History

annexation

the incorporation of a territory within the domain of a country

Andrew Jackson: Spoils system

the practice of handing out government jobs to supporters; replacing government employees with the winning candidate's supporters

Industry (Chp 5 lesson #2 summary)

A revolution in transportation and industry led to dramatic social and economic changes. Early industrialization also led to the growth of Northern towns and cities.

Nationalism (Chp 5 lesson #1 summary)

After the War of 1812, the federal government began building the national road, defended its authority to regulate interstate commerce, and declared the Western Hemisphere off-limits for future colonization.

Nationalism Lesson (Chp 5 #1) Economic

After the War of 1812, the federal government began building the national road, defended its authority to regulate interstate commerce, and declared the Western Hemisphere off-limits for future colonization. After the War of 1812, a strong sense of national pride swept the United States. The Columbian Centinel, a Boston newspaper, called this time the "Era of Good Feelings." The name came to describe the period of James Monroe's presidency. During the last two years of James Madison's second term, American leaders proposed an ambitious program to bind the nation together. The program included creating a new national bank, enacting a tariff protecting American manufacturers from foreign competition, and building new canals and roads to improve transportation. Partisan infighting had largely ended in national politics because only one political party—the Democratic-Republicans —remained strong. The War of 1812 had taught Republican leaders that a stronger federal government was necessary. This new perspective allowed many who might have been Federalists to join the Republicans instead. James Monroe won the presidency in 1816 with 83 percent of the electoral vote. The Federalist Party then faded away.

Andrew Jackson: (chp 6 lesson #1 summary)

Andrew Jackson was elected president with popular support. He stood for federal authority, tried to relocate Native Americans, and undermined the Bank of the United States. The Whig Party emerged to oppose him.

Andrew Jackson: Indian Removal Act 1830 Impacts Trail of Tears impacts ????

Andrew Jackson's commitment to extending democracy did not benefit everyone. His attitude toward Native Americans reflected the views of many Westerners at that time. Jackson had fought the Creek and Seminole people in Georgia and Florida, and in his Inaugural Address he declared his intention to move all Native Americans to the Great Plains. Many Americans believed that the Great Plains was a wasteland that would never be settled. They thought that if they moved Native Americans to that region, the nation's conflict with them would be over. In 1830 Jackson pushed through Congress the Indian Removal Act, which provided money for relocating Native Americans. Most Native Americans eventually gave in and resettled on the Great Plains, but not the Cherokee of Georgia. The Cherokee had adopted a written language, drawn up a written constitution modeled on the U.S. Constitution, and sent many of their children to schools established by white missionaries. The Cherokee sued the state of Georgia in order to challenge the state's attempt to take their lands. Their case, Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, eventually reached the Supreme Court. In 1832 Chief Justice John Marshall stated the Georgia law did not apply to the Cherokee because they were a sovereign nation. Jackson disagreed. "Marshall has made his decision," the president reportedly said, "now let him enforce it." Most Cherokee resisted the government's offers of Western land. In 1838 Jackson's successor, Martin Van Buren, sent in the army to force the remaining Cherokee from their homes and march them to what is now Oklahoma. About 2,000 Cherokee died in camps while waiting for the relocation to begin, and some 2,000 others died of starvation, disease, and exposure on the journey, which became known as the Trail of Tears. By 1838, most Native Americans living east of the Mississippi had been moved to reservations.

Nativism (chp 6 lesson #2 summary)

Between 1815 and 1860, over 5 million immigrants arrived in the United States. Most found opportunity, but some found discrimination and prejudice. During the 1820s and 1830s, a new religious movement began to emerge.

Nationalism: John Marshell

Between 1816 and 1824, the Supreme Court under Chief Justice John Marshall issued several rulings that helped unify the nation after the war. These decisions established the dominance of the national government over the states. Martin v. Hunter's Lessee In 1816 the Court decided in Martin v. Hunter's Lessee that it had authority to hear all appeals of state court decisions in cases involving federal statutes and treaties. In this case, Denny Martin, a British subject, had tried to sell land in Virginia he had inherited from his uncle, a Loyalist. State law held that no "enemy" could inherit land, but the Court ruled that Virginia's law conflicted with Jay's Treaty, which stated that land belonging to Loyalists before the war was still theirs. The decision helped establish the Supreme Court as the nation's court of final appeal. McCulloch v. Maryland This 1819 case concerned Maryland's attempt to tax the Second Bank of the United States. First, the Court addressed the authority of the federal government to create a national bank, deciding that the Constitution did grant this power under the "necessary and proper" clause. Marshall observed that the Constitution gave the federal government the power to collect taxes, to borrow money, to regulate commerce, and to raise armies and navies. He concluded that the Constitution's "necessary and proper" clause allowed the federal government to create a bank. Marshall then argued that the federal government was "supreme in its own sphere of action." This meant that a state government could not interfere with an agency of the federal government operating within the state's borders. Taxing the national bank was a form of interference and, thus, unconstitutional. Gibbons v. Ogden This 1824 case involved a company that had been granted a monopoly by the state of New York to control all steamboat traffic on New York waters. When the company tried to expand into New Jersey, the case went to court. The Supreme Court declared the monopoly unconstitutional, interpreting federal controls over interstate commerce granted by the Constitution to include all trade along the coast or on waterways dividing the states. This ensured precedence of federal law over state law in interstate transportation and later allowed for federally controlled internal improvement projects. All these cases strengthened the federal government at the expense of the states. They helped make the "necessary and proper" clause and the interstate commerce clause major vehicles for expanding federal power.

Industry: (chp 5 lesson#3) Cotton Gin (impact??)

During a visit to the South in 1793, young New Englander Eli Whitney noticed that removing cotton seeds by hand from the fluffy bolls was so tedious that it took a worker an entire day to separate a pound of cotton lint. In only 10 days, Whitney built a simple cotton gin—gin being short for engine—that quickly and efficiently combed the seeds out of cotton bolls. The invention of the cotton gin happened at the same time that textile mills were expanding in Europe. Mills in England and France clamored for all the cotton they could get. In 1792, the South produced about 6,000 bales of cotton. By 1801, annual production had reached 100,000 bales. Cotton soon dominated the region. By the late 1840s, Southerners were producing more than 2 million bales of cotton annually, and in 1860 production reached almost 4 million bales. In that year, Southern cotton sold for a total of $192 million—more than half the value of all U.S. exports. Southerners began saying, "Cotton is King." The cotton gin also strengthened the institution of slavery. The spread of cotton plantations across the Deep South made the demand for slave labor skyrocket. Congress had outlawed the foreign slave trade in 1808, but a high birthrate among enslaved women—encouraged by slaveholders eager to sell new laborers at high prices—meant that the enslaved population kept growing. Between 1820 and 1850, the number of people born into slavery in the South rose from about 1.5 million to nearly 4 million.

Manifest Destiny

Farming New Lands Early pioneers became known as squatters because they settled on lands they did not own. The federal government intended to survey the land and then sell large parcels to real estate companies, but squatters wanted to buy the land they occupied directly from the federal government. Bowing to public pressure, Congress passed the Preemption Act of 1830. This law protected squatters by guaranteeing them the right to claim land before it was surveyed and the right to buy up to 160 acres at the government's minimum price of $1.25 per acre. Plows and Reapers A few decades earlier, farmers had only wooden plows to break up the grass cover and roots of Midwestern sod. Plowing became easier after 1819, when Jethro Wood patented an iron-bladed plow, and also in 1837, when John Deere engineered a plow with steel blades. Midwestern agriculture also received a boost from the mechanical reaper, which Cyrus McCormick patented in 1834. For centuries farmers had cut grain by hand, using a sickle or a scythe— exhausting and time-consuming work. With a McCormick reaper pulled by horses or mules, farmers could harvest far more grain with far less effort. Settling the Pacific Coast The United States, Britain, and Native Americans all laid claim to the Oregon Country, which included present-day Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. In 1818 Britain and the United States had agreed to occupy the land jointly. In the 1830s, American missionaries began arriving in Oregon to convert Native Americans. These missionaries spread the word about Oregon and persuaded others to come to the lush Willamette Valley. Westward Migration Much of the western terrain was difficult to travel through. A small number of mountain men made their living by trapping beaver and selling the furs. At the same time, they gained a thorough knowledge of the territory and the local Native Americans. By the 1840s, these men had carved out several East-to-West trails that helped settlers travel. The most popular route was the Oregon Trail. Others included the California Trail and the Santa Fe Trail. Emigrants made the journey in groups of covered wagons called wagon trains. Before starting out, they assembled outside a frontier town. Early wagon trains hired mountain men to guide them. Later, most of the travelers—known as overlanders—used guidebooks to find their own way. Native Americans Although travelers feared attacks by Native Americans, these were rare. By one estimate, 362 emigrants died due to Native American attacks between 1840 and 1860, while emigrants killed 462 Native Americans in the same period. Native Americans often gave emigrants food and helpful information about routes, edible plants, and sources of water. Overlanders also renewed their provisions by trading other goods with Native Americans, sometimes using horses as currency. As overland traffic increased, Native Americans on the Great Plains became concerned and angry over the threat pioneers posed to their way of life. The Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and other groups relied on buffalo for food, shelter, clothing, tools, and countless other necessities of everyday life. Now they feared that the age-old wanderings of the buffalo herds would be disrupted. Hoping to ensure peace, the federal government negotiated the Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1851. The United States promised eight Native American groups that specific territories of the Great Plains would belong to them as long as they allowed settlers to pass through peacefully. The government also agreed to make payments to the groups. Not all Native Americans approved of the treaty, however. The Mormon Migration Unlike those bound for the West in search of land, the Mormons followed a deeply rooted American tradition—the quest for religious freedom. The Mormons, however, had to seek that freedom by leaving the Eastern states, instead of coming to them. In 1844 a mob murdered the Mormon leader Joseph Smith. Two years later, the church's new leader, Brigham Young, took his people west to escape further persecution. Several thousand Mormons forged their way along a path that became known as the Mormon Trail. It served as a valuable route into the western United States. In 1847 the Mormons stopped at the Great Salt Lake in what is now Utah. Undeterred by the wildness of the area, they claimed the land they called "Deseret."

Manifest Destiny Definition & Painting

In 1800, only about 387,000 white settlers lived west of the Appalachian Mountains. By 1820, that population had risen to more than 2.4 million, and it continued to grow rapidly. By the time of the Civil War, more Americans lived west of the Appalachians than lived along the Atlantic Coast. Some Americans headed west for religious reasons, and others to own their own farms. In 1845 a magazine editor named John Louis O'Sullivan declared that it was the "manifest destiny" of Americans "to overspread the continent allotted by Providence." Many Americans believed in this concept of Manifest Destiny—the idea that God had bestowed the entire continent to the Americans and wanted them to settle the western lands. View this interactive image of the painting "American Progress" by John Gast representing the American belief of Manifest Destiny. This image includes a primary source quote on Manifest Destiny from John L. O'Sullivan.

Sectionalism: (chp 5 lesson # 4) Missouri Compromise

In 1819 controversy erupted over Missouri's application for admission to the Union as a slave state. At the time, the Union consisted of 11 free and 11 slave states. While Northerners already had a majority in the House of Representatives, to admit Missouri as a slave state would upset the balance of power in the Senate. It would also mean extending slavery into the northern part of the Louisiana Purchase. Many Northerners objected to Missouri's entering the Union as a slave state. Acting for slavery's opponents, Congressman James Tallmadge, Jr., of New York proposed a resolution that prohibited slaveholders from bringing new slaves into Missouri. The resolution also called for all enslaved children currently living in Missouri to be freed at age 25. The House accepted the proposal, but the Senate rejected it. Most senators and members of the House of Representatives from the South voted against the ban, while most from the North voted in favor of it. Finally, a solution emerged when Maine, which for decades had been part of Massachusetts, requested admission to the Union as a separate state. The Senate decided to combine Maine's request with Missouri's, and it voted to admit Maine as a Free State and Missouri as a slave state. This solution preserved the balance in the Senate. Senator Jesse Thomas of Illinois then proposed an amendment that would prohibit slavery in the Louisiana Purchase territory north of Missouri's southern border. This would allow slavery to expand into Arkansas territory south of Missouri, but it would keep it out of the rest of the Louisiana Purchase. By a very close vote, carefully managed by Henry Clay of Kentucky, the House accepted what became known as the Missouri Compromise. Once the issue was settled, however, a new problem developed. Proslavery members of the Missouri constitutional convention added a clause to the proposed state constitution banning free African Americans from entering the state. This new controversy threatened final approval of Missouri's admission to the Union. Senator Clay engineered a solution by getting the Missouri legislature to state that they would not honor the spirit of the clause's wording. The Compromise merely postponed the debate over the future of slavery. As John Quincy Adams wrote, "I take it for granted that the present question is a mere preamble—a title-page to a great tragic volume. . . . The President thinks this question will be winked away by a compromise. But so do not I. Much am I mistaken if it is not destined to survive his political and individual life and mine."

The New Abolitionists

In the 1830s a growing number of Americans had begun to demand an immediate end to slavery in the South. Of all the reform movements that began in the early 1800s, the movement to end slavery was the most divisive. By pitting North against South, it polarized the nation and helped bring about the Civil War. Early Opposition to Slavery From the earliest days of the Republic, many Americans had opposed slavery. Some of the nation's founders knew that a nation based on the principles of liberty and equality would have difficulty remaining true to its ideals if it continued to enslave human beings. Gradualism Early antislavery societies generally supported an approach known as gradualism, or the belief that slavery had to be ended gradually. First, they would stop traders from bringing any more enslaved people into the country. Then they would phase out slavery in the North and the Upper South before finally ending slavery in the Lower South. Some people in favor of gradualism felt that slaveholders should be compensated for their loss. Supporters of gradualism believed it would give the South's economy time to adjust to the loss of enslaved labor. Colonization Few people in antislavery societies believed that ending slavery would end racism in the United States. Many thought that the best solution was to send African Americans to their ancestral homelands in Africa. In December 1816, antislavery reformers founded the American Colonization Society (ACS) to move African Americans to Africa. By 1821, the ACS had acquired land in West Africa. The following year, free African Americans began boarding ships to take them to Africa, where they established a colony that later became the nation of Liberia. Colonization was never a realistic solution to racism. Moving roughly 1.5 million African Americans from the United States to Africa was nearly impossible. Furthermore, most African Americans regarded the United States as their home and did not want to move to another continent. Only about 15,000 African Americans moved to Africa between 1821 and 1860. Abolitionism Gradualism and colonization remained the main goals of antislavery groups until the 1830s. Then a new idea, abolition, began to gain ground. Abolitionists argued that enslaved African Americans should be freed immediately, without gradual measures or compensation to slaveholders. The first well-known advocate of abolition was a free African American from North Carolina named David Walker, who advocated violence and rebellion as the only way to end slavery. Although Walker's ideas were influential, the rapid development of a large, national abolitionist movement in the 1830s was largely due to the efforts of William Lloyd Garrison. William Lloyd Garrison After working for a Quaker publisher of a Baltimore antislavery newspaper, Garrison moved to Boston in 1831. He founded and edited the antislavery newspaper the Liberator. The paper's style was anything but moderate, as Garrison wrote caustic attacks on slavery and called for an immediate end to it. To those who objected to his fiery language, Garrison responded that the time for moderation was over: In Garrison's opinion, the situation was clear: slavery was immoral and slaveholders were evil. The only option was immediate and complete emancipation—the freeing of all enslaved people. In 1833 abolitionists founded the American Anti-Slavery Society, and Garrison became one of its key leaders. By 1838, there were more than 1,350 chapters and more than 250,000 members. Garrison and Theodore Weld recruited and trained many abolitionists for the American Anti-Slavery Society. Arthur and Lewis Tappan, two devout and wealthy brothers from New York City, helped to finance the movement. Other Abolitionist Leaders Many women were active in the abolitionist movement. Among the earliest were Sarah and Angelina Grimké, South Carolina sisters who moved north to work openly against slavery. Prudence Crandall worked as a teacher and an abolitionist in Connecticut. Lucretia Mott, a women's rights advocate, often spoke out in favor of abolitionism as well. African American Abolitionists Not surprisingly, free African Americans played a prominent role in the abolitionist movement. Even before Garrison launched his crusade, African Americans had established at least 50 abolitionist societies in the North. African Americans bought copies of the Liberator and helped sell copies. Many began writing and speaking out against slavery and taking part in protests and demonstrations. Frederick Douglass was one of the most prominent African Americans in the abolitionist movement. In 1838 Douglass had escaped from slavery in Maryland by posing as a free African American sailor. Douglass wrote his autobiography in 1845. He also published his own antislavery newspaper, the North Star, and became a powerful public speaker for the abolitionist cause: Another important African American abolitionist was Sojourner Truth. She gained freedom in 1827 when New York freed all remaining enslaved people in the state. Her antislavery speeches drew huge crowds, thanks to her folksy wit and strong message. Truth once said, "I have had five children and never could take any one of [them] up and say, '[M]y child' or '[M]y children,' unless it was when no one could see me. . . . I was forty years a slave, but I did not know how dear to me was my posterity." Abolitionism was a powerful force, and it provoked a powerful response. In the North, citizens looked upon the abolitionist movement with views ranging from strong support to indifference to opposition. In the South, many residents feared that their entire way of life was under attack. They rushed to defend the institution of slavery, which they saw as the key to the region's economy. Reaction in the North While many Northerners disapproved of slavery, some opposed abolitionism even more. They viewed the movement as a threat to the existing social system. Some whites, including many prominent businesspeople, warned it would lead to war between the North and the South. Others feared it might create an influx of freed African Americans in the North, overwhelming the labor and housing markets. Many in the North also did not want to severely damage the Southern economy, which supplied Northern textile mills with cotton. Given this opposition, it was not surprising that mobs in Northern cities attacked abolitionists. A mob in Boston stoned and almost hanged Garrison. Lewis Tappan's home was sacked by a New York mob in 1834. In 1837 abolitionist publisher Reverend Elijah P. Lovejoy was killed trying to protect his printing press. Yet Northerners also resented Southern slavecatchers, and Northern states passed personal liberty laws restricting slave recapture. Reaction in the South To most Southerners, slavery was vital to Southern life. While the North was building factories, the South remained agricultural, tied to cotton and the enslaved people who harvested it. Southerners responded to criticisms of slavery by defending the institution. South Carolina's governor called it a "national benefit." Thomas Dew, a leading Southern academic, claimed that most enslaved people had no desire for freedom because of their close relationship with their slaveholders. In 1831, eight months after Garrison first printed the Liberator, Nat Turner, an enslaved man who was a preacher, led a revolt that killed more than 50 Virginians. Many Southerners thought newspapers like the Liberator sparked the rebellion. They demanded the suppression of abolitionist material as a condition for remaining in the Union. In 1836, under pressure from Southern politicians, the House of Representatives passed a gag rule providing that all abolitionist petitions be shelved without debate. Few people accepted the idea that slavery should be ended immediately. The abolitionist movement, however, became a constant and powerful reminder of how deeply slavery was dividing the nation.

Manifest Destiny (Chp 7 lesson #1 summary)

In the 1840s, Americans made the grueling trek to the frontier of the Midwest and the rich lands of the Oregon Country. New farming equipment eased the clearing and cultivating of new land, encouraging settlement of the Midwest.

Educational Reform

In the early 1800s, many reformers worked to establish a system of public education—government-funded schools open to all citizens. The increase in the number of voters in the 1820s and 1830s and the arrival of millions of new immigrants convinced many people of the need for public education. Most American leaders and social reformers believed that a democratic republic could survive only if the electorate were well educated. Horace Mann was a leader of the movement for public education. As president of the Massachusetts Senate, Mann helped create a state board of education in 1837. He then left the state senate to serve as secretary of the new board. During his 12 years in this role, he doubled teachers' salaries, opened 50 new high schools, and established training schools for teachers. Massachusetts quickly became a model for other states. in 1852 Massachusetts passed the first mandatory school attendance law. New York passed a similar measure the next year. Reformers focused on creating elementary schools. These would teach all children the basics of reading, writing, and arithmetic, and instill a work ethic. These schools were open to all, supported by local and state taxes and tuition. By the 1850s, tax-supported elementary schools had gained widespread support in the Northeastern states. They had also begun to spread to the rest of the country. Rural areas responded more slowly because children were needed to help with planting and harvesting for large portions of the year. Reformer Calvin Wiley took the lead in North Carolina. In 1839 North Carolina began providing aid to local communities that established taxpayer-funded schools.

The Early Women's Movement

In the early 1800s, the Industrial Revolution began to change the economic roles of men and women. In the 1700s, most economic activity took place in or near the home because most Americans lived and worked in a rural farm setting. Although husbands and wives had distinct chores, maintaining the farm was the main focus of their efforts. By the mid-1800s, these circumstances had started to change, especially in the Northeastern states. The development of factories and other work centers separated the home from the workplace. Men often left home to go to work, while women tended the house and children. This development led to the emergence of the first women's movement. "True Womanhood" As the nature of work changed, many Americans began to divide life into two spheres of activity—the home and the workplace. Many believed the home to be the proper sphere for women. This was partly because the outside world was seen as corrupt and dangerous, and partly because of popular ideas about the family. The Christian revivalism of the 1820s and 1830s greatly influenced the American family. For many parents, raising children was a solemn responsibility. They were preparing young people for a disciplined Christian life. Women often were viewed as more moral and charitable than men, and they were expected to be models of piety and virtue to their households. The idea that women should be homemakers and take responsibility for developing their children's characters evolved into a set of ideas known as "true womanhood." In 1841 Catharine Beecher, a daughter of minister and reformer Lyman Beecher, wrote a book called A Treatise on Domestic Economy. The popular volume argued that women could find fulfillment at home and gave instruction on child care, cooking, and health matters.

Industry: Transportation (Chp 5#lesson 2)

In the summer of 1817, workers began building a canal across rural upstate New York to connect the Hudson River at Albany to Lake Erie at Buffalo. The new Erie Canal would span a colossal 363 miles (584 km). Building the canal was difficult and dangerous, but the canal workers completed the immense project in 1825. The Erie Canal was a striking example of a revolution in transportation that swept through the Northern states in the early 1800s. This revolution led to dramatic social and economic changes. Roads and Turnpikes As early as 1806, the nation took the first steps toward a transportation revolution when Congress authorized the surveying of a major east-west highway, the National Road. Construction started in 1811, and by 1818, the roadway reached from the Potomac River at Cumberland, Maryland, to Wheeling, Virginia (now West Virginia), on the Ohio River. The National Road turned out to be the only great federally funded transportation project of its time, however. Madison and his successors did not believe that the federal government had the power to fund roads and other "internal improvements." Instead, states, localities, and private businesses constructed roads. New York alone had some 4,000 miles (6,400 km) of toll roads by 1821.

Andrew Jackson: Spoils System Political Cartoons

Jackson believed that the majority should rule in a democracy and that ordinary citizens should play a role in government. These beliefs led Jackson to support the spoils system—the common practice of giving people government jobs on the basis of party loyalty. He was the first president to fire a large number of federal employees in order to appoint his own supporters. He considered the spoils system democratic because it ended the permanent, nonelected office-holding class.

Andrew Jackson: Tariff of Abominations Nullifications crisis Force Bill increased sectionalism... SC threatens secession

Jackson had not been in office long before he had to focus on a national crisis. It centered on South Carolina, but it also highlighted the growing rift between the nation's Northern and Southern regions. The Debate Over Nullification In the early 1800s, South Carolina's economy began to decline. Many of the state's residents blamed this situation on the nation's tariffs. Because it had few industries, South Carolina imported manufactured goods from England. Tariffs made these imports extremely expensive. After the passage of the so-called Tariff of Abominations in 1828, South Carolinians stopped short of threatening to secede, or withdraw, from the Union. The growing turmoil troubled John C. Calhoun, the nation's vice president and a South Carolinian. Calhoun put forth the idea of nullification, saying that states had the right to nullify, or declare invalid, a federal law. The issue boiled over in early 1830, when Senators Robert Hayne and Daniel Webster confronted each other in a debate on the floor of the Senate. Webster defended the Union, while Hayne championed states' rights. Webster stated that liberty depended on the strength of the Union: "I have not accustomed myself to hang over the precipice of disunion, to see whether, with my short sight, I can fathom the depth of the abyss below. . . . Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable!" Jackson Defends the Union Congress passed another tariff law in 1832. At Jackson's request, it cut tariffs significantly, but South Carolinians were not satisfied. In November 1832, a special state convention adopted an ordinance of nullification declaring the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 to be unconstitutional. Jackson considered the nullification ordinance an act of treason, and he sent a warship to Charleston. In 1833 Congress passed the Force Bill, authorizing the president to use the military to enforce acts of Congress. As tensions rose, Senator Henry Clay pushed through Congress a bill that would lower the nation's tariffs gradually until 1842. In response, South Carolina repealed its nullification of the tariff law. Both sides claimed victory, and the issue was laid to rest, at least temporarily.

Nativism: Where does this idea come from and why?

Many immigrants encountered discrimination in the United States. The arrival of immigrants from other cultures with different languages and religions produced feelings of nativism, or hostility toward foreigners. Also, in the 1800s, many Americans were anti-Catholic. The arrival of predominantly Catholic Irish immigrants led to the rise of nativist groups that pledged never to vote for a Catholic and pushed for laws banning immigrants and Catholics from holding office. In July 1854, the American Party formed. Membership was secret, and members questioned about it answered, "I know nothing." The Know- Nothings, as the party became known, built a large following in the 1850s.

The Temperance Movement

Many reformers argued that no behavior caused more crime, disorder, and poverty than the abuse of alcohol. While not everyone agreed, no one doubted that heavy alcohol consumption was widespread in the early 1800s. Members of groups advocating temperance, or moderation in the consumption of alcohol, began preaching the evils of alcohol and persuading heavy drinkers to give up liquor. In 1833 several of the groups united to form the American Temperance Union. Temperance societies also pushed for laws prohibiting the sale of liquor. In 1851 Maine passed the first state prohibition law, an example followed by a dozen other states by 1855. Other states passed "local option" laws, which allowed towns and villages to prohibit liquor sales within their boundaries.

Women Seek Greater Rights

Many women did not believe the ideas of true womanhood were limiting. Instead, the new ideas implied that wives were now partners with their husbands and in some ways were morally superior to them. Women were held up as the conscience of the home and society. The idea that women had an important role to play in building a virtuous home was soon extended to making society more virtuous. As women became involved in the moral crusades of the era, some began to argue that they needed greater political rights to promote their ideas. One advocate of this idea was Margaret Fuller. Fuller argued that every woman had the right and the capability to form her own spiritual relationship. She believed that if men and women were treated equally, it would end injustice in society. In 1848 Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, two women active in the antislavery movement, organized the Seneca Falls Convention. This gathering of women reformers marked the beginning of an organized women's movement. The convention issued a "Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions." The proposal to focus on the right to vote shocked many of the women present. Nonetheless, the Seneca Falls Convention is considered by many to be the unofficial beginning of the struggle for women's voting rights. Throughout the 1850s, women continued to organize conventions to gain greater rights for themselves. The conventions met with some success. By 1865, for example, 29 states had passed laws that allowed wives to hold property in their own names. Above all, these conventions paved the way for a stronger women's movement to emerge after the Civil War.

Sectionalism: Elections of 1824, 1828 Corrupt Bargain What was a significant outcome of the elections? Democrats and Republicans

Politics reflected the sectional tensions of the day. The Democratic-Republican Party had supporters throughout the nation. The presidential campaigns of 1824 and 1828, however, showed how deeply the party was divided along regional lines. Four candidates ran for president in 1824. All were Republicans. All were "favorite sons," men who enjoyed the support of leaders from their own state and region. William Crawford of Georgia ran on the principles of states' rights and strict interpretation of the Constitution. Kentucky's Henry Clay favored the American System—the national bank, the protective tariff to encourage American industry, and nationwide internal improvements. John Quincy Adams of New England favored internal improvements but was less enthusiastic about tariffs. Andrew Jackson of Tennessee emphasized his leadership qualities and military heroism. On Election Day, Jackson won the most popular votes, but no candidate won a majority in the Electoral College. Following constitutional procedure, the election went to the House of Representatives, which would select the president from the three candidates who had received the most electoral votes. Clay, who had placed fourth, was eliminated. As Speaker of the House, however, Clay had tremendous influence. On a snowy February 9, 1825, Clay threw his support behind Adams, who won the House election easily. When Adams later appointed Clay secretary of state, Jackson's supporters accused Adams and Clay of striking a "corrupt bargain." Adams and Clay denied any wrongdoing, but the incident split the party. Jackson's supporters began referring to themselves as Democrats, while Clay and his supporters formed a new party, the National Republicans. In his first message to Congress, John Quincy Adams announced an ambitious program of nationalist legislation, including a national university, astronomical observatories, and scientific research. His proposals struck many legislators as a return to Federalist ideas, and opponents in Congress argued that it was a waste of taxpayers' money. In the end, Congress granted the president funds for improving rivers and harbors and for extending the National Road westward, but this was far less than Adams had wanted. The repeated rebuffs Adams suffered in Congress set the stage for his defeat in 1828. The election of 1828 pitted John Quincy Adams against Andrew Jackson. Jackson fought to achieve a victory that his supporters believed had been unjustly denied him in 1824. Both candidates engaged in mudslinging, criticizing each other's personalities and morals. Adams called his opponent "incompetent both by his ignorance and by the fury of his passions." Jackson attacked Adams as an out-of-touch aristocrat and revived the alleged "corrupt bargain" between Adams and Clay. When the results came in, Jackson had 56 percent of the popular vote and 178 of the 261 electoral votes, a clear victory. Many of the voters who supported Jackson were from the West and the South, rural and small-town men who saw Jackson as the candidate most likely to represent their interests.

Andrew Jackson: Vetos National Bank Tyrant

One of the biggest controversies of Jackson's presidency was his campaign against the Second Bank of the United States. Jackson regarded the Bank as a monopoly that benefited the wealthy elite. At the time, most paper money was issued by private state banks as bank notes that could be redeemed for gold or silver coins. Often, however, the banks issued more paper money than they could redeem in gold or silver. This eased the availability of credit, but it also risked causing inflation. To prevent the state banks from lending too much money, the Bank of the United States regularly collected bank notes and asked state banks to redeem them for gold and silver. This action forced state banks to be careful about how much money they lent, and it also limited inflation. Many Western settlers, who needed easy credit to run their farms, were unhappy with the Bank's policies, which took notes out of circulation. Also, despite McCulloch v. Maryland, Jackson believed the bank was unconstitutional. Jackson's congressional opponents tried to make the Bank an issue in the 1832 presidential election by introducing a bill to extend its charter for another 20 years. Congress passed the bill, but Jackson vetoed it. After Jackson won reelection in 1832, he believed the people wished him to destroy the Bank at once. He removed federal deposits from the Bank and placed them in state banks, greatly weakening the Bank. It was a major political victory for Jackson, but critics later charged that destroying the Bank contributed significantly to the financial woes that plagued the country in the years ahead.

Nationalism: James Monroe Monroe Doctrine

Rebellions had begun to erupt in Spain's colonies in 1809. By 1824, all of Spain's colonies on the American mainland had declared independence. Meanwhile, Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia (later joined by France) formed the Quadruple Alliance in an effort to suppress antimonarchy movements in Europe. Over Britain's objection, in 1823 the Alliance considered helping Spain regain control of its overseas colonies. Britain and the United States made a great deal of money trading with Latin America and did not want Spain to reassert control. In August 1823, British officials suggested that the two nations issue a joint statement supporting the independence of the new Latin American nations. At the same time, Russia's presence in North America was growing. Russia claimed Alaska, and in 1821 announced that its empire extended south into the Oregon Country between Russian Alaska and the western United States. Secretary of State Adams urged Monroe to avoid working with the British when dealing with Spain and Russia. He did not want the United States to be regarded as Britain's junior partner. Monroe agreed, and in 1823, without consulting the British, he declared the American continents were "henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers." The president's proclamation, later called the Monroe Doctrine, marked the beginning of a long-term American policy of trying to prevent European powers from interfering in Latin American political affairs. The Monroe Doctrine also upheld Washington's policy of avoiding entanglements in European power struggles.

Nationalism: Second Bank of US

Republicans had traditionally opposed the idea of a national bank. They had blocked the charter renewal of the First Bank of the United States in 1811 and offered nothing in its place. The results were disastrous. With no national bank to regulate currency, prices rose rapidly during the War of 1812. When the government borrowed money to pay for the war, it had to pay high interest rates on the loans. These problems led many Republicans to change their minds about a national bank. In 1816 Representative John C. Calhoun of South Carolina introduced a bill proposing the Second Bank of the United States. With the support of Representative Henry Clay of Kentucky, it passed that same year. The bank had the power to issue notes that would serve as a national currency and to control state banks.

Reforms: (Chp 6 lesson # 3 summary)

The Second Great Awakening created an environment for social change. Spurred on by this religious revival, as well as a heightened belief in the power of individuals to improve society, reform movements arose.

Industry: (Chp 5 lesson#2) Canals steamboats (impact??)

Rivers offered a faster, cheaper, and more efficient way to move goods than did roads, which were often little more than wide paths. A barge could hold many wagonloads of grain or coal. Loaded boats and barges, however, could usually travel only downstream, as moving against the current with heavy cargoes proved difficult. The steamboat changed all that. In 1807 Robert Fulton and Robert R. Livingston stunned the nation when their Clermont chugged 150 miles up the Hudson River from New York City to Albany in just 32 hours. The steamboat made river travel more reliable and upstream travel easier. By 1850 over 700 steamboats, also called riverboats, traveled along the nation's waterways. The growth of river travel and the construction of thousands of miles of canals increased trade and stimulated new economic growth.

Sectionalism (Chp 5 lesson #4 summary)

Sectional disputes over slavery and its westward expansion eroded the spirit of nationalism that swept the nation after the War of 1812. The one-party political system, dominated by the Democratic-Republicans, began to unravel in the 1820s.

Prison Reform

Some reformers focused on providing better facilities for prisoners, the insane, and the poor. Many states replaced their overcrowded prisons with facilities aimed at rehabilitating prisoners rather than simply locking them away. By the beginning of the Civil War, most states had established public mental institutions to keep the mentally ill out of the prison system. Prison officials imposed rigid discipline to rid criminals of the "laxness" they believed had led them astray. Solitary confinement and the imposition of silence on work crews were meant to give prisoners the chance to meditate and think about their wrongdoing. The name of these prisons, penitentiaries, expressed the idea that they were places where prisoners would achieve penitence, or remorse.

Nationalism: James Monroe Adams / Onis Treaty

Spanish-held Florida was a source of anger and frustration for Southerners. Many runaway enslaved people fled there, knowing that Americans had no authority to capture them in Spanish territory. Similarly, many of the Creek had retreated to Florida as American settlers seized their lands. These groups united with other Native Americans and adopted the name Seminole, meaning "runaway." The Seminoles in Spanish Florida and Americans in Georgia staged raids against each other. As tensions heightened, Seminole leader Kinache warned an American general to stay out of Florida: he warning was ignored. In late 1817, John C. Calhoun, now secretary of war, ordered General Andrew Jackson into Florida to stop the Seminole raids. After destroying several Seminole villages, Jackson disobeyed orders and seized the Spanish settlements of St. Marks and Pensacola, and removed the Spanish governor of Florida from power. Furious, Spanish officials demanded that Jackson be punished. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, however, defended Jackson, arguing that Spain had failed to keep order in Florida, and used the incident to pressure Spain during the ongoing border negotiations. Occupied with problems throughout its Latin American empire, Spain gave in and ceded all of Florida to the United States in the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819. The treaty also finalized the western border of the Louisiana Purchase, which now lay along the Sabine, Red, and Arkansas Rivers to the Rocky Mountains and then followed the 42nd parallel west to the Pacific Ocean.

Nationalism: Transportation / National Road (impacts) ??

Tariffs and Transportation Protection of manufacturers was another part of the Republican program. After the War of 1812, inexpensive British goods threatened to put American manufacturers out of business. Congress responded with the Tariff of 1816. Unlike earlier revenue tariffs, which provided income for the federal government, this was a protective tariff that raised the prices of imports to nurture growing American manufacturers. Republicans also wanted to improve the transportation system. In 1816 Calhoun sponsored a federal internal improvement plan, but President Madison vetoed it, arguing that spending money to improve transportation was not expressly granted in the Constitution. Nevertheless, road and canal construction soon began, with private businesses and state and local governments funding much of the work.

Manifest Destiny Mexican American War Causes/Effects of this war role players

The dispute over Texas between the United States and Mexico began in 1803, when the United States claimed Texas as part of the Louisiana Purchase. The Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819 ended that claim, but the idea of acquiring Mexican territory still had strong popular support. Tensions increased during the administration of John Tyler, who hoped to bring Texas into the Union. Since Texas had a large population of Southerners who had taken slaves into Texas, Texans were certain to support slavery. Antislavery leaders in Congress therefore opposed Texas's annexation. Moreover, Mexico had never recognized the independence of Texas and still considered it Mexican territory. In early 1844, President Tyler brought the matter of Texas before the Senate. He blundered, however, by including in the supporting documents a letter written by Secretary of State John C. Calhoun that contained a fierce defense of slavery. Outraged Northerners pointed to the letter as evidence that annexation was nothing but a pro-slavery plot. The Senate voted 35 to 16 against annexation. Tyler's failed maneuver destroyed his chances for reelection. The Election of 1844 The presidential election of 1844 pitted Whig senator Henry Clay against Democrat James K. Polk, a former member of Congress and governor of Tennessee. Polk promised to annex not only Texas but also the contested Oregon Territory. In addition, he vowed to buy California from Mexico. This appealed to Northerners and Southerners because it expanded the country while maintaining the delicate balance between free and slave states. The Democrats' unity on annexation caused Clay to backpedal and say that he, too, supported the annexation of Texas. This so angered antislavery segment of the Whig Party that they decided to back the small Liberty Party, which supported abolition. With the Whig vote split, Polk won the election. The Oregon Question Polk took a strong stance on what came to be known as the Oregon Question. Despite British claims to Oregon, which had been established in the Convention of 1818, Polk and the Democrats held that the United States had a "clear and unquestionable" right to all of the Oregon Country, including part of the region north of the 49th parallel that is today British Columbia. Their rallying cry, "Fifty-four Forty or Fight," declared that the United States should control all of Oregon below the line of 54°40' north latitude. Despite such slogans, few Americans wanted to fight the British to gain control of Oregon. In June 1846, the two nations negotiated the Oregon Treaty. In this agreement, the United States received all of Oregon south of 49° north latitude and west of the Rocky Mountains, except for the southern tip of Vancouver Island. In exchange, the British were guaranteed navigation rights on the Columbia River. The Annexation of Texas Even before Polk took office, outgoing president Tyler pushed an annexation resolution through Congress in February 1845, and Texas joined the Union that year. As predicted, Mexico was outraged and broke diplomatic relations with the U. S. government. Matters worsened when the two countries disputed the location of Texas's southwestern border. Mexico said it was at the Nueces River. Texans, and then the United States, claimed the Rio Grande, about 150 miles (240 km) farther west and south, as the boundary, covering more territory than the Mexican claim. Polk's intentions in California added to the growing strife with Mexico. In November 1845, he sent John Slidell as a special envoy , or representative, to Mexico City to try to purchase the territory. Mexico's president, José Joaquín Herrera, refused to meet with Slidell. Herrera's snub ended any realistic chance of a diplomatic solution. Polk ordered troops led by General Zachary Taylor to cross the Nueces River—in Mexico's view, an invasion of its territory. Polk hoped that Mexico would fire the first shot so he could win popular support for a war. On May 9, 1846, news of an attack on Taylor's men reached Polk. In an address to Congress, Polk declared that the United States was at war "by the act of Mexico herself." On May 13, Congress voted overwhelmingly in favor of war. Calling All Volunteers Polk and his advisers developed a three-pronged military strategy to capture Santa Fe, New Mexico, to the north and California to the west, and advance to Mexico City to force Mexico to surrender. To implement the ambitious plan, Congress authorized the president to call for 50,000 volunteers. Some 73,000 answered the call. Undisciplined and unruly, the volunteers proved to be less than ideal soldiers. One officer bemoaned that the green recruits constantly demanded his attention: "[O]ne wanted me to read a letter just received, another wanted me to write one for him, another wanted me to send his money home, another wanted me to keep it for him . . . one complained that his uniform was too large, another that his was too small." —from Memoirs of a Maryland Volunteer, June 15, 1846 The Fighting Begins In early May, several days before Polk signed the declaration of war, Taylor's troops defeated Mexican forces, first at Palo Alto and then at Resaca de la Palma. Taylor then moved south, defeating Mexican forces at Matamoros. By late September, he had marched about 200 miles (322 km) west from the coast of the Gulf of Mexico and captured Monterrey. In the meantime, Colonel Stephen W. Kearny led troops from Fort Leavenworth, west of Missouri, toward Santa Fe. The march through the dry countryside was brutal, but when Kearny's men reached the city in August, the Mexican force there had already fled. With Santa Fe secured, Kearny led a small U.S. force into California. Before Kearny arrived, and even before war with Mexico was officially declared, settlers in northern California led by American general John C. Frémont had begun an uprising. The official Mexican presence in the territory had never been strong, and the settlers had little trouble overcoming it. On June 14, 1846, they declared California independent of Mexico and renamed the region the Bear Flag Republic. A few weeks later, the Bear Flag Republic came to an end when American naval forces arrived and took possession of California for the United States. To Mexico City Despite having lost vast territories, Mexico's leaders refused to surrender. Polk decided to force things to a conclusion by sending soldiers on ships to the Mexican port of Veracruz. From there they would march west and capture the Mexican capital, Mexico City. Polk placed General Winfield Scott in command of this campaign. In March 1847, Scott's force landed near Veracruz, which his forces took 20 days later. Having taken control of this strategic port, the American troops then headed for Mexico City, fighting vicious and bloody battles with Mexican forces along the way. For two days they stormed Chapultepec Castle, which guarded the city, and finally entered Mexico City on September 14. American forces were in control of the capital and went on to establish a formal occupation of Mexico. The Peace Treaty After the fall of Mexico City, Mexico's leaders could no longer hold out. On February 2, 1848, Mexican leaders signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. In the agreement, Mexico ceded, or gave up, some 500,000 square miles (1,295,000 sq. km) of territory to the United States. This land is now the states of California, Utah, and Nevada as well as parts of New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, and Wyoming. Mexico also accepted the Rio Grande as the southern border of Texas. In exchange, the United States paid Mexico $15 million and agreed to take over $3.25 million in debts Mexico owed to American citizens. With Oregon and the former Mexican territories now under the American flag, the dream of Manifest Destiny was finally realized: the United States now stretched from ocean to ocean. Valuable ports on the West Coast opened up new markets to the Pacific nations of Asia. The question of whether the new lands should allow slavery, however, would soon lead the country into a bloody civil war. The experience that soldiers such as Robert E. Lee and Ulysses S. Grant gained during the war with Mexico would soon be used to lead Americans in battle against one another.

Industry (Chp 5 lesson #3 Summary)

The economy of the South was based on the production of tobacco, rice, cotton, and other cash crops for export. Southern society had a distinct class system made up of the planter elite, yeoman farmers, and enslaved people.

The New Abolitionists (Chp 6 lesson #4 summary)

The issue of slavery was far from being resolved in the United States. In the 1830s and 1840s, slavery became a hotly debated topic as calls for abolition were published throughout the land.

Nationalism: James Monroe

The wave of nationalism within Congress and among voters also influenced the nation's foreign affairs. Led by President Monroe, the United States expanded its borders and asserted itself internationally.

Women's Education

When officials talked about educating voters, they had men in mind. Women were still not allowed to vote in the early 1800s. Nonetheless, women reformers, such as Catharine Beecher, seized the opportunity to push for more educational opportunities for girls and women. Emma Willard, who founded a girls' school in Vermont in 1814, was another educational pioneer. Her school covered the usual subjects for young women, such as cooking and etiquette, but it also taught academic subjects such as history, math, and literature, which were rarely taught to women. In 1837 Mary Lyon opened Mount Holyoke Female Seminary in Massachusetts, the first institution of higher education for women. In 1849 new opportunities for higher education enabled Elizabeth Blackwell to become the first woman to earn a medical degree. In 1857 she founded the New York Infirmary for Women and Children— a hospital staffed entirely by women.

Manifest Destiny Texas Independence How did Manifest Destiny played a role in annexation

With tensions simmering, Texas settlers met at conventions in the Texas town of San Felipe in 1832 and 1833. At the first, Stephen Austin was chosen the convention's president. This convention asked Mexico to reopen Texas to American immigrants and to ease taxes on imports. The second convention sought to make Texas a separate state from Coahuila, and it agreed on a constitution. Austin was sent to negotiate with the Mexican government. In the fall of 1833, negotiations stalled. Austin sent a letter to Tejano leaders suggesting that Texas start peacefully organizing its own state government. Then he visited Mexican president Antonio López de Santa Anna and convinced him to agree to several demands. On his way home, Austin was arrested. Mexican officials had intercepted his letter to the Tejanos. Suspected of trying to incite a rebellion, Austin was imprisoned in Mexico City, without trial. Soon afterward, President Santa Anna declared himself dictator. Austin was released from prison in July 1835. Seeing that further negotiation with Santa Anna was pointless, Austin urged Texans to organize an army. The Early Battles The Mexican army had serious problems. Continuing political instability in Mexico City had denied the army sound leadership, training, and support. Against this handicapped force, the Texan army enjoyed its first taste of victory at the military post of Gonzales, about 70 miles to the east of San Antonio. There, Mexican soldiers ordered the Texans to surrender their arms. The rebels refused and, having no orders to attack, the Mexicans retreated to San Antonio. The Texans followed and laid siege to the city. In December 1835, the rebels, numbering between 300 and 400, drove the much larger Mexican force out of San Antonio. On March 2, 1836, Texas declared its independence from Mexico. Shortly thereafter, the Texans drafted a new constitution that drew heavily from the U.S. Constitution and specifically protected slavery. The Republic of Texas In September 1836, the newly independent republic called its citizens to the polls. They elected Sam Houston as their first president and voted in favor of annexation, or becoming part of the United States. Given that Americans had enthusiastically supported the war, most Texans assumed the United States would want to annex the republic. Many Northern members of Congress, however, opposed admitting Texas as a slave state. President Andrew Jackson did not want to increase tensions between North and South or risk a war with Mexico, which continued to claim ownership of Texas. Jackson made no move toward annexation, although on his last day in office, he did sign a resolution officially recognizing the independence of Texas.

corrupt bargain

an improper or unlawful agreement between politicians

Andrew Jackson: Common Man: Westerners & Southerners Vote for him because he is an advocate for them

n the early 1800s, elections became more democratic as many states lowered or eliminated property ownership as a voting qualification. As a result, the number of eligible voters, still mostly white men, grew significantly. In addition, with the growth of cities and towns, the percentage of working people who did not own property increased. These people paid taxes and had an interest in the political affairs of their communities. They wanted a greater voice in electing those who represented them. Additionally, the selection of presidential electors became more democratic as more states allowed voters, rather than the state legislature, to choose electors. The expansion of suffrage—the right to vote—was evident in the turnout for the presidential election of 1828. In 1824 approximately 355,000 American citizens had voted for president. Four years later, more than 1.1 million citizens cast a ballot in the presidential election. Jackson benefited from the large number of new voters, many of whom lived on the frontiers of the West and the South. Many of the citizens who voted for the first time in 1828 saw in Jackson a man whose origins were little different from their own and whose achievements they greatly admired.