Human anatomy exam 2

Periosteum

A tough sheath called _______ covers the outer surface of the bone, except for the areas covered by articular cartilage. ________ is made of dense irregular connective tissue & consists of an outer fibrous layer and an inner cellular layer. The ________ is anchored to the bone by numerous strong collagen fibers called perforating fibers, which run perpendicular to the diaphysis. The _________protects the bone from surrounding structures, anchors blood vessels and nerves to the surface of the bone, and provides stem cells (osteoprogenitor cells and osteoblasts) for bone width growth and fracture repair.

Bone remodeling

Bone continues to grow & renew itself throughout life. The continual deposition of new bone connective tissue & the removal (resorption) of all bone connective tissue is called _________. _________helps maintain calcium and phosphate levels in body fluids, and can be stimulated by stress on a bone. This ongoing process occurs at both the periosteal & endosteal surfaces of a bone.

Epiphyseal line

In adults, the remnant of the epiphyseal plate is a thin layer of compact bone called the

Synovial fluids

Lining the joint cavity is the synovial membrane, which secretes a vicious, oily _______. _________is composed of secretions from synovial membrane cells and infiltrate from blood plasma. ________has three functions: 1. _______lubricates the articular cartilage on the articulating bones 2. ________nurses the articular cartilage's chondrocytes. The relatively small volume of __________must be circulated continually to provide nutrients and remove waste to these cells. Whenever movement occurs at a synovial joint, the combined compression & reexpansion of the articular cartilage circulate the ________ into and out of the cartilage matrix. 3. ___________acts as a shock absorber, distributing stresses & force evenly across the articular surfaces when the pressure in the joint suddenly increases.

Haversian canal

The central canal also known as the ____________is a cylindrical Channel that live in the center of the osteon. Traveling within the central canal are the blood vessels that supply the bone.

Angular motion

either increases or decreases the angle between two bones. These movements may occur at many of the synovial joints; they include the following specific types: flexion and extension, hyper extension, lateral flexion, abduction and adduction, & circumduction.

Cranial bones

form the rounded cranium, which completely surrounds & encloses the brain. Eight bones make up the cranium: The unpaired ethmoid, frontal, occipital, and sphenoid bones, and the paired parietal and temporal bones these bones also provide attachment sites for several jaw, head, and neck muscles

Bursa

is a fibrous saclike structure that contains synovial fluid in is lined by synovial membrane. ________ occur around most synovial joints and also where bones, ligaments, muscles, skin, or tendons overlie each other and rub together. ____ maybe either connected to the joint cavity or completely separate from it. They are designed to alleviate the friction resulting from the bury his body movements, such as a tendon or ligament rubbing against bone. An elongated _____ called a tendon sheath wraps around tendons where there may be excessive friction. Tendon sheaths are especially common in the confined spaces of the wrist and ankle.

Rotation

is a pivoting motion in which a bone turned on it's own longitudinal axis. ________ movement occurs at the atlantoaxial joint, which pivots when you rotate your head to gesture "no". Lateral rotation turns the anterior surface of the femur or humerus laterally, whereas medial rotational turns the anterior surface of the femur or humerus medially.

Appositional growth

___________occurs within the periosteum. In this process, osteoblast in the intercellular layer of the periosteum lay down bone matrix in layers parallel to the surface, called external circumferential lamellae

Diarthrosis

a freely mobile joint

Abduction

a lateral movement of a body part away from the body midline. ________ occurs when the arm or the thigh is moved laterally away from the body midline. ________ of either the fingers or the toes means that you spread them apart, away from the longest digit, which is acting as the midline. ________ the wrist (also known as radial deviation) involves pointing the hand and fingers laterally, away from the body.

Circumduction

a sequence of movements in which the proximal end of an appendage remains relatively stationary while the distal in makes a circular motion. The resulting movement makes an imaginary cone shape. For example, when you draw a circle on the blackboard, your shoulder remain stationary while your hand moves. The tip of the imaginary cone is the stationary shoulder, while the rounded "base" of the cone is the circle the hand makes. _________ is a complex movement that occurs as a result of the continuous sequence of flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction.

Gliding

a simple movement in which to opposing surfaces slide slightly back in forth or side to side with respect to one another. In a gliding motion, the angle between the bones does not change, and only limited movement is possible in any direction. Gliding motion typically occurs along plane joint.

Amphiarthrosis

a slightly mobile joint

Hinge joint

a uniaxial joint in which the convex surface one articulating bones fits into a concave depression on the other bone. Movement is confined to a single axis, like the hands of the door. An example is the elbow joint. The trochlear notch of the ulna it's directly into the trochlea of the humerus, so the fore arm can be moved only anteriorly toward the arm or posteriorly away from the arm. Other hand joints & the knee & the finger joint.

Plane joint

also called a planar or gliding joint is the simplest synovial articulation and the least mobile type of diarthrosis. This type of synovial joint is also known as a uniaxial joint because only side to side movement are possible. The articular surfaces of the bones are flat, or planar. Examples of _______ include the intercarpal in intertarsal joints (The joint between the carpal bones and tarsal bones)

Osteocytes

are housed in lacunae and occur between adjacent concentric lamellae

Functions of cartilage

-supporting soft tissue (hyaline cartilage rings in trachea support the connective tissue, fibrocartilage provides both toughness & flexibility to the pubic symphysis & elastic cartilage supports the fleshy, external part of the ear called the auricle) -providing a gliding surface at articulations (joints), where two bones meet -providing a model for the formation of most of the bones in the body. Beginning in the embryonic period, cartilage serves as a "rough draft" form that is later replaced by bone tissue. -Support & Protection: framework for the entire body, protect many delicate tissues & organs from injury & trauma. Rib cage protects the heart & lungs. Cranial bones enclose & protect the brain. Pelvis cradles some digestive, urinary, & reproductive organs. -Movement -Hemopoiesis: the process of blood cell production is called hemopoiesis. Blood cells are produced in a connective tissue called red bone marrow, which is located in some spongy bone. Red bone marrow contains stem cells that form all of the formed elements in the blood. (In children red bone marrow is located in the spongy bone & the medullary cavity of most of the bones in the body. As children mature into adults red bone marrow degenerates & turns into a fatty tissue called yellow bone marrow as a result adults have red bone marrow only in selected portions of the axial skeleton, such as the flat bones of the skull, the vertebrae, ribs, sternum, & ossa coxae.) -Storage of mineral & energy reserves

Facial bones

14 ____________form the face: paired maxillae, nasal, lacrimal, zygomatic, palatine bones, inferior nasal conchae, and the unpaired vomer and mandible. They also protect the entrances to the digestive and respiratory systems as well as providing attachment sites for facial muscles.

Articular cartilage

All articulating bone surfaces in a synovial joint are covered by a thin layer of hyaline cartilage called ___________. This cartilage has numerous functions: it reduces friction in the joint during movement, acts as a spongy cushion to absorb compression placed on the joint, and prevent damage to the articulating ends of the bones. This special hyaline cartilage lacks a perichondrium. Mature cartilage is avascular so it does not have blood vessels to bring nutrients to and remove waste products from the cartilage.

Synchondrosis

An articulation in which bones are joined by hyaline cartilage it's called a ________. Functionally, all __________ are immobile & thus are classified as synarthroses. The hyaline cartilage of epiphyseal plates in children forms ___________ that bind the epiphyses & the diaphysis of long bones. When a hyaline cartilage stops growing, bone replaces the cartilage, and a __________ no longer exists.

Interstitial growth

As with cartilage growth, a long bone growth in length is called __________, and its growth in diameter or thickness is called appositional growth. _____________occurs within the epiphyseal plate as chondrocytes undergo mitotic cell division in zone two and chondrocytes hypertrophy in zone three. .

Haversian system

Compact bone has an organized structure when viewed under the microscope. A cylindrical osteon or _______________which is the basic functional and structural unit of mature compact bone osteons run parallel to the diaphysis of the long bone.

Adduction

The opposite of abduction is _________, which means to "move toward," and is the medial movement of a body part toward the body midline. _________ occurs when you bring your raised arm or five back toward the body midline, or in the case of the digits, toward the midline of the hand. _________ the wrist involves pointing the hand and fingers medially, toward the body.

Fontanelles

The regions between the cranial bones are thicken, fibrous membrane remnants that are not yet ossified, called _________. ___________ are sometimes referred to as the soft spots on the babies head

Articular cartilage

The thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the epiphysis at a joint surface is called _______. This cartilage helps reduce friction and absorb shock in movable joints.

Compact bone

also called dense or cortical bone is solid and relatively dense, where as spongy bone also called trabecular bone appears more porous, like a sponge. The arrangement of _______ in spongy bone components differs at the microscopic level. Spongy bone forms in open lattice of narrow plates of bone, called trabeculae. In a long bone, _________forms the solid external walls of the bone, and spongy bone is located internally, primarily within the epiphyses. In a flat bone of the skull, the spongy bone, also called diploë, is sandwiched between two layers of __________

Extension

an anterior-posterior plane that increases the angle between the articulating bones. ________ is a straightening action that usually occurs in the sagittal plane of the body. Straightening your arm and forearm until the upper limb projects directly away from the anterior side of your body or straightening your fingers after making a clenched fist are examples of ____.

Synarthrosis

an immobile joint

Supination

anatomic position, the palm of the hand is facing anteriorly, and the bones of the forearm are said to be in ___________. The radius and the ulna are parallel with one another. If you stand in anatomic position, so that you can view your own forearm, the radius is on the lateral side (thumb) of the forearm, whereas the ulna is on the medial side (little finger) of the forearm.

Ligaments

are composed of dense regular connective tissue. ________ connect one bone to another bone and strengthen and reinforce most synovial joints. Extrinsic _______ are outside of and physically separate from the articular capsule, where as intrinsic ________ represent thickening of the articular capsule itself.

Syndesmoses

are fibrous joints in which articulating bones are joined by long strands of dense regular connective tissue only. Because ________ allow for slight mobility, they are classified is amphiarthroses. _______ occur between the radius and ulna, and between the tibia and Fibia left. The shaft of the two articulating bones are bound side-by-side by a broad ligamentous sheet called an interosseous membrane. The interosseous membrane provides a pivot point where the radius and ulna (or tibia and fibula) can move against one another.

Osteoblasts

are formed from osteoprogenitor stem cells. Often, ______exhibit a somewhat cuboidal structure. They secrete the initial semisolid, organic form of bone matrix called osteoid. Osteoid later calcifies and hardens as a result of calcium cell desposition. ________produce new bone, and once _________become entrapped in the matrix they produce and secrete, they differentiate into osteocyte.

Synovial joints

are freely mobile articulations. The bones in a __________ are separated by a space called a joint cavity. Most of the commonly known joints in the body are __________, including the glenohumeral joint, the temporomandibular joint, the elbow joint, and the knee joint. Functionally, I'll __________are classified as diarthroses, because all our freely mobile. * Each __________ is composed of a double layered capsule called the articular capsule. The outer layer is called the fibrous layer, whereas the inner layer is a synovial membrane.The fibrous layer is formed from dense connective tissue, and it strengthens the joint to prevent the bones from being pulled apart. The synovial membrane is composed primarily of areolar connective tissue covers all the internal joint surfaces not covered by cartilage, and lines the articular capsule.

Sutures

are immobile fibrous joints (synarthrosis) that occur only between certain bones of the skull. ________have distinct, interlocking, usually the regular edges that both increase their strength and decreased the number of fractures at these articulations. In addition to joining bones, ________permit the skull to grow as the brain increases in size during childhood. In an older adult, the dense regular connective tissue in the ______becomes ossified, fusing the skull bones together. When the bones have completely fused across the suture line, these obliterated ______become synostoses.

Osteoclasts

are large, multi nuclear, phagocytic cells. They appear to be derived from fused bone marrow cells similar to those that produce monocytes. These cells exhibit a ruffled border where they contact the bone, which increases their surface area exposure to the bone. An _____ is often located within or adjacent to a depression or pit on the bone surface called a resorption lacuna. _________are involved in an important process called bone resorption that takes place as follows: ________ secrete hydrochloric acid, which dissolves the middle part (calcium & phosphate) of the bone matrix, whereas lysosomes within the ________secrete enzymes that dissolve the organic part of the matrix. The release of the stored calcium and phosphate from the bone matrix is called osteolysis. The liberated calcium and phosphate ions entered the tissue fluid and then the blood. ________remove matrix and osteoblast add to it, maintaining a delicate balance. Osteoblast and osteoclast activity I fêted by the hormonal levels, the body's need for calcium and or phosphorus, and gravitational or mechanical stressors to bone.

Osteocytes

are mature bone cells derived from osteoblast that have become entrapped in the matrix they secreted. They reside in small spaces within the matrix called lacunae. ________ maintain the bone matrix & detect mechanical stress on a bone. This information is communicated to osteoblast, and may result in the desposition of new bone matrix at the surface.

Tendons

are not part of the synovial joint itself. Like a ligament, a _______ is composed of dense regular connective tissue. However, whereas a ligament binds bone to bone, A _______ attaches a muscle to a bone. When a muscle contracts, the ________from the muscle moves the bone to which it is attached, thus creating movement at the joint. ________ help stabilize joints because they pass a cross or around a joint providing mechanical support, and can limit the range or amount of movement permitted at a joint.

Concentric lamellae

are rings of bone connective tissue that surround the central canal and form the bulk of the osteon. The numbers of _________ very among osteons. Each lamellae contains collagen fibers oriented in one direction; adjacent lamellae contain collagen fibers oriented in perpendicular directions.

Flat bones

are so named because they have flat, thin surfaces. These bones are composed of roughly parallel surfaces of compact bone with a layer of internally placed spongy bone. They provide extensive surfaces for muscle attachment & protect underlying soft tissues. ______ form the roof of the skull, the scapulae (shoulder blades), the sternum (breastbone), & the ribs.

Osteoprogenitor cells

are stem cells derived from mesenchyme. When they divide, they produce another stem cell and a "committed cell" that matures to become an osteoblast. These stem cells are located in both the periosteum and the endosteum .

Chondroblasts

are the cells that produce the matrix of cartilage. Once they become encased within the matrix they have produced and secreted, the cells are called chondrocytes & occupy small spaces called lacunae.

Canaliculi

are tiny, interconnecting channels within the bone connective tissue you that extend from each lacuna, travel through the lamellae, and connect to other lacunae in the central canal. ________house osteocyte cytoplasmic projections that permit intercellular contact and communication. Thus, nutrients, minerals, gases, and waste can travel through these passageways between the central canal and the osteocytes.

Pectoral girdle

articulates with the trunk and supports the upper limbs. A ___________consists of the left and right clavicle's (collarbone) and the left and right scapulae (shoulder blades). It is the attachment site for many muscles that move the upper limbs, and promote upper limb mobility in two ways: 1.) because the scapula is not directly attached to the axial skeleton, it moves freely across the posterior surface of the thorax, permitting the arm to move with it; and 2.) The shallow cavity of the shoulder joint permits a wide range of movement of the upper limb.

Endochondral ossification

begins with the hyaline cartilage model and produces most of the other bones of the skeleton, including those of the upper and lower limbs, the pelvis, the vertebrae, and the ends of the clavicle. Long bone development in the limb is a good example of this process, which takes place in the following steps: 1. The fetal hyaline cartilage model develops: during 8th-12th week of development 2. Cartilage calcifies, and a periosteal bone collar forms. 3. The primary ossification center forms in the diaphysis 4. Secondary ossification centers form in the epiphyses 5. Bone replaces cartilage, except the articular cartilage & epiphyseal plate 6. Epiphyseal plates ossify & form epiphyseal lines

Appendicular skeleton

consist of the bones of the appendages (upper & lower limbs), as well as the bones that hold the limbs to the trunk of the body (the pectoral & pelvic girdles).

Synovial joint

has a fluid filled joint cavity that separates the cartilage covered articulating surfaces of the bones. The articulating surfaces are enclosed within a capsule, & the bones are also joined by various ligaments

Symphysis

has a pad of fibrocartilage between the articulating bones. The fibrocartilage resist compression & tension stresses and acts as a resilient shock absorber. All _________ are amphiarthroses, meaning that they allow slight mobility. One example of a __________ is the pubic __________, which is located between the right and left pubic bones. In pregnant females, the pubic _________ becomes more mobile to allow the pelvis to change shape slightly as the fetus passes through the birth canal.

Long bones

have a greater length than width. These bones have an elongated, cylindrical shaft (diaphysis). This is the most common bone shape. ________ occur in the upper limb(arm, forearm, palm, & fingers) & lower limbs (thigh, leg, sole of the foot, & toes). -________vary in size; the small bones in the fingers and toes are _________, as are the larger tibia & fibula of the lower limb.

Short bones

have a length nearly equal to their width. The external surfaces of _____are covered by compact bone & their interior is composed of spongy bone. Examples of _______include the carpals (wrist bones) & tarsals (bones in the foot). Sesamoid bones, which are tiny, seed shaped bones along the tendons of some muscles, are also classified as _____. The patella (kneecap) is the largest sesamoid bone.

Irregular bones

have elaborate, complex shapes & do not fit into any of the preceding categories. The vertebrae, hip bones, & several bones in the skull, such as the ethmoid & sphenoid bones, are examples of __________.

Endosteum

is an incomplete layer of cells that covers all internal surfaces of the bone, such as the medullary cavity. The ______contains osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, & osteoclasts, and is active during bone growth, repair, & remodeling

Axial skeleton

is composed of the bones along the central axis of the body, which we commonly divide into three regions- the skull, the vertebral column, and the thoracic cage The main function of the ___________is to form a framework that supports and protects the organs. The _________also houses special sense organs (The organs for hearing, balance, taste, smell, and vision) and provides areas for the attachment of skeletal muscles. Additionally, the spongy bone most of the _____--contains hemopoietic tissue, which is responsible for blood cell formation

Paranasal sinus

is lined with mucosa provide warmth and moisture to inhaled air; decreases bone weight; & allows voice resonance.

Hyperextension

is the extension of a joint beyond 180°. For example, if you extend your arm and hand with the palm facing inferiorly, and then raise the back of your hand as if admiring a new ring on your finger, the wrist is hyper extended. If you glance up at the ceiling while standing your neck is hyper extended.

Depression

is the inferior movement of a part of the body. Examples of ________ include the movement of the mandible while opening your mouth to chew food and the movement of your shoulders in an inferior direction. Elevation is the Sapir your movement of a body part. Examples of elevation include the superior movement of the mandible while closing your mouth at the temporomandibular joint in the movement of the shoulders in a superior direction.

Metaphysis

is the region in a mature bone sandwiched between the diaphysis and the epiphysis. In a growing bone, this region contains the epiphyseal (growth) plate, thin layers of hyaline cartilage that provide for the continued lengthwise growth of the diaphysis.

Intramembranous ossification

means "bone growth within a membrane," and is so named because the thin layer of mesenchyme in these areas is sometimes referred to as a membrane ______________is also sometimes called dermal ossification, because the mesenchyme that is the source of these bones is in the area of the future dermis. __________produces the flat bones of the skull, some of the facial bones (zygomatic bone, maxilla), the mandible (lower jaw), and the central part of the clavicle (collarbone). It begins when mesenchyme becomes thickened and condensed with the dance supply of blood capillaries, and continues in several steps: 1. Ossification centers form within thicken regions of mesenchyme 2. Osteoid undergoes calcification 3. Woven bone and it's surrounding periosteum form: initially, the newly formed bone connected tissue is immature and not well organized, that a type called woven bone, or primary bone. This woven belt is eventually replaced by lamellar bone, or secondary bone. 4. Lamellar bone replaces woven balm, as compact bone and spongy bone form.

Flexion

movement in an anterior-posterior (AP) plane of the body that decreases the angle between the articulating bones. Bones are brought closer together as the angle between them decreases. Examples include bending your fingers toward your palm to make a fist, bending your forearm toward your arm at the elbow, _________at the shoulder when you raise in arm anteriorly, inflection of the neck when you bend your head interiorly to look down at your feet.

Ball and socket joints

multi axial joint in which the spherical articulating head of one bone fits into the rounded, cuplike socket of a second bone. Examples of these joints are the hip joint and the glenohumeral joint. The multi axial nature of these joints permits movement in three axes.

Cartilaginous joint

occurred were bones are joined by cartilage

Dorsiflexion

occurs when the talocrural (ankle) joint is been such that the superior surface of the foot and toes moves toward the leg. This movement occurs when you dig in your heels, and it prevents your toes I'm scraping the ground when you take a step

Lateral Flexion

occurs when the trunk of the body moves in a coronal plane laterally away from the body. This type of movement occurs primarily between the vertebrae in the cervical and lumbar regions of the vertebral column.

Fibrous joint

occurs where bones are held together by dense regular (fibrous) connective tissue

Pronation

of the fore arm requires that the radius cross over the ulna & that both bones pivot along the interosseous membrane. When the fore arm is pronated, the palm of the hand is facing posteriorly.

Gomphosis

resembles a "peg in a socket." The only __________ in the human body are the articulations of the roots of individual teeth with the sockets of the mandible and maxillae. A tooth is held firmly in place by a fibrous periodontal membrane. This joint is functionally classified as synarthrosis

Saddle joint

so named because the articular surfaces of the bones have convex and concave a regions that resembled the shape of a saddle. It allows a greater range of movement then either a condylar or hinge joint. The carpometacarpal joint of the thumb (between the trapezium & the first metacarpal) is an example of a ________.This joint permits the time to move toward the other fingers so that we can grasp objects.

Pivot joint

uniaxial joint in which one articulating bones with a rounded surface fits into a ring formed by a ligament and another bone. The first bone rotate on its longitudinal axis relative to the second bone. And example is the proximal radioulnar joint, where the rounded head of the radius pivots along the ulna and permits the radius to rotate. Another example is that atlantoaxial joint between the first two cervical vertebrae. The rounded dens of the axis fits snugly against in articular facet on the interior arch of the atlas. This joint pivots when you shake your head "no."