization nonetheless proved seductive, because it represented a renewed and confident version of liberal democratic modernity. Beyond the appeal of Marxism-Leninism to intellectuals, Sovietization required force, wielded by the Soviet army, the local communist party, and the secret service. In contrast, the American "empire by invitation" promised security during the Cold War and relied more on its clients' voluntary coop-eration. In the displays, lectures, and films of America Houses, the United States appeared as a land of peace, prosperity, and freedom—an attractive utopia to which Europeans might aspire as well, if they put their murderous past behind them. -The popular equation between Americanization and modern-ization was nonetheless misleading since it exaggerated the moder-nity of the United States and overlooked European innovation. Large parts of the United States, such as rural areas and the old South, re-mained rather traditional, as the strength of religious observance, the creationist anti- intellectualism, and the lingering racism showed. Jarausch_Out of Ashes.indd 55712/23/14 10:43 AM558 Chapter 20At the same time, many of the innovative developments in industry, society, and culture had originated in Europe, being reintroduced or revived after the Second World War on their own accord. The defeated countries especially, whose traditions had been destroyed along with their buildings, welcomed American imports as a short-cut toward democratic modernity. But among the proud victors, re-sistance was stronger. In France, for example, not only the Gaullists but also the Left tried to defend their own civilisation by means of a quota system for broadcast content. Within the broader rubric of Western civilization, a contest developed between the pressure of market- driven Americanization and the preservation of a distinctive European version of liberal modernity favoring the welfare state - Cultural influence was no one-way street, as the Europeanization of American high cuisine, the spread of youth soccer, and the popularity of the Beatles indicated. Of course, Europeans also picked up many ideas from the United States, ranging from the controversial BA degree of the Bologna pro-cess to the golden arches of McDonald's "gracing" historic buildings. Much of this hybridization was promoted by the travel of thousands of American backpacking tourists riding European trains each sum-mer and hordes of pale Europeans invading Florida beaches during the winter. In high and popular culture well- known music perform-ers, movie stars, and even public intellectuals started to function in an international hyperspace, jetting from their shows and condos on one continent to the other. Overcoming the legacy of depression, war, and genocide, this blended modernity became attractive because it promised access to an exciting world of transatlantic interchange -Prominent during the cold war after wwII

Springer press

-"When on April 11 the neo- Nazi Josef Bach-mann shot Rudi Dutschke, students stormed the offices of the right- wing Springer tabloid Bild, which had incited antistudent violence. But just when activists thought that the movement was becoming irresistible, it started to fizzle." -in the late 1960s, Axel Springer was attacked by the German student movement for the political opinions propagated through the tabloid Bild and the other Springer media, and became a target of protest marches and direct actions. Anti-student campaigns in his papers were in particular blamed for the murder attempt against Rudi Dutschke (happened in 1979) Springer was swift to denounce those who questioned the equity and social costs of the West German Wirtschaftswunder, the so-called "economic miracle" of the 1950s and 1960s.

Sovereign Debt Crisis

-"Yet another serious problem has been the disagreement about a lasting solution to the sovereign debt crisis, which has threatened the euro as common currency. Emergency measures such as the promise of the European Central Bank to step in, if needed, have managed to calm the financial markets, reducing the inflated interest rates for the indebted countries to manageable levels. But the neoliberal austerity program has produced a stubborn recession that has pushed un-employment rates up to over 20 percent in some affected countries. Those Europeans who refuse to take responsibility for their own mistakes are blaming German chancellor Angela Merkel for their predicament, while some Euroskeptics call for the end of the euro as currency. In Ireland and Spain the reduction of unit labor costs and balancing the national budget have reignited growth, and even in Greece there are first signs of a recovery.41 B -ut a long- term solution to the predicament requires a compromise between a banking union that shields taxpayers from speculation risks, a strengthening of fis-cal oversight mechanisms of the EU, and some stimulus spending to end the recession." -A multi-year debt crisis that has been taking place in the EU since the end of 2009. Several eurozone member states (Greece, Portugal, Ireland, Spain and Cyprus) were unable to repay or refinance their government debt or to bail out over-indebted banks under their national supervision without the assistance of third parties like other eurozone countries, the European Central Bank (ECB), or the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

European Defence Community (EDC)

-An attempt by western European powers, with US support, to counterbalance the military increase of the soviet union in europe by forming a supranational european army. -It is an unratified treaty signed in may 1952 by six european countries- the treaty was not ratified by french parliament and was not ratified by Italy, so this community never went into force. Instead, west germany was admitted into the Western European union and NATO.By 1954 the need for the EDC seemed to diminish and the western european union was set up. -Treaty began because of the Plevan plan, proposed in 1950 by French Prime minister Plevan after the US called for the rearmament of west germany. The formation of a pan-European defence architecture was meant to harness german military potential in case of conflict with the soviet bloc. **Essentially, this plan would draw on west german manpower without encouraging german rearmamament

De-Stalinization

-Khrushchev's policy of purging the Soviet Union of Stalin's memory; monuments of Stalin were destroyed; Stalin's body was moved outside the Kremlin Wall; Khrushchev did this because he disliked Stalin for jailing and killing loyal Soviet citizens ** -A series of political reforms in the Soviet Union after Stalin's death in 1953 and the ascension of krushchev into power. The reforms involves changing or removing key institutions that helped stalin hold power like his cult of personality, the stalinist politicsal system, and the Gulag labour-camp syystem. -significant because the amnesty decree of March 1953 began the release of most prisoners, and the gulag institution was closed in 1960. -This caused profound shock among communists throughout the world—who had been taught to admire Stalin—severely damaged the prestige of the Soviet Union, generated serious friction in the international communist movement, and contributed to uprisings in 1956 in Poland and Hungary. (See also Khrushchev's secret speech.)

Berlin Blockade

1948 - Russia under Stalin blockaded Berlin completely in the hopes that the West would give the entire city to the Soviets to administer. To bring in food and supplies, the U.S. and Great Britain mounted air lifts which became so intense that, at their height, an airplane was landing in West Berlin every few minutes. West Germany was a republic under Franc, the U.S. and Great Britain. Berlin was located entirely within Soviet-controlled East Germany. ** -one of the first major internationals crises of the cold war- it highlighted the competing economic and ideological visions for post-war europe and played a role in drawing west germany to NATO in 1955. -Soviet union blocked western allies' railway, road, and canal access to the sectors of berlin under western control. -They did it because the deutsche mark currency was introduced to west germany by the western powers to replace the unstavle reichsmark currency. It was backed by the marshall plan -in may 1949 ussr lifted the blockade and it ultimately failed

Adenauer

1949, began long, highly successful democratic rule, leader of Christian Dems, in W Germany, "founding hero" of Federal Republic, cooperatred with Westerners, rearmed Germany in 55 and joined NATO, "econ miracle" resigned in 63 after 14 years - Konrad Adenauer was a german statesman who was the first chancellor of west germany from 1949 to 1963. He was the co-founder of the Christian democratic union, a christian democratic party that became one of the most influential parties in the country. -he switched the country's focus from denazification to recovery, forging relarions with France, the UK, and the US. He brought stability, international respect, and economic security germany. He was committed to a western-oriented foreign policy. He also made west Germany a member of NATO -because of economic success the term "economic miracle", or wirtschaftswunder, came to describe the rapis reconstruction and development of west germany after wwII.

ECSC (European Coal and Steel Community)

1952; Was seen as a way to rebuild after WWII-economic and security interests The French wanted to keep an eye on Germany and make sure they weren't re-militarizing and a way to control their products *** -An organisation of six european countries created after WWII to regulate their industrial production under a centralised authority. It was formally established in 1951 by the Treaty of Paris -signed by Belgium, France. Luxembourg, netherlands, and west germany. -based on the process of supranationalism and started the formal process of integration which ultimately led to the EU. -It stood as a model for the communities set up after it by the Treaty of Rome in 1957 like the European economic community and the European Atomic Energy community -ECSC was initially successful in raising production. But the progressive shift to oil as energy base and the post- Korean steel glut diminished its impor-tance.12 Ultimately, the ECSC's significance was therefore political rather than economic.

Dayton Accords

1995 peace agreement ending the war over the former Yugoslavia, between Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Serbia ** -Peace agreement reached in Dayton, Ohio in Nov 1995 and signed in paris in dec 1995 that put an end to the 3.5 year-long Bosnian war, one of the Yugoslav wars. -The warring parties agreed to peace and to a single sovereign state known as Bosnia and Herzegovina composed of two parts, the largely Serb-populated Republika Srpska and the Croat-Bosniak Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Sarajevo was declared the undivided capital city. -Parties also agreed to cooperate with the United Nations and respect the human rights of the refugees -This agreement laid the the groundwork for NATO military action in Kosovo in 1999. -"Basically the accords froze the results of the fighting in place, leaving none of the warring parties satisfied.44 Bosnia was internally so di-vided as to require permanent UN supervision, becoming a ward of the international community. Hence the expellees' right to return remained a dead letter."

Lisbon Treaty

A EU agreement that replaces a failed attempt at an EU constitution with a similar set of reforms strengthening central EU authority and modifying voting procedures among the EU's expanded membership. ** -An international agreement that amends the treaties which form the constituional basis of the EU. It was signed by the EU member states in dec 2007 and entered into force in 2009. It amends the Maastricht treaty and the Treaty of rome -The goal of the treaty was to enchance the efficiency and democratic legitemacy of the EU and to improve the "coherence of its action." -Supporters stated that it would bring more checks and balances to the EU system and have stronger powers for the European parliament. -t the same time the treaty sought to en-hance the external influence of the EU through the creation of a Eu-ropean Council president, serving for two and one- half years, and the addition of a commissioner for foreign affairs and security issues. Moreover, the citizenry gained the right to initiative, if signed by one million voters, and protection for human rights by making them le-gally binding.44 Coming into force in 2009, the Lisbon Treaty put the EU onto a more solid footing and recovered a sense of momentum for the integration process.

Fellow Travelers

A fellow traveller, spelled "fellow traveler" in US English, is a person who sympathizes with the beliefs of an organization or cooperates in its activities without maintaining formal membership in that particular group. The term was first used in the early Soviet Union to characterize writers and artists (Intellectuals) sympathetic to the goals of the Russian Revolution who declined to join the Communist Party. The English-language phrase came into vogue in the United States during the 1940s and 1950s as a pejorative term for a sympathizer of Communism who was nonetheless not an official or "card-carrying member" of a Communist party. p. 856 -Eisenhower was skeptical of nuclear weapons and worried about using them irresponsibly, but "the anticommunist fervor of advisers like Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and the McCarthyist witch hunt for domes-tic communists and "fellow travelers" forced him on occasion to talk tough."

Berlin wall

A fortified wall surrounding West Berlin, Germany, built in 1961 to prevent East German citizens from traveling to the West. Its demolition in 1989 symbolized the end of the Cold War. This wall was both a deterrent to individuals trying to escape and a symbol of repression to the free world. *** -A guarded concrete barrier that physically and ideologically divided berlin (east berlin- capital of German Demicratic republic which was the soviet sector of berlin- and west germany which was the Federal republic of germany that was the western part of berlin) from 1961 to 1989. Construction of the wall began in august 1961 by the German democratic republic (east Germany). The barrier included guard towers, large concrete walls and a "death strip" that had trenches and other defences.

New Labour

A movement to update Britain's Labour Party by discarding the traditional Labour platform calling for state ownership of the means of production. The movement has been led by Tony Blair who became Prime Minister in 1997. Under his leadership, the labour party won again in 2001, the first time the party had ever won successive elections *** -Refers to a period in history of the british labour party from the mid 1990s until 2010 under the leadership of Tony Blair and Gordon Brown. -The new labour brand was developed to regain trust from the electorate and portray a departure from their traditional socialist policies and take a stance that emphsaized social justice and the need for equality of opportunity.

Velvet Revolution

A peaceful protest by the Czech people that led to the smooth end of communism in Czechoslovakia. ** - A non-violent transition of power in Czech. between 17 nov to 29 dec 1989. Popular demonstrations against the one-party govt of the Communist Party of Czech. included students and older dissidents. The result was the end of the 41 years of one-party rule in czech. and the dismantlin of the command economy and conversion to a parliamentary republic. -charter 77 helped start this -Vaclav havel was electeted president on 29 dec 1989

Existentialism

A philosophy based on the idea that people give meaning to their lives through their choices and actions ** "An existentialist skepticism also helped to undercut the author-ity of traditional philosophy by claiming that human beings had to determine the purpose of life themselves. Inspired by Søren Kierke-gaard and Martin Heidegger, this outlook captured the loss of faith in traditional authorities in the wake of mass murder and utter de-struction. In essays like "Existentialism Is a Humanism" and his novel Nausea the French philosopher Jean- Paul Sartre wrestled with concepts such as authenticity, the absurd, and existential despair, sug-gesting that each person had to find his own way to reaffirm life. The Algerian- born novelist Albert Camus likened this task to the myth of Sisyphus, whose effort to roll a stone uphill remained forever futile but could nonetheless prove meaningful. The Irish playwright Sam-uel Beckett dramatized this stance in his absurdist play Waiting for Godot, in which two characters wait for someone who never comes. Without fully understanding its implications, Parisian Left Bank in-tellectuals flocked to this philosophy, creating an existentialist style of ennui that was widely imitated.34 Its biting critique of tradition seemed to clear the path for the radical departures of modernity." - 40s to 60s after wwII

Perestroika

A policy initiated by Mikhail Gorbachev that involved restructuring of the social and economic status quo in communist Russia towards a market based economy and society ** -A political movement for reformation within the community party of the soviet union during the 1980s and is widely associated with Gorbachev and his glasnost policy reform. It means "restructuring" and refers to the restructuring of the soviet political and economic system. -introduced many market-like reforms. It also created shortages and tensions within the soviet union -sometimes argyed to be a significant cause of the revolutions of 1989 and the dissolution of the soviet union, which marked the end of the cold war.

Detente

A policy of reducing Cold War tensions that was adopted by the United States during the presidency of Richard Nixon. *** A policy of relaxing tensions between Moscow and the West, which was promoted by Nixon, Henry Kissinger, and Lenoid Brezheb in the late 60's and early 70's. The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 sharply ended detente. -This period is characterized by increased trade and cooperation with the Soviet Union and the signing of the SALT treaties (took place in 1972 and capped the number of strategic arms). By the end of detente the two countries were back on the brink of war.

Solidarity (Solidarnosc)

A polish labour union that was founded on sept 17 1980 at the Lenin Shipyard under the leadership of Lech Walesa. It was the first trade union in a Warsaw Pact country that was not controlled by a communist party. -In the late 1980s it was a broad social movement that used methods of civil resistance to advance the causes of workers' rights and social change. -The govt tried to get rid of the union in the 80's by imposing martial law in poland and was followed by political oppression, by they were eventually forced to negotiate w solidarity. The round-table talks between the govt. and solidarity opposition led to semi-free elctions in 1989. In dec 1990 walesa was elected president of poland.

Frankfurt School

A school of social theory and critical philosophy associated with the insitute of social research at Geothe University in frankfurt -this theory came about in the mid 1920s and provided a "compelling reflection on the modern condition." -" sociologist Max Horkheimer directed the Institute for Social Research, founded in Frankfurt in 1923, which attracted a group of stellar intellectuals such as Theodor Adorno, Erich Fromm, Herbert Marcuse, and Walter Benjamin for a time. Disappointed by the rigidity of communism and the timidity of so-cial democracy, institute members sought to free the Marxist impulse from dogmatism by engaging social thinkers like Sigmund Freud and Max Weber." -"To create a convincing blueprint for emancipation and enlightenment, they developed a "critical theory" of thinking dialec-tically about such topics as economic exploitation and cultural stul-tification. Confronting the aesthetic pretensions of modernism, the Frankfurt School criticized the culture industry as a new form of sub-jugation of the masses through shallow entertainment."

Neoliberalism

A strategy for economic development that calls for free markets, balanced budgets, privatization, free trade, and minimal government intervention in the economy. *** -Refers to the 20th-century resurgence of the 19th-centruy ideas associated with laissez-faire economic liberalism and free market capitalism. This created a paradigm shift away from the post-war Keynesian consensus that had lasted from 1945 to 1980 -Generally associated with policies of economic liberalization (privatization, deregulation, free trade) and reduction of govt spending to increase the role of the private sector in society. -Thatcher oversaw a number of neoliberal reforms like tax reduction and deregulation in 1980s -neoliberalism roots were important in the 1970s under the Carter administration with deregulstion and continued in the 80s under the reagan administration.

Rudi Dutschke

A student leader in Germany who lead protests in the late 1960s. He headed the Socialist German Student Union. He was shot in the head in 1968 by someone with opposing views. He suffered brain damage and died 10 years later. ** - He advocated for a "long march through the instituions of power" to create change within the govt., which is an idea he took from the Frankfurt school of Critical theory. In the 70s he joined the green movement. -After his death radical students blamed an anti-student campaign in the Springer papers for the assassination attempt. This led to the springer newspaper blockade which led to street protests in german cities. -Inspired by a mix of neo- Marxist, anarchist, and civil rights examples, the charismatic German student leader Rudi Dutschk -deologically, he was look-ing for a truly democratic form of socialism that would provide peace, freedom, and equality. In mass rallies this combination of theoreti-cal grounding and emotional commitment made him an inspiring speaker, adored by youthful crowds. As symbolic leader of the Ger-man student movement he rejected both communist modernization and liberal consumer modernity, looking for a revolution that would create a more just form of progressive politics.

COMECON (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance)

An econmonic association of communist countries, established in 1949, to facilitate trade and development. -SOVIET UNION, BULGARIA, CZECHOSLOVAKIA, HUNGARY, POLAND AND ROMANIA ** -An economic association from 1949 to 1991 under the leadership of the Soviet Union that was comprised of the countries of the Eastern Bloc along with a number of communist states. -established trade and credit agreement between the countries -Created because Moscow was concerned about the Marshall Plan and Committee of European Economic Cooperation. COMECON was meant to prevent countries in the Soviet sphere of influence from moving towards that of the Americas. -The formation of this organization was significant because it proclaimed the Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe and sheltered eastern bloc countries from the influence of the United States -Part of the COMECON included introducing import-replacement industries for better self-sufficiency in the countries of Eastern Europe, a goal similar to the idea of the Marshall Plan for boosting the economy of Western Europe

Second Cold War

Around 1975-85. Soviet invasion of afganistan in 1979 .Tensions again rose and again came threats of nuclear missiles by both NATO and the countries of the Warsaw Pact. Also, this was due to the Afghanistan War. ** -"Though East- West relations had been deteriorating before, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan ultimately sealed the fate of détente. Jimmy Carter and Leonid Brezhnev were already sparring over Afri-can conflicts and human- rights issues. But the Russian decision to use its own troops to shore up a weak communist regime that had seized power in Kabul and was divided by personal intrigues turned growing tension into open hostility. In December 1979 the Soviet army quickly occupied the capital, other major cities and communi-cation routes, and installed a puppet regime, but this action aroused a storm of international criticism and failed to gain sufficient support from the Afghan population. Instead, the Soviets were confronted by stubborn guerrilla resistance, which soon grew into a full- fledged Is-lamist uprising. Shocked by the direct Russian intervention, President Carter, pushed by his security adviser Zbigniew Brzezinski, decided on a massive covert operation to aid the mujahedin with weapons funneled through Pakistan. Though the superpowers did not fight directly, the unwinnable insurgency became the Soviets' Vietnam" -The NATO dual- track decision further heightened East- West tensions because it extended the arms race to intermediate- range missiles equipped with nuclear warheads. West European leaders worried that the increasing deployment of Russia's mobile and accu-rate SS- 20 rockets would create a communist advantage in a category not covered by the SALT agreement. German chancellor Helmut Schmidt was troubled by a break in "the continuum of deterrence," since any level of Russian attack could be countered only by launch-ing U.S. intercontinental missiles. While he preferred a "zero solu-tion" of abolishing such missiles altogether, he proposed to modernize western intermediary forces. Concerned about "Soviet superiority Jarausch_Out of Ashes.indd 65512/23/14 10:43 AM656 Chapter 24in theater nuclear systems," the NATO ministers decided in Decem-ber 1979 to station 108 Pershing II missiles as well as 464 ground- launched cruise missiles in Europe. But recognizing Soviet worries, they offered at the same time to negotiate about the complete elimi-nation of such weapon systems.31 When Moscow refused to talk, a war of nerves ensued in which each side accused the other of further escalation

Oder-Neisse Line

Border between Germany and Poland drawn in aftermath of WWII. West Germany only accepted this border in 1970. The border was recognized by reunified Germany in 1990 ** -This line marked the border b/w East germany and Poland from 1950 to 1990. Communist East Germany agreed to the border with communist poland in 1950. -After the revolutions of 1989, the newly reunified Germnay and the newly democratic Republic of Poland accepted this line as their border in the 1990 German-Polish border treaty. -SIg because it transferred a large section of German territory to Poland and was a matter of argument for west germany and the soviet bloc.

Srebrenica

Bosnian town where over seven thousand unarmed Muslims were executed in 1995 *** -"the United Nations set up six towns as "safe havens" for Bosnian refugees. When pusillanimous Dutch peacekeepers failed to resist, Serbian forces overran the enclave of Srebrenica and executed between seven thousand and eight thousand Bosnian males of all ages." - The July 1995 genocide of 7-8 thous. bosniaks, mainly boys, in the town of Srebrenica during the bosnian war. -The killings were by unites of the Bosnian serb army of Republika Srpska and with help by the Scorpians (a paramilitary group from serbia). -The UN failed to demilitarize the area. Evidence of massacres did compell the international community to intervene. Other muslim countries delivered arms to bosnians to increase their capacity to resist.

Ostpolitik

Brandt's Eastern policy - keeping ties with West but building bridges to East and Soviet Union. Negotiated treaties with Poland and Soviets in 1970. Frontier conceded at Oder-Neiss (recognized this line as the border of eastern german). Recognized GDR (German Democratic Republic/East Germany) and promoted closer economic ties with it and rest of Eastern Europe. Many in US govt concerned by this but in long-term analysis, increased communication with successful Western states went a long way towards helping those behind the "Iron Curtain" realize the disadvantages of the Communist system. - The most controversial aspect of ospolitik was the conclusion of the basic treaty, which recognied the GDR de facto while keeping the door open for reunification.

Helmut Kohl

Chancellor of West Germany during the reunification of East and West Germany ** -German politician who served as the chancellor of west germany from 1982 to 1990 and then of the reunited germany from 1990-1998. -He was strongly committed to Europe integration and was an ally of the US and supported Regan's policies to weaken the soviet union. He oversaw the end of the cold war and the German reunification, giving him the title "Chancellor of Unity." he also worked with French president Francois Mitterand to build the Masstricht treaty (which established the EU and euro currency). -Key figure in the eastern enlargement of the european union and he wanted international recognization for eastern states that declared their independence. -Domestically, Kohl's policies focused on economic reforms and later also on the process of integrating the former East Germany into the reunited Germany

Willy Brandt

Chancellor of West Germany in the late 1960s; he sought to improve relations with the states of Eastern Europe. ** -A german politician and statesman who served as the Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) from 1969 to 1974. He won the Nobel peace prize in 1971 for his efforts to strengthen cooperation in western Europe with the EEC (European economic community) -also the mayor of berlin -His main policy was 'ostpolitik' -eastern policy- which aimed at improving relations with East germany and eastern europe, led to treaties with soviet union and poland in 1970.

Brezhnev Doctrine

Doctrine created by Leonid Brezhnev that held that the Soviet Union had the right to intervene in any East Bloc country when necessary to preserve Communist rule. ** -Soviet foreign policy that claimed that any threat to socialist rule in any state of the Soviet bloc in eastern europe was a threat to them all, and justifies intervention in fellow socialist states. -It was proclaimed in order to justify the Soviet-led occupation of czechosolovakia earlier in 1968, with the overthrow of the govt. there and ended the prague spring. -interventions were meant to put an end to liberalization efforts and uprisings that could compromise soviet hegemony inside the eastern bloc. It also meant that the satellite states had limited independence. -The principles of the doctrine were so broad that the Soviets even used it to justify their military intervention in the non-Warsaw Pact nation of Afghanistan in 1979. T

Erich Honecker

East German leader against whose regime began the demonstrations that ended in the fall of the Berlin Wall *** -A german politician who was the general secretary of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED). He controlled the govt of East germany from 1971 until he was forced out in the weeks before the fall of the Berlin wall in october 1989 -As Cold War tensions eased in the late 80s with perestroika and glasnost, honecker refused to make big changes to the east german politcal system. As anitcommunist protests grew He begged gorbachev to intervene and suppress the protests to maintain communist rule, but Gorby refused and his party forced him to resign in oct 1989.

Stasi

East German secret police ** -The official state security police of the GDR (East Germany). -Headquartered in East berlin and its motto was "shield and sword of the party" -Main tasks included spying on the population (mainly with citizens who were informants) and fighting opposition. They arrested a quarter of a million people during its existence. -many stasi officials were prosecuted for their crimes after 1990 and the surveillance files that the Stasi had on east germans were laid open after reunification. -tried to stop spread of ideas to east germany -ended in 1990

Sputnik

First artificial Earth satellite, it was launched by Moscow in 1957 and sparked U.S. fears of Soviet dominance in technology and outer space. It led to the creation of NASA and the space race. **It orbited for three weeks before its batteries died and fell back to earth after 2 months of being in orbit. **sig because the unanticipated success of the satelite precipiated the american sputnik crisis and triggered the space race as part of the cold war- spurred the US to create the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in 1958 to regain a technological lead.

Charter 77

Formed after the Helsinki Accords. It was an organization of intellectuals in Czechoslovakia. Sought to promote the human rights standards designated at Helsinki. It played a big role in the struggle for democracy and against dictatorship in 1989. *** - A civic initiative in the Czechoslobak Socialist Republuc from 1976 to 1992, named after the document charter 77 from January 1977. Founding members included Vacalv Havel, Jan Patocka, Jiri Jahek, and more. Spreading of the text of the document was considered a political crime by the communist regime. This means the regime was threteaned by the goals of the charter which included to create a construvtive dialogue between the authorities and draw attention to cases where civil rights are violated. -After the 1989 Velvet Revolution, many of its memvers played important roles in Czech and Slovak politics. For example, vaclay havel became president of czaecohsolakia in 1989.

European Economic Community (EEC)

Free trade zone in Western Europe created by Treaty of Rome in 1957. Often referred to as the "Common Market," this collection of countries originally included France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. The body eventually expanded to become the European Union, which by 2005 included 27 member states. -an economic bloc founded in 1957 when the Treaty of Rome was signed by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, and West Germany. Its current membership has increased to twenty seven. The organization is now called the European Union. The signatories of the Treaty of Rome agreed to work for the gradual formation of a full customs union; the elimination of all barriers to the free movement of capital, labor and services; and the harmonization of agricultural, industrial, trade and transportation policies. AKA the "common market" ** -An organization that aimed to bring about economic integration among the member states. It was created by the Treaty of Rome in 1957. When the Eu was created it was absorbed into it.

Charles de Gaulle (add more to this)

French General who founded the French Fifth Republic in 1958 and served as its first President from 1959 to 1969 - Very significant person in French history -he was a french army officer and statesmen who lef the french resistance against nazi germany in wwII. -Chaired the provisional govt of the french republic from 1944 to 1946 in order to reestablish democracy in france. He did this with his dirigiste economic policies that led to 30 years of unprecedented growth. -in 1958, because of his popularity, he was asked to rewrite the consitition of france and founded the fifth republic. He was elected president of france later that year. He became the dominant figure of france during the early part of the cold-war era. He took steps to end the algerian war, which upset the citizens who were hoping to continue colonization under his rule, ultimatey granting algeria independence. -Founded ideology called gaullism that revolves around the idea of france being one of the strongest nations.

Greens

Germany's environmental party ** "By the late 1970s some of these different groups— environmen- talists, feminists, antiwar activists, and so on— started to combine their political efforts under the banner of new parliamentary parties, known according to the dominant issue as the Greens. Ecology par-ties scored the first successes in Britain and Belgium. In West Ger-many it took until 1979 for a loose alliance, led by the charismatic Petra Kelly, to win 3.2 percent of the vote in an election for the Euro-pean Parliament, enough to give it public funding. Its founding pro-gram of 1980 declared the West German Greens to be an "alternative to the traditional parties" aiming at "four principles, which can be described as: ecological, social, grassroots democratic, and nonvio-lent." In the election of 1983 the party won 5.6 percent and thereby entered the Bundestag, and two years later Joschka Fischer became the first Green Hessian cabinet member, wearing jeans and sneakers in symbolic protest against the establishment. Split between funda-mentalists who wanted radical change and realists who were willing to work within parliament, the Greens offered a different style as "antiparty" and attracted a young and educated clientele. Eventually Green parties also formed in other countries but had less electoral success.3"

Social Market Economy

In Germany, a postwar economic system that combines a highly productive market economy with an extensive and generous welfare state, as well as unusually active involvement of both business and labor in economic policy ** -a socioeconomic model combining a free market capitalist economic system alongside social policies that establish both fair competition within the market and a welfare state.[1] It is sometimes classified as a coordinated market economy.[2] The social market economy was originally promoted and implemented in West Germany by the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) under Chancellor Konrad Adenauer in 1949. -"After the Oil Shocks of the 1970s this "social market" economy had considerable difficulties adjusting to the pressures of globalization, but its social protections proved more crisis- resistant than during the late 1920s. Though some pockets of poverty remain at the periphery, some Eu-ropean countries have in the meantime achieved a higher standard of living than the United States, which serves as a barrier against radicalism." -Though the mix differed between various countries, postwar modernization was propelled by the compromise of a social market economy. Even if influential minorities, especially in the United Kingdom, endorsed the Washington consensus, the majority on the continent preferred the mixed model of a social market economy, and was willing to sup-port solidarity with a higher share of social expenditures than the individual- gain- oriented United States -"In Ger-many, Ludwig Erhard's promotion of a social market economy also contributed significantly to freeing economic competition while at the same time retaining a sense of societal solidarity." **he was affiliated with the CDU and was chancellor of west germany from 1963 to 1966. He is often famed for leading the west german postward economic reforms and recovery. he promoted social market economy

Displaced Persons (DPs)

Jews and others who at war's end did not wish to be repatriated to their former communities/countries of origin were placed in DP camps. Many did not want to go back becasue their home was destroyed or their country was no under communist influence. ** - Displaced Persons camps were established in Germany, Austria, and Italy, ,mainly for refugees from Eastern Europe or inmates of Nazi concentration camps. 2 years after wwII around 850,000 people lived in these camps (Armenians, jews, poles, russians, yugoslavs, etc.). At the end of the war 7 million people had been displaced from their homes. -The responsibility for their care was given to the UNIted Nations Relief and rehabulitation administration -the displaced persons act of 1948 was established by the US (Truman) and authorized for a limited period of time the admission into the US of 200,000 europeans for permament residence -slowed down recovery of europe after the war

Potsdam

July 26, 1945 - Allied leaders Truman, Stalin and Churchill (and Atlee) met in Germany to set up zones of control and to inform the Japanese that if they refused to surrender at once, they would face total destruction. ** -A conference held in Potsdam, occupied Germany, from July 17to August 2 1945. This conference occurred after Yalta and they continued many of their conversations from that conference. -They decided how to deal with germany which had unconditionally surrendered 9 weeks earlier on may 8. The goals included establishing a postwar order, peace treaty issues, and countering the effects of the war. -On July 24, 1945, Truman had a conversation with Stalin in which he informed him that the US had detonated the first atomic bomb. - demilitarized and disarmed germany under four zones of occupation. -Also included the Potsdam declaration, which proclaimed the terms for japanese surrender in which the western allies japan to surrender of be destroyed.

Gorbachev

Leader of the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991. Wanting reform, he renounced the Brezhnev Doctrine, pulled troops out of Afghanastan, supported Glasnost, and urged perestroika; but all this failed. ** - The last leader of the soviet union from 1985 to 1991. He believed big reforms were necessary after the 1986 Chernobyl disaster. He withdrew from the Soviet-Afghan war and embarked on summits with Reagan to limit nuclear wepaons and end the cold war. Glasnost and peretroika policies. He did not pursue military intervention when Eastern Bloc countries abandanoed soviet governance in 1989 and 1990. - He is the subject of controversy because he has won a wide range of awards such as the Nobel peace prize for ending the cold war and tolerating the reunification of germany. However in russia, he is often kknown for not stopping the soviet collapse which preciptated an economic crisis in russia.

Red Army Faction

Left-wing terrorist organization in Germany comprised of middle class youth who denounced capitalism and supported acts of revolutionary terrorism to bring down the existing system. ** -West german far-left militant organization founded in 1970. The west german govt and western media protrayed the RAF to be a terrorist organization. -They engaged in bombings, assassinations, kidnappings, bank robberies, and shoot-outs with police. Their activity peaked in 1977 in a national crisis that became known as the "German autumn." They killed about 30 people. -The goal of their terrorist campaign was to trigger an aggressive response from the government, which group members believed would spark a broader revolutionary movement. As its tactics became more violent, however, it lost much of the support it had enjoyed among the West German political left.

NATO

North Atlantic Treaty Organization; an alliance made to defend one another if they were attacked by any other country; US, England, France, Canada, Western European countries ** -An intergovernmental alliance between 29 (originally had 12) North American and European countries. It implements the North Atlantic Treaty that was signed on April 4, 1949. It constitues a system of collective security in which each member state agrees to the mutual defence in response to an attack by an external party. -Originally sought to create a counterwight to soviet armies stationed in central and eatern europe. original members were belgium. Canada, denmark, france, iceland, italy, luxembourg, netherlands, norway, portugal, the UK, and the US. -west germany joined NATO in May 1955, which was in turn a major factor in the creation of the Soviet-dominated Warsaw Pact, delineating the two opposing sides of the Cold War. -Nato did have any military intervention during the cold war, but it was involved in kosovo and and the bosnian wars in the 90sl

Postmodernism

Post-World War II intellectual movement and cultural attitude focusing on cultural pluralism and release from the confines and ideology of Western high culture. ** -Ironically, the most radical opposition to modernism arose from within modernity itself as a set of multiple discontents with its cul-tural forms and scientific worldview. In architecture it referred to a rejection of the bland functionalism of the International Style, dom-inant in city planning and urban renewal. In literary criticism it rep-resented an appreciation of creative works beyond the classic mod-ernism of T. S. Eliot as well as an opening to the study of popular culture. In the social sciences it consisted of a turn away from the grand modernization narratives and an acknowledgement of the negative aspects of development. And in philosophy it involved a Jarausch_Out of Ashes.indd 60612/23/14 10:43 AMRevolt against Modernity 607subjectivist critique of traditional rationalism by exploring the im-plications of the "linguistic turn." When trying to leave modernism behind, artists and thinkers increasingly embraced Arnold Toynbee's concept of the "postmodern age" during the 1970s.38 As a relational term, designating an era after high industrialism, the label postmod-ernism represented a diffuse mood rather than a coherent program, raising the question of whether the historic era of modernity might not have come to an end. -One impetus of the assault on high modernity came from archi-tects who rejected the rationalist functionalism of the Bauhaus style. Since glass, steel, and concrete skyscrapers looked alike everywhere, architecture critics like Robert Venturi began to denounce them as boring, essentially a repetition of the same pattern irrespective of cli-mate or landscape. -nother attack on the modernist synthesis came from the lin-guistic turn, which emphasized the centrality of language for human understanding. Going beyond structuralist semiotics, the French phi-losopher Jacques Derrida developed a method of "deconstruction" that implied a close reading of the text for its ideological underpin-nings, hidden subtexts, and covert messages, not accessible on the surface. This approach contrasted sharply with literary history, which focused on the intention of an author, and with Marxist probing of the social context of a work. - -n part, this postmodern onslaught, amplified by the media, had a liberating effect, since it created space for innovation. In architec-ture, painting, and music artists felt free to ignore the conventions of high modernism, experimenting with even more radical styles. In literature the emphasis on deconstruction encouraged a proliferation of close readings that were no longer limited by canonic authority. In the media the postmodern eye recovered a multitude of photo-graphic and filmic images regardless of their provenance or tempo-rality. In philosophy this perspective undercut claims to objective knowledge, allowing for greater play of subjectivities. In the social sciences such a critique helped undermine linear notions of mod-ernization as a progressive development according to the liberal cap-italist or Marxist model. In history the attack on the grand narratives allowed the emergence of counterstories of previously suppressed minorities.43 Especially feminist, black, and postcolonial thinkers in cultural studies embraced postmodernism in order to overthrow the hegemony of dead, white, European male -Postmodernism, nonetheless, evoked widespread criticism that denounced it as a mere intellectual fashion, incapable of making a substantial contribution to illuminating the human condition. Espe-cially conservative and religious thinkers castigated the moral rela-tivism of a perspective in which "anything goes." At the same time Marxists in the East and West attacked the postmoderns as represen-tatives of a decadent "late capitalism" who were unwilling to engage the massive injustices of the world. While natural scientists simply ignored the "pomo" talk, most social scientists also rejected its cul-turalist epistemology in favor of generalizations derived from quan-titative data and rational- choice theory. -The postmodern attack on high modernity was therefore stron-ger in signaling that an epoch was coming to an end than in defining the character of what might come thereafter. What the self- proclaimed rebels rejected was quite clear— they disliked rationality, functional-ism, objectivity, Marxism, and capitalism. In spite of distancing them-selves from the ideology of modernization, they remained largely committed to causes of the Left. But the theoreticians were too con-fused, their philosophical arguments too arcane, and their claims too exaggerated to be entirely convincing. If human rights were not uni-versally valid, what were the grounds on which opposition to patri-archy, racism, or imperialism could be based? Yet postmodernism spread rapidly through intellectual circles not just because it was hyped by the media, forever in search of novelty. In many ways the linguistic theorists touched a cultural nerve, signaling that some-thing was ending without really knowing what that implied for the future. In that sense, postmodernism was both the end of high mo-dernity and a prologue for things to come

Slobodan Milosevic

President of Serbia from 1989 to 1997 and of Yugoslavia 1997 to 2000. A key figure in the ethnic conflicts in the Balkans in the 1900's. *** -He pursued Serbian nationalist policies that contributed to the breakup of the socialist yugoslav federation. He also led serbia into a series of conflicts with the successor Balkan states. -While he was serbia's party leader, he demanded that the federal govt restore full control to serbia over the autonomous provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo. -he engaged in eth nic cleasning and whole populations were forced from their homes and hundreds of thousands were killed. -he signed the Dayton Peace treaty on behalf of the Bosnian serbs in 1995. -During the Kosovo war, he was indicted for war crimes.

Youth Revolt

Protest against conservatives and the previous generation in the 1950's and 60's. Sex, drugs, rock and roll. ** -"Beyond such inspirations, the youth revolt also stemmed from a series of concrete irritations such as the prevailing authoritarianism that complicated the passage through adolescence. In most families fathers were still firmly in control, and superiors in institutions set rules that were expected to be observed, while youths craved more personal freedom." -led to more progressive politics, expressionism (cult of the abusrb in theater) and more magazines

Benno Ohnesorg

Radical student murdered by police during political demonstration. red army faction came out of background formed by radical student movement. ** -A west German university student killed by a policeman (shot)during a demonstration in west berlin in 1967. -He participated in a student protests in opposition of the state visit of the Shah of Iran who was attending an Opera in Germany that night. It was his first protest -His death spurred the growth of the left-wing German student movement. -The movement 2 June group was even named after the day of his death tudent activist Rudi Dutschke led student protest actions in the period following Ohnesorg's death

Prague Spring (1968)

Reformist Alexander Dubcek was elected and attempted to expand civil rights to the people of Czechoslovakia. The members of the Warsaw pact invaded with tanks and occupied the country until 1990. Dubcek was succeeded by Husak who returned the country to a period of normalization, in which the reforms of the prague spring were taken back ** -a period of political liberalization and mass protest in czevhosolvakia as a communist state after WWII. It began in Jan 1968 when Alexander Dubcek was elected First Secretary of the Communist Party of Czecholovakia and continued until aug 1968 when the soviet union and members of the warsaw pact (half a million) suppressed reform and invaded the country. -Dubcek promised decentralization of the economy and democratization. Loosening of restrictions on media, speech, and travel.

Kosovo Conflict

Slobodan Milosevic started the ethnic cleansing of Kosovo-Albanian// The UN and NATO forces got peace back ** -An armed conflict in Kosovo that started in late Feb 1998 and lasted until june 1999. It was faught by the forces of the Federal Republic of Yugolslavia, and the Kosovo albanian rebel group with air support from NATO. -The rebels (kosovo liberation army- kla) launched their first campaigns in 1995 to attack serbian law enforcement in Kosovo. In 1998, rebel attacks targeting Yugoslav authorities in kosovo caused an increase presence of Serb paramilitaries who began targetibg KLA sympathisizrs, also killing thousands of civilians. -NATO intervened after diplomatic solutions failed. This caused an ethnic albanian exodus as the ugoslav forced continued to fight.

Bosnia

Southern Slavic nation seeking independence; annexation by Austria-Hungary creates war in the Balkans; housed parade that killed Ferdinand ** - the site of an international armed conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina between 1992 and 1995. The war was part of the breakup of Yugoslavia. -"The second war, centering on Bosnia and Herzegovina, turned out to be more devastating yet, since Serbia systematically used ethnic cleansing to remake the nationalities map. The composition of Bosnia was hopelessly mixed up, with almost half the population consisting of Muslims, about one- third of Serbs, and the remainder of Croats, settled partly contiguously and partly mixed together. When President Bakir Izetbegović also sought Bosnian indepen-dence, alternating secular appeals to toleration with Muslim calls for secession, the local Serbs, led by Radovan Karadžić and Radko Mladić, proclaimed a Republika Srbska of their own. In order to con-nect its territory with Belgrade, the Yugoslav army and local militias set out to create a land bridge to Serbia proper. Since the mediation of U.S. secretary of state Cyrus Vance and British foreign minister David Owen made no headway, the United Nations set up six towns as "safe havens" for Bosnian refugees. When pusillanimous Dutch peacekeepers failed to resist, Serbian forces overran the enclave of Srebrenica and executed between seven thousand and eight thousand Bosnian males of all ages. of the shelling of Sarajevo and evidence of massa-cres during ethnic cleansing ultimately compelled the international community to intervene. Ignoring the UN arms embargo, other Mus-lim countries surreptitiously delivered arms to the Bosnians, increas-ing their capacity to resist. The Croatian reconquest of the Krajina region helped turn the military tide. Punishing the capital of Serbia itself, NATO air strikes against the Serbian army forced Milošević to the negotiating table. After lengthy talks in Dayton, Ohio, directed by Richard Holbrooke, a halfhearted compromise emerged in November .Formally, the fiction of Bosnian unity was preserved with a rotating presidency; 51 percent of the land area remained with the multiethnic Bosnian and Croatian part of the country, but the rest was turned over to the Serbs, preserving most of their conquests. Basically the accords froze the results of the fighting in place, leaving none of the warring parties satisfied.44 Bosnia was internally so di-vided as to require permanent UN supervision, becoming a ward of the international community. Hence the expellees' right to return remained a dead lette"

Economic Miracle

Term contemporaries used to describe rapid economic growth, often based on the consumer sector, in post-World War II western Europe. ** -in germany it was wirchstrucraft (Under the patriarchal leadership of "Der Alte" (the Old One) and buoyed by the Economic Miracle, the Federal Republic gradually became the first successful democracy in German history.) -Spreading from the Federal Republic to neighboring states, the western Economic Miracle offered higher wages, lower prices, and better quality than smokestack so-cialism. While communist governments sought to satisfy their citi-zens through public projects and subsidized basics, the unfettering of market competition in the West created higher rates of growth, evi-dent in the rebuilding of infrastructure and housing. In western and north-ern Europe the positive effects of the Economic Miracle were felt in Jarausch_Out of Ashes.indd 53912/23/14 10:43 AM540 Chapter 20every pocketbook, workplace, and home. In -Spreading from the Federal Republic to neighboring states, the western Economic Miracle offered higher wages, lower prices, and better quality than smokestack so-cialism.

Helsinki Accords

The Final Act of the Helsinki conference in 1975 in which the thirty-five nations participating agreed that Europe's existing political frontiers could not be changed by force. They also solemnly accepted numerous provisions guaranteeing the human rights and political freedoms of their citizens. ** - thirty-five countries signed the declaration in an attempt to improve relations between the east and the west by accepting the post-wwII status quo in europe. In some ways it marked the formal end of WWII since it recognized european national frontiers that had arisen out of the war.

Fourth French Republic

The French government set up after World War II; Had a weak president, strong legislature, and too many parties with weak coalitions. ** -The Republic govt of France between 1946 and 1958, governed by the fourth republic constituion. -Some successes by this republic include: rebuilding of the nation;s industries after wwII through the US assistance provided by the Marshall plan and saw to the beginning of the German-France co-operation that helped feed into the later development of the EU -Instability within the govt though. There were many changes in govt anf there were 21 administrations within a 12-year period. Ineffective in making decisions regarding decolonization. After the Algerian crisis in 1958, the fourth republic collapsed and was replaced with the fifth republic under charles de gaulle later that year.

Decolonization

The collapse of colonial empires. Between 1947 and 1962, practically all former colonies in Asia and Africa gained independence. ** "Instead, the rapid collapse of the European empires was a com-plex process that assumed a wide variety of local forms, ranging from bloody fighting to reluctant retreat. The concept of decoloniza-tion describes "the emancipation of Asia and Africa from European control" in political, economic, and cultural terms, all of which took place during roughly one generation after World War II. In part, Eu-ropean hegemony over the rest of the world was terminated by pres-sure from below, as the suppressed peoples sought to end colonial rule by protest or insurrection. In part, the imperialists lost their own determination to maintain their domination as a result of their internecine struggles during the world wars. Finally, the mounting criticism of international opinion and the role of organizations like the United Nations also hastened their retreat. Unfortunately, the re-sult of decolonization has often been disappointing to the people involved. While independence has brought self- determination at last, the new states have remained unstable, economic development has lagged, and Europe has experienced a blowback of unexpected con-sequences such as new immigration of its former subjects" -"The process of decolonization therefore involved a selective rejection and retention of the European legacy, which led to the creation of a new hybrid of postcolonial modernity." -The surprising onset of decolonization therefore reflected not just the rise of colonial aspirations but also the weakening of Euro-pean resolve. -

Rome Agreements

The founding document of the common market in 1957. Product of the relaunching of Europe. Creates a customs union, subsidies for joint-agricultural policy, nuclear agreement on atomic energy. Designed to keep France in the dark and Germany without weapons. *** -helped form the consitutional basis of the EU -Subsequent negotiations between the six ECSC members France, West Germany, Italy, and the Benelux countries developed two agreements, the Treaty of Rome and the Euratom Treaty, signed a year later. -The Treaty of Rome was infused with the modernizing language of economic liberalism, stressing competition. Internally, creating a common market required the "free movement" of goods, persons, services, and capital by tearing down all barriers to trade, including indirect obstacles and subsidies. It also necessitated outlawing the prevention, restriction or distortion of competition" through dump-ing or taxation. Externally, the establishment of a customs union demanded removal of separate duties and imposition of a common tariff, with receipts shared between the governments. As a compro-mise between free traders and protectionists, the level of outside duties was set at the arithmetical average of the current tariffs of the members. The concurrent but separate Euratom treaty sought to "create the conditions required for the development of a powerful nuclear industry," spreading the costs to all member states and giving Germans access to research without letting them develop their own weapons. But with oil rapidly replacing coal as energy, atomic coop-eration became less relevant.18

Smokestack Socialism

The goal of improving living standards seemed within reach, since the communists achieved a modest Economic Miracle of their JDictating Communism 447own, albeit later and at a lower level than in the reconstruction of West Germany. For postwar rebuilding of industrial plants and in-frastructure, which required coal and steel as well as much labor, smokestack socialism was actually quite appropriate. Collectivization did gradually produce enough food to overcome shortages, and na-tionalized industries could offer sufficient products to end rationing. But owing to the emphasis on fixed quantitative targets, meeting the more flexible challenge of making consumer goods proved difficult for the planned economy, since satisfaction also depended on quality and style. With a delay of a decade or more, the Eastern Bloc also started to produce refrigerators, television sets, and cars, but their prices were high, deliveries slow, and design often outdated when they arrived. Since lack of supplies, production shortfalls, distribu-tion bottlenecks, and political interference hindered creative de-signers, the East was always playing catch- up to the more dynamic We s t .

pieds-noirs

The predominantly Catholic French population in the French colony of Algeria, called "black feet" because they wore black shoes instead of sandals or going barefoot, like the algerians ** -Usually considered those who "returned" to mainland france after Algeria gained independence from the Algerian war (1954-1962) -During the algerian war, they overwhelmingly supported the colonial french rule in Algeria and were opposed to algerian nationalist groups like the FNL. -They are significant because those who moved to France after (800,000 evacuated to france in 1962), felt alienated because they suffered ostracism from their left because they were blamed for the exploitation of the muslims and some blamed them for the war. Thus, they increased the political turmoil surrounding the collapse of the fourth french republic.

Jean Monnet

The visionary but practical French economist and businessman who recognized that European unity had to start with economics. Leader like Schumann (France), Spaak (Belgium), Adenauer (Germany) and De Gasperi (Italy) were in favor of economic integration. Monnet's 1952 plan finally led to the ECSC(European Coal and Steel Community). ** -A French political economist and diplomat who supported European unity and is considered one of the founding fathers of the EU. -Initiated comprehensive economic planning in western europe after WWII. - After France was liberated he headed a govt committee to prepare a plan for modernization of the french economy. In 1947 the Monnet plan was adopted by the french govt. He proposed the establishment of a common market for coal and steel. Six european countries signed the treaty in 1951 that set up the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).

Totalitarianism

Totalitarianism is a political system or a form of government that prohibits opposition parties, restricts individual opposition to the state and its claims, and exercises an extremely high degree of control over public and private life. It is regarded as the most extreme and complete form of authoritarianis -"Central European émigrés and western critics attacked the es-tablishment of Soviet hegemony over Eastern Europe by coining the concept of "totalitarianism." Philosopher Hannah Arendt was struck by the antidemocratic similarities of the dictatorial methods em-ployed by both the Nazis and the Soviets. Political scientist Carl Fried-rich listed a series of characteristic traits shared by both systems such as a dominant ideology, a mass party led by a dictator, the use of terror, a monopoly of force and propaganda, as well as the control of a planned economy. Disappointed by the suppression of freedom in communist countries, British writer George Orwell dramatized mechanisms of repression in his dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty- Four. In practical politics, President Eisenhower in 1959 created the National Captive Nations Committee, an advocacy group that agi-tated for the eventual liberation of East European countries from So-viet domination.3 Since the charge of totalitarianism justified switch-ing enemies from National Socialism to communism, the word itself became a powerful weapon in the ideological battles of the Cold War." -while the word had been used earlier in the century by writers like george orwell, in terms of the cold war it became prominent as a form of anti-totalitariansim in after wwi ended in 1945 and the soviet union began to set up puppet states.

People's democracies

Was a theoretical concept within Marxism-Leninism (and a form of government in communist states) which developed after World War II, which allowed in theory for a multi-class, multi-party democracy on the pathway to socialism. **

Boris Yeltsin

Was the first President of the Russian Federation from 1991 to 1999. The Yeltsin era was a traumatic period in Russian history—a period marked by widespread corruption, economic collapse, and enormous political and social problems. In June 1991 Yeltsin came to power on a wave of high expectations. On June 12 Yeltsin was elected president of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic with 57% of the vote, becoming the first popularly elected president in Russian history. But Yeltsin never recovered his popularity after endorsing radical economic reforms in early 1992 which were widely blamed for devastating the living standards of most of the Russian population. By the time he left office, Yeltsin was a deeply unpopular figure in Russia, with an approval rating as low as two percent by some estimates. ** -he initially supported perestroika reforms of Gorbacvhev but later criticized them for being too moderate and called for a transition to a multi-party representative democracy. -He was instrumental in the formal dissolution of the soviet union in 1991 at which the russian federation became an independent state

Helmut Schmidt

West Germany chancellor who believed that if a war arose between East and West Europe, Germany would suffer and lose no matter what; tried to ease tension ** -German politician who served as the Chancellor of the FRG (West Germany) from 1974 to 1982. -As chancellor he focused on international affairs and wanted "political unification of europe in partnership with the united stated." He made proposals that led to NATO doploying the US Pershing II missiles to europe in 1979. He also sought european co-operation and contributed significantly to the development of the European monetary system in 1978. -West German chancellor Helmut Schmidt succeeded in decreasing inflation and joblessness by reducing some expendi-tures and applying limited stimulation after a period of stagflation across europe

Yalta

When FDR, Churchill, and Stalin meet; they agreed to wage war on Japan(soviet Union agreed to fight them), to divide Germany into 4 equal parts, on the big 5's veto, and to hold free elections for the liberated countries ** -also known as the Crimea conference, was a conference that took place near Yalta between February 4 and 11, 1945, to discuss the postwar organization of Germany and Europe. -It was the second of three major Big Three wartime conferences (preceded by the Tehran conference and followed by the Potsdam conference) -4 occupation zones in Germany (giving France one), demilitarization and denazification in germany, free elections in poland, veto power for members of security council of UN -sig because Soviet union went against this agreement and established a communist govt. in poland.

Iron Curtain

Winston Churchill's term for the Cold War division between the Soviet-dominated East and the U.S.-dominated West. ** - It was initially a non-physical boundary dividing europe into two separate areas from the end of WWII in 1945 until the end of the Cold War in 1991. It symbolizes the efforts of the USSR to block itself and its satellite states from open contact with the west and its allied states. On the east side of the curtain were the countries that were connected to or influenced by the USSR (soviet sphere) and to the west of the curtain were countries that were NATO members or neutral. -seperate international economic and military alliances were developed on each side -It later became a term for the 7,000 km long physical barrier of fences, walls, minefields, and watchtowers that devided the "east" and "west," with the Berlin wall being apart of this physical barrier.

Tito

Yugoslav statesman who led the resistance to German occupation during World War II and established a communist state after the war ** -A Yugoslav communist revolutionary and statesman, serving in various roles from 1943 until his death in 1980 -" the charismatic partisan leader who managed to seize power in Belgrade at the end of World War II and bring the disparate provinces of Yugoslavia together into one coun-try with the slogan of "brotherhood and unity." Under his dictato-rial rule, Yugoslavia allowed workers' "self- management" of factories, permitted small- scale privately owned businesses, and encouraged western tourism, essential for gaining hard currency. Stalin and his successors considered Titoism a threat not because of its ideological innovations but because its independence threatened Russian con-trol over the international communist movement. After being ex-pelled from the Cominform in 1948, Tito became one of the key leaders of the "nonaligned nations movement," which tried to escape the pull of bipolarity."

Francois Mitterand

a Socialist, he was elected president of France in 1981, and enacted many liberal measures to reduce inflation and aid workers but could not correct France's economic problems and lost power in 1993 *** - A French statesmen who served as the president of France from 1981 to 1995. -he was the first secretary of the socialist party

Samizdat

a clandestine publishing system within the Eastern bloc , by which forbidden or unpublishable literature was reproduced and circulated privately *** -This was a grassroots practice meant to evade official soviet censorship and was fraught with danger and harsh punishment -It began after Stalin's death in 1953, mainly as a revolt against restrictions on freedom. -sig because after Krushev left power in 1964, samizdat publications expanded their focus beyond freedom of expression to a critique of many aspects of soviet policies and acitivitiesm such as the treatment of minorities. -Because the govt had a monpoloy on presses and photocopiers, samizdat publications typically were passed hand to hand as carbon copies.

International Criminal Court

a court established by the United Nations for indicting and administering justice to people who commit war crimes -It began functioning in 2002 after the Rome statute, its governing document, was signed. ** -An intergovernmental organization and international tribunal that sits in the Hague, netherlands. The ICC has jurisdiction to prosecute people for the international crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and crimes of aggression -It is intended to complement existing national judicial systems and it may therefore exercise its jurisdiction only when certain conditions are met, such as when national courts are unwilling or unable to prosecute criminals or when the United Nations Security Council or individual states refer situations to the Court. -There are currently (2019) nire than 120 member states

Dissidents

a person who opposes official policy, especially that of an authoritarian state. ** -this term was used in the eastern bloc, especially in the soviet union in the period after stalin;s death in 1953 to the fall of communism in the early 90s. -Term refered to citizens who criticized the practices or authority of the Communist Party. The people who wrote and distributed non-censored, non-comfortmist samizdat literature were criticized in newspapers. -Many people dissatisfied with SU identified as dissidents so that it eventually refered to an individual whose non-comformism was perceived to be for the good of society -A big part of dissident activity in the USSR was informing society about the violation of laws and human rights. -In poland, for example, The dissident ap-peals of Charta 77 had already begun to resonate because of popular dissatisfaction with economic and political stagnation and helped start the velvet revolution in 1989.

Marshall Plan

a plan for aiding the European nations in economic recovery after World War II in order to stabilize and rebuild their countries and prevent the spread of communism. **An american initiative passed in 1948 to aid western europe, in which the US gave over $12 billion. It operated for four years. Britiain and France got most of the money, but some aid was given to west germany. - the goals of the US were to rebuild war-torn regions, remove trade barriers, modernize industry, improve european prosperity,and prevent the spread of communism. -to combat the effects of the marshall plan, the USSR developed the Molotov Plan, an economic plan that eventually expanded to become COMECON

Glasnost

a policy of the Soviet government allowing freer discussion of social problems *** - Gorbachev;s policy in the mid-1980's as a political slogan for inreased govt transparency in the soviet union. It also permitted criticism of the govt. and allowed the media to spread more news and info freely. -It began the democratization of the soviet union.

Brexit

a term for the potential or hypothetical departure of the United Kingdom from the European Union. ** - The withdrawal of the UK from the EU. Following a June 2016 referendum, in which 51.9% voted to leave, the UK government formally announced the country's withdrawal in March 2017, starting a two-year process that was due to conclude with the UK withdrawing on 29 March 2019. As the UK parliament voted against or failed to ratify the negotiated withdrawal agreements, that deadline has been extended three times, and is currently 31 January 2020.[2] -Many effects of Brexit depend on how closely the UK will be tied to the EU, or whether it withdraws before terms are agreed - referred to as a no-deal Brexit. The broad consensus among economists is that Brexit will likely harm the UK's economy and reduce its real per capita income in the medium term and long term, and that the referendum itself damaged the economy.[a] Brexit is likely to reduce immigration from European Economic Area (EEA) countries to the UK, and poses challenges for UK higher education, academic research and security. Following Brexit, EU law and the EU Court of Justice will no longer have supremacy over UK laws or its Supreme Court, except to an extent agreed upon in a withdrawal agreement. The European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 retains relevant EU law as domestic law, which the UK could then amend or repeal.

New Left

a youth-dominated political movement of the 1960s, embodied in such organizations as -Students for a Democratic Society and the Free Speech Movement *** -A broad political movement mainly in the 60s and 70s that consisited of activists in the western world who campaigned for many social issues like civil and political rights, feminism, gay rights, abortion rights, gender roles, etc. -Often associated with the student protests of 1968 (may 1968 in france) -the youthful demonstrators of the New Left saw their revolt as Jürgen Habermas has described it: a "fundamental liberalization" of western society

European Union

an association of European nations formed in 1993 for the purpose of achieving political and economic integration. ** -A political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in europe. The EU has devloped an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states in those matters. EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services and capital within the internal market. For travel within the Schengen area, passport controls have been abolished. A monetary unit was established in 1999. -EU was established when the Maastricht Treaty came into force in 1993. Its origins can be traced to the European Coal and Steel Community and European Economic Community. The last major change to the constitution of the EU was the Treaty of Lisbon (2009) -In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.[20] Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7 and the G20. Because of its global influence, the European Union was described in 2006 as an emerging superpower.[21] -"The attraction of the European Union was another important fac-tor that advanced the democratization of the postcommunist states. Basically, "the West" served as example of a free and prosperous life— the chief goal to which transforming countries aspired. Neigh-bors like Germany and Austria also helped with exchange programs for retraining eastern elites, contacts between political parties for creating networks, and economic investment for spreading interna-tional business practices. Moreover, the EU exerted a considerable passive pressure through the presumed benefits of its membership, because the East Europeans could hope to be accepted only if they had stable democracies and their economic performance caught up to western levels"

Kyoto Protocol

controlling global warming by setting greenhouse gas emissions targets for developed countries ** -The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement that aimed to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and the presence of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere. The essential tenet of the Kyoto Protocol was that industrialized nations needed to lessen the amount of their CO2 emissions. The Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan in 1997, when greenhouse gases were rapidly threatening our climate, life on the earth, and the planet, itself. Today, the Kyoto Protocol lives on in other forms and its issues are still being discussed. The Protocol's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. Key Takeaways The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement that called for industrialized nations to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions significantly. Other accords, like the Doha Amendment and the Paris Climate Agreement, have also tried to curb the global-warming crisis. Today, talks begun by the Kyoto Protocol continue and are extremely complicated, involving politics, money, and lack of consensus -"Not all initiatives were successful, since the originally popular EU emissions- trading scheme has all but collapsed. Moreover the developing countries, in order to grow further, have largely refused to be bound by such agreements, requesting aid for not polluting or not cutting down rain forests.20But on other issues like the admission of gene- modified foods into the EU, Europeans have been more skeptical than Americans" -adopted by japan in 1997 and put into force in 2005

Oil shocks

it was a period of time in the 1970s when opec raised oil prices after their strict embargo on the us from helping israel in both the six-day war and the yom kippur war. the oil shocks taught americans a lesson: that they could never consider a policy of economic isolation. the country was increasingly dependent on opec and vulnerable to any possible shifts in the arab oil states. ** -Refers to the oil crisis of 1973 in which oil prices increased by 400% and and 1979 in which the price increased by 100%. -"But until the fixed exchange rates of Bretton Woods collapsed and the Oil Shocks eroded the economic basis for additional initiatives, European elites faced the future with renewed optimism, confident that rational anal-ysis could solve any problems that might arise." -"As a result of OPEC's reduction of oil production by about 7.5 percent, the West European economies fell into a recession that was both deep and long lasting. Though the precise figures differed in various countries, GNPs declined over 3 percent between Novem-ber 1973 and the middle of 1975. In part, exaggerated fears were to blame, because they reduced consumer willingness to buy. In part, the recession was a result of government policies that reduced en-ergy allotments to factories and private homes, for instance decreas-ing the workweek to three days in Britain in order to avoid blackouts. Finally, the recession was also induced by business decisions, such as anticipating dropping demand by reducing car production, which set a downward spiral in motion. As a result, unemployment inexo-rably rose to over 12 percent in the United Kingdom and Holland, aggravating the drop in purchasing power. Finally, the increase in energy costs also pushed up European inflation to 9.4 percent by 1983, which dampened business activity. The consequence of the down-turn was the first major recession, which ended almost three decades of the postwar boom.9Resuming economic growth was difficult because of the nasty "stagflation" that beset European economies after the rise in energy costs. This term was a combination of stagnation, indicating little growth, and inflation, suggesting a loss of buying power. Owing to the oil price increase, the expansion of the European economy did stall, accompanied by high unemployment and rising inflation" -Unfortunately a second oil crisis from 1979 to 1981 nipped the weak recovery in the bud and triggered yet another recession. The overthrow of the shah of Iran by the Islamic revolution of Ayatollah Jarausch_Out of Ashes.indd 61812/23/14 10:43 AMPostindustrial Transition 619Khomeini reduced the oil supply by 7 percent, and then the ensuing war between Iran and Iraq cut output by another 6 percent. This renewed drop in production pushed the price per barrel up to over forty dollars, once again doubling energy costs in real terms. The predictable result was another, even more severe recession. Unem-ployment grew to about 8 percent in France and Germany, private consumption stagnated, and inflation reached a new postwar high. Hence trade between advanced industrial countries declined by one- fifth, and industrial output shrank by over 10 percent. After three decades of growth, this second recession came as an even greater shock because it indicated that the difficulties were not just tempo-rary in nature.11 Since the new crisis made incumbents look bad, Margaret Thatcher was elected in Britain in 1979, François Mitter-rand assumed power in France in 1981, and Helmut Kohl became German chancellor in 1982

Dubcek

leader of Czechoslovakia during the Prague of Spring, he expanded freedom of discussion and other intellectual rights at a time when they were being repressed in the Soviet ** -A czechoslovak politician who served as the First secretary of the communist party from jan 1968 until april 1969. he attempted to reform the communist govt during the Prague spring but was forced to resign following the Warsaw Pact invasion in August 1968. -During his leadership,he used the slogan "socialism with a new face" in order to lift censorship on media, etc.

Margaret Thatcher

leader of conservatives in Great Britain who came to power. Pledged to limit social welfare, restrict union power, and end inflation. Formed Thatcherism, in which her economic policy was termed, and improved the British economic situation. She dominated British politics in 1980s, and her government tried to replace local property taxes with a flat-rate tax payable by every adult. Her popularity fell, and resigned. *** -British prime minister from 1979 to 1990. the first woman to hold thats office and the longest-serving british prime minister in the 20th century. -she introduced economic policies intended to reverse high unemployment in the wake of an ongoing recession. Her policies emphasized deregulation, privatisation, and reducing the power of trade unions. -neoliberal policies -sig in cold war because she became closely aligned with the cold war policies of ronald reagan because they both distrusted communism and she responded warmly to Gorbachev.

Maastricht Agreement

members of the European Community- meant to further european integration founded the EU and created pillar structure of EU (which stayed in place until 2009) -- establish European Communities , Common Foreign and Security Policy, and Justice and Home Affairs -- result of desire of many states to extend EEC (european economic community_ to areas of foreign policy, military, criminal justice, judicial cooperation, and misgiving of other member states Februrary 7,1992 in Netherlands led to the creation of the euro and the creation of the European Union ** -It created the pillar structure which includedf pillars of expanding the common market, having a common foreogn and security policy, and The most visible aspect of the Maastricht Treaty was the intro-duction of a common currency, since it affected the daily lives of European citizens directly. The coordination of the European Mone-tary System was upgraded into an agreement on fixed exchange rates, which in 1999 transformed the ECU into a new currency, called euro.foreign

"Socialism with a human face"

reform movements started by Alexander Dubcek, communists gain the freedoms of press, assembly, worship, the right to strike, and freedom to travel abroad, free elections ** -A political programme announced by Dubcek and his colleagues (agreed at the Presidium of the communist party of czechoslovakis) after he became chairman of the party in Jan 1968. -It was the process of mild democratization and political liberalization that sought to build an advanced socialist society that valued democratic czechoslovakian tradition. It would still allow communist party to remain in power. It initiated the Prague spring, which in Aug 1968, was stopped by the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslov..

Nikita Khrushchev

ruled the USSR (chairman of the council of ministers) from 1958-1964; lessened government control of soviet citizens; seeked peaceful coexistence with the West instead of confrontation ** -He was reponsible for the de-stalinization of the Soviet Union (discussed stalin's crimes in 1956 with a "secret speech", for backing the progress of the Soviet space program, and for making liberal reforms in areas of domestic policy. His colleagues removed him from power in 1964, replacing him with Brezhnev. -In foreign affairs he pursued a policy of "peaceful coexistence" with the west -also one of the players in the Cuban missile crisi and oversaw the building of the berlin wall

Euro

the basic monetary unit of most members of the European Union (introduced in 1999) ** -The official currency of 19 of the 28 member states of the EU at the moment. This group of states is known as the eurozone or euro area. The euro is currently the second-largest and second-most traded currency in the foreign exchange market after the US dollar. -The euro was introduced to markets in 1999 and replaced the European currency Unite (ECU) -To supervise this new currency, a European central bank (ECB) was created in Frankfurt. -"After some initial difficulties, the euro performed reasonably well, soon rivaling the U.S. dollar as a reserve currency for inter-national monetary transactions. Starting with the six original EEC members, it was eventually adopted by seventeen nations, with other currencies in Africa pegged to it. By abolishing currency conversion costs, it facilitated internal trade and made external exchanges more predictable. Initially there was some speculation against it, starting out with a rate of 0.82 euro to the dollar, but after 2002 it exceeded the U.S. currency in value, and more recently it has been traded above $1.25 to one euro. By introducing the euro, the member states have turned over control of monetary policy to the European Central Bank, which has favored financial stability over growth. Especially during the recession caused by the dot- com bubble, its decisions have been controversial, since even France and Germany violated the convergence criteria, making it difficult to insist on their observance In order to function more smoothly, the euro therefore required a harmonization of economic policies."

De-industrialisation

the decline in manufacturing ** -"Overshadowed by the oil crisis, the underlying process of deindus-trialization proved even more challenging, since it destroyed the economic basis of high industrial society. Describing the closing of individual plants, the disappearance of whole branches of industry, and the general decline of manufacturing, this neologism was itself a product of the structural changes triggered by globalization in the 1970s. Its cause was the intensification of international competition, since developing countries in Asia were able to produce many con-sumer items more cheaply than mature economies, eventually put-ting their competitors out of business. The relocation of production was hastened by declining transport costs as well as technological innovations that automated production, reducing the advantage of a trained workforce. While consumers profited from lower prices, western producers lost their factories, creating structural unemploy-ment and blighting old industrial regions." -One key element was the decline of Fordist mass production of consumer goods such as textiles, which had already started in the 50s. -Another, more devastating factor was the coal and steel crisis that had been gradually eroding the industrial core of European countries since the late 1950s. The conversion from coal to oil as the dominant fuel and competition from open- pit mining in the United States and Australia made much of the continental coal too expensive, since it had to be extracted deep underground from narrow seams that ren-dered using machines difficult. Over union protests, one coal mine after another had to be closed during the 1960s and 1970s, putting hundreds of thousands of miners out of work. -ften overlooked, a third dimension of technological change pushed deindustrialization even into more advanced sectors of man-ufacturing. Initially the catch- up industrialization of the Asian tiger Jarausch_Out of Ashes.indd 62112/23/14 10:43 AM622 Chapter 23states had concentrated on taking over cheap mass production, but gradually higher- quality manufacturing developed as well in countries like Japan. Traditional European companies such as Zeiss in optics, Leica in cameras, AEG in appliances, and Grundig in electronics relied on their superior design, craft- trained workforce, and presti-gious names in order to sell expensive items. But their Asian com-petitors were quicker in making use of innovations like computer chips and robotic production, first capturing the market for inex-pensive mass products. -The chief consequence of these deindustrialization processes was the emergence of structural unemployment that proved resistant to political countermeasures. Simply put, only some of the jobs lost during the recession of 1973- 75 returned with the recovery, creating a new plateau from which further jobs were lost in 1979- 81, consis-tently increasing the jobless rate to over 7.5 percent. In Britain alone, about two million jobs vanished with deindustrialization during the 1970s, much more than were gained with the shift to financial ser-vices and high- tech employment. Skilled or semiskilled male work-ers over forty years of age were reluctant to move elsewhere and quite difficult to retrain for new careers. Miners, steelmakers, ship welders— workers such as these, once part of a labor aristocracy, were extremely bitter about losing not only their employment but also a major source of their pride and self- identity to a macroeconomic process they did not fully understand. In contrast, women and the young adapted more easily, albeit landing often in low- paying posi-tions. The effect of prolonged joblessness was much political resent-ment and enormous cost increases for social services, called Sozial-pläne, that tried to cushion the loss.

Goulash Communism

the variety of communism as practiced in the Hungarian People's Republic from the 1960s (specifically after the Hungarian revolution of 1956) until the collapse of communism in Hungary in 1989. With elements of free market economics, as well as an improved human rights record, it represented a quiet reform and deviation from the soviet principles applied on Hungary in the previous decade -These reforms also gave Hungary the reputation of being "the happiest barracks" of the eastern block ** -The name is a metaphor for the traditonal Hungarian dish goulash, which is made up of an assortment of dissimilar ingredients; it represents how Hungarian communism became a mixed ideology, no longer strictly adhering to previous Marxist-Leninist interpretations.

Warsaw Pact

treaty signed in May 1955 that formed an alliance of the Eastern European countries behind the Iron Curtain; USSR, Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania ** -It was the military compliment to COMECON and created in reaction to the integration of West Germany into NATO in 1955, but was also motivated by Soviet desires to maintain control over military forces in Central and Eastern europe. -sig because the signing of the pact became a symbol of soviet dominance in eastern europe and was seen as a militaristic threat to capitalism