Human Anatomy lecture Final exam

Atria (receive blood from veins)

- Right atrium: receives deoxygenated blood from = - inferior and superior vena cava - coronary sinus Left atrium : recieves deoxigenated blood from -pulmonary veins

Lymphatic system function

- a system of vessels and nodes that returns excess tissue fluid to the blood - needed because plasma tends to leak out of blood capillaries - NOTE: Most cells get oxygen and nutrients directly from interstitial fluid - filters pathogens to be targeted by immune system

larger lymph vessels

- have valves to maintain flow direction = similar to those veins

Pathway of lymphatic system flow

- throughout most of body, tissue fluid (interstitial fluid) enters lymphatic capillaries - fluid is now called lymph -moves through lymph vessels and lymph nodes -returned to the blood at veins at base of the neck

Parasymphathetic nervous system physiological responses

- triggered at rest - each organ controlled separately - decrease heart rate - increase GI tract secretions and motility -Only innervates visceral organs and other organs shown here (not general body periphery)

Lymphatic capillaries

- wall = endothelium (simple squamous) - minivalves - formed by loose edges

Pons

-"bridge" -between midbrain and medulla oblongota -has tracts indirectly connecting cerebellum, cerebrum and spinal cord -control centers for ventilation

Insula

--Taste (gustatory cortex), general visceral senses, the conscious experience of balance -Integrate sensory information

cerebral cortex

-2 to 4 mm thick -6 layers -highest order of brain function - most complex and least understood -Regional specializations discovered by: -lesions -electrode studies -Imaging studies (e.g. fMRI = functional magnetic resonance imaging) - detect neuron activity

Alzheimer's Disease

-Abnormal protein accumulations -Note inactivity of parietal lobes

Epithelium functions

-Absorption and secretion =both are active (cell uses energy) =absorption = active uptake of molecules =secretion = active release of molecules -Diffusion and Filtration =both are passive =diffusion = molecules move down concentration gradient =filtration = plasma (fluid component of blood) leaks across capillary walls -Propulsion = cilia drive fluid along surface -protection -sensory reception -Sliding

Basal ganglia

-Are these actually "ganglia"? NO -unconscious control of movement -e.g. repetitive rhythmic movements, habits

External ear

-Auricle (pinna) = "funnels" sound into.... = external acoustic meatus = tympanic membrane (eardrum) - vibrated by sound

adipose tissue

-CT proper -Loose CT -mostly fat cells -in hypodermis (superficial fascia) -located deep to the skin -also visceral fat around internal organs -energy storage, protection, insulation

areolar ct

-CT proper -loose CT -most widespread, "generic" CT -Gel-like matrix, lots of tissue fluid -Adjoins all epithelia -all 3 fiber types -has defense cells to fight infections -has fat cells to store energy

Spinal nerves and associated structures

-Dorsal root ganglion =contains cell bodies of sensory neurons -Dorsal root = sensory -ventral root = motor -spinal nerve = short -dorsal ramus = sensory and motor -ventral ramus = sensory and motor

Meninges

-Epidural space -Dura mater -Subdural space -Arachnoid mater -Subarachnoid space (contains CSF) -Pia mater Spinal tap (lumbar puncture) = take CSF sample from subarachnoid space

function of kidney

-Filtration = blood plasma passively squeezed into nephron, becomes filtrate -Resorption = move molecules back to blood (mostly actively) -Secretion = active pump molecules into filtrate -resulting fluid = urine

renal corpuscle

-Glomerulus = fenestrated capillaries -Glomerular capsule =podocytes = these together form a "sieve" for filtration =keeps out proteins, cells =Filtrate = water and other small molecules

Special senses

-Have compact, specialized sense organs -Special visceral senses for chemoreception = olfaction (smell) = gustation (taste) -special somatic senses = Mechanoreception (hearing and equilibrium (balance)) = photoreception (vision)

Reticular CT

-Loose CT -the only fibers are reticular fibers -exclusively in lymphoid structures (parts of the immune system, e.g. spleen, lymph nodes, red bone marrow) -labyrinth used by defense cells

Cerebellum

-Major coordinator of movement =sends "smoothed out" blueprint to cerebral cortex = damage = clumsy movement, poor balance, ect. -half all neurons in brain! = also plays a role in cognition

classification of sensory receptors by stimulus type

-Mechanoreceptors =touch, pressure, vibration, stretch -Thermoreceptors =temperature -Chemoreceptors =chemicals -Photoreceptors =light -Nociceptors =Pain

Anatomy of cochlea

-Membranous labyrinth = choclear duct (scala media) -remaining space is divided into: = scala vestibuli (superior to cochlear duct) =scala typani (inferior to cochlear duct) -basilar membrane = the floor -spiral organ (of Corti) = sensory epithelium =hair cells with stereocilia (sensory receptor) =tectorial membrane

White matter (deep to cortex)

-Myelinated fibers/tracts = for communication among different brain regions -commissural fibers/tracts -connect corresponding areas of 2 hemispheres -E.g. corpus callosum -Association fibers/tracts -Connect regions within one side of cerebral cortex -Projection fibers/tracts -connect cerebral cortex to the rest of the nervous system -E.g. internal capsule

Histology of gross anatomy

-Nerve = group of axons traveling together in the PNS - endoneurium = surrounds axon -perineurium = surrounds each subgroup - epineurium = wraps around outside of nerve - fasicle = sub group of axons

Clinical examples of prefrontal cortex

-Phineas gage = injury -Prefrontal lobotomy = surgical destruction of prefrontal cortex or its connections

Neurotransmitters of sympathetic nervous system

-Preganglionic neurotransmitter: Acetycholine (ACh) -Postganglionic neurotransmitter: Norepinephrine (NE = noradrenaline) (mostly with exceptions)

parasympathetic nervous system neurotransmitters

-Preganglionic neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine (ACh) -Postganglionic neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine (ACh)

Frontal lobe

-Primary motor cortex: conscious control of voluntary movement -Premotor cortex: planning movements coordinating with sensory info -Prefrontal cortex (anterior association area): most rostral region and self-control, cognition, planning, conscious thought

function of spinal cord

-Two-way conduction pathways between PNS and brain = ascending pathway - TO brain = descending pathway - FROM brain -A major reflex center =e.g. knee jerk reflex

pseudostratified columnar

-all cells attached to basement membrane, so not truly stratified -undifferentiated cells don't reach apical surface -nuclei occur at different levels, so tissue looks "statified"

Anterior segment of the eye

-between cornea and lens -filled with clear liquid = aqueous humor ...is secreted by ciliary body into posterior chamber (=space between iris and lens) .... flows through anterior chamber (=space between cornea and iris) .... and drains out via scleral venous sinus -poor drainage ---> glaucoma (excess pressure in eye)

Posterior segment of the eye

-between lens and retina -filled with jelly-like substance = vitreous humor =supports the retina =is not circulated or renewed

General circulatory principles

-capillary beds = where exchange takes place - artery = delivers blood from the heart to capillary beds - oxygenated blood? mostly -vein = delivers blood from capillary beds = back to the heart (most veins) = OR to another capillary bed (these veins are portal veins) = deoxygenated blood? mostly

Three general layers of the telencephalon

-cerebral cortex = outer region = gray matter -cerebral white matter -deep gray matter of cerebrum = nuclei buried in white matter

Sensory system sensory receptors

-convert stimuli into electrical signal (=transduction) -Consists of: = receptive ending of sensory neuron or = receptor cell (which then signals sensory neuron)

Gross anatomy of kidney

-cortex = superficial region; light -Medulla = deeper region; dark =consists of renal pyramids

Pulmonary circuit

-delivers blood to and from the lungs = for external respiration

Systemic circuit

-delivers blood to and from the rest of the body = for internal respiration

Dense regular CT

-dense CT -all collagen fibers run in 1 direction -resists tension in 1 direction -tendons and ligaments -fascia (deep fascia)

dense irregular CT

-dense CT -collagen fibers oriented in various directions -resists tension in various directions -in dermis, and fibrous capsules of organs/joints

Elastic CT

-dense CT -most fibers are elastic fibers (also collagen fibers) - able to recoil after stretching -bronchial tubes in lungs; artery walls; some intervertebral ligaments

Nerve vs. Neurons

-each nerve contains the axons of many neurons -axons are also called nerve fibers -axons carry signals toward the axon terminals

General features of Sympathetic nervous system

-fight or flight -Arises from thoracic and lumbar spinal nerves -preganglionic axon/fiber = short -ganglion = near the spinal cord -postganglionic axon/fiber = long -axons highly branched

Gray matter in spinal cord

-has deep location Note: dorsal root ganglion = cell bodies of sensory neurons (not part of spinal cord)

Parietal lobe

-integration of sensory information, perception of spatial relationships

Dorsal horns (posterior)

-interneurons -Axon terminals of sensory neurons (somatic and visceral)

White matter of spinal cord

-is superficial to gray matter -contains myelinated axons to and from brain -Dorsal, ventral and lateral funiculi (columns)

split-brain experiments

-language processing is mostly in left hemisphere -spatial processing is mostly in right hemisphere -communication between L and R requires corpus callosum

Hypothalamus

-located = inferior to the thalamus -center of homeostasis/ control center for basic drives: -hunger, thirst, sex, ect. -Biological clock -Master clock of circadian rhythm

Epithalamus

-located superior and posterior to thalamus -Pineal gland -secretes melatonin (a hormone) -conveys circadian rhythm from hypothalamus to rest of body

internal and external lining of GI tract

-membrane = 2 layers (epithelium lines space; connective tissue nourishes)

Medulla oblongota

-most caudal part of brain -relay between spinal cord and rest of brain -autonomic control of visceral organs =heart rate, ventilation ect. = damage causes respiratory failure

Reminder about stuff

-most nerves carry both afferent and efferent axons -the exception are in your head! -cranial nerves = 12 pairs -Spinal nerves = 31 pairs

Telencephalon

-most rostral region of the brain =cerebrum =cerebral hemispheres

simple columnar

-non ciliated: lines most of digestive tract -columnar shape provides: more space for organelles -ciliated: lines small bronchi (air tubes in lungs) -sweeps away debris =ciliated: lining of uterine tube -many have microvilli -goblet cells - a final example -secrete mucus (digestive and respiratory tracts)

pathway of sound sensation

-oval window vibrates -perilymph of scala vestibuli vibrates -endolymph of cochlear duct vibrates -basilar membrane vibrates -hair cell vibrates -stereocilia bend against tectorial membrane -hair cell releases neurotransmitter -cochlear nerve (branch of cranial nerve VIII) excited -carry information to temporal lobe of brain

pathway of sound vibrations

-oval window vibrates -perilymph of scala vestibuli vibrates -endolymph of cochlear duct vibrates -basilar membrane vibrates -perilymph of scala tympani vibrates -round window vibrates

Thalamus

-part of diencephalon -relay station and gateway to cerebral cortex -all incoming sensory inputs go through thalamus (except smell) -Amplify/filter sensations

Basal forebrain nuclei

-play role in arousal and memory -one of the first areas to show problems in Alzheimer's disease

reticular formation

-primarily brainstem (midbrain, pons, medulla) -Arousal, alertness (reticular activating system = RAS) =Anesthesia/tranquilizers inhibit RAS =Damage - coma

stratified cuboidal

-rare -largest ducts of salivary, sweat and mammary glands -function? protection and secretion

Somatosensory cortex of the parietal lobe

-recieves and interprets general somatic senses (touch, pressure, ect.) -has somatotopy = body mapping (the map = sensory homunculus) -contralateral (represents opposite side of body) Note: Primary motor cortex (in frontal lobe) has somatotopy (map = motor homunculus) is contralateral too

Urinary system function

-regulate volume and chemical composition of blood -dispose of waste in urine -the major organs of excretion

Proximal convoluted tubule

-resorption and secretion -simple cuboidal epithelium with microvilli

Collecting duct

-resorption of water (passive diffusion) -simple cuboidal epithelium -example: alcohol ---> less water resorption --> more urine

respiratory function

-respiration = exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) with the environment -consists of 4 processes: 1. Ventilation = move air in/ out of lungs Note: For simplicity, only the inward (oxygen) paths are shown here; CO2 travels the other way 2. External respiration = gas diffuses between lungs and blood 3. Gas transport via blood 4. Internal respiration = gas diffuses between blood and cells

Parasympathetic nervous system general features

-rest and digest -arises from cranial nerve and sacral spinal nerves -90% is via the vagus nerves (cranial nerve x) -preganglionic axon/fiber = long -ganglion = within or near effector organ -postganglionic axon/fiber = short -axons have few branches

Saccule and utricle

-sense linear acceleration (e.g. gravity) only -Maculae = sensory epithelia Sensory pathways from maculae and cristae ampulla ---> Vistibular nerve (branch of CN VIII) ---> Brain

Semicircular ducts

-sense rotation only -cristae ampullares = sensory epithelia =stimulated by flow of endolymph

simple squamous

-simple squamous -lining of air sacs in lungs -endothelium: inner lining of heart and blood vessels -mesothelium: lining of closed body cavities -glomerular capsule in kidney where filtration occurs -no surface projections (cilia, microvilli)

Ventral horns (anterior)

-somatic motor neurons (cell body) and interneurons -sends signals out to skeletal muscles

Somatic vs. visceral senses

-somatic senses = monitor external environment, skin, body wall, limbs -visceral senses = monitor visceral organs

Adrenal medulla

-the largest sympathetic ganglion -modified ganglionic neurons secrete into blood - i.e. hormes --Mainly epinephrine (adrenaline)

Loop of Henle (nephron loop)

-thin segment =resorbs water (passive diffusion) = simple squamous epithelium -thick segment =resorbs salt = simple cuboidal epithelium

Sympathetic nervous system -Physiological responses

-triggered by exercise, emergencies -usually a coordinated response -increase heart rate -increase blood flow to skeletal muscle -decrease blood flow to many organs -dilate bronchioles -release of glucose reserve by liver -digestion/peristalsis shuts down -sweaty skin

transitional epithelium

-urinary bladder -apical cells change shape when tissue stretches -function? protection and stretchable

Structures of lymphatic system

-very low-pressure system = uses valves to maintain flow direction

stratified columnar

-very rare -some in urethra -also some in largest ducts of glands -function? protection and secretion

Lateral horns

-visceral motor neurons (cell body) and interneurons -sends signals out to visceral organs - not used in somatic pathways

9. Which of the following represents a possible path that blood may follow as it moves ONCE through the systemic circuit? (Some steps may be omitted.) (1) Heart, (2) Capillaries, (3) Arteries, (4) Veins A. 3 --> 4 --> 2 --> 4 --> 1 B. 1 --> 3 --> 4 --> 2 --> 3 C. 3 --> 2 --> 3 --> 2 --> 4 D. 1 --> 4 --> 2 --> 3 --> 1 E. 2 --> 3 --> 2 --> 4 --> 1

A. 3 --> 4 --> 2 --> 4 --> 1

22. Choose the correct order of events (many steps omitted) in the pathway of sound vibrations: (1) Incus vibrates, (2) Malleus vibrates, (3) Oval window vibrates, (4) Round window vibrates, (5) Basilar membrane vibrates, (6) Perilymph of scala tympani vibrates, (7) Endolymph of scala media vibrates, (8) Tympanic membrane vibrates. A. 8 --> 2 --> 1 --> 3 --> 7 --> 5 --> 6 --> 4 B. 6 --> 1 --> 2 --> 4 --> 7 --> 5 --> 8 --> 3 C. 2 --> 1 --> 3 --> 7 --> 5 --> 6 --> 8 --> 4 D. 8 --> 1 --> 2 --> 3 --> 7 --> 5 --> 6 --> 4 E. 8 --> 2 --> 1 --> 4 --> 7 --> 5 --> 6 --> 3

A. 8 --> 2 --> 1 --> 3 --> 7 --> 5 --> 6 --> 4

14. The diagram, showing the blood circulation among the heart (at top), liver, and small intestine, is similar to the one shown in class, although it omits all other organs. Which vessel represents the hepatic vein? A. A B. B C. C D. A or B E. B or C

A. A

3. You fall on your back while skiing. The cold sensations in your back follow what sensory pathway to the spinal cord? A. Dorsal ramus -> spinal nerve ->dorsal root ganglion -> dorsal root -> spinal cord B. Dorsal root -> dorsal root gangion -> dorsal ramus -> spinal nerve -> spinal cord C. Spinal nerve -> sympathetic trunk ganglion -> spinal nerve -> dorsal root -> spinal cord D. Ventral ramus -> spinal nerve -> ventral root > spinal cord E. Dorsal ramus -> spinal nerve -> ventral root -> spinal cord

A. Dorsal ramus -> spinal nerve ->dorsal root ganglion -> dorsal root -> spinal cord

23. The space that lies outside the outermost meninges of the spinal cord is called the A. Epidural space B. Subarachnoid space C. Subdural space D. Ganglionic space E. Intravertebral space

A. Epidural space

9. Sometimes crystals from the maculae break off and float into the semicircular ducts. This would probably cause what symptom? A. Feeling like you are spinning B. Feeling like you are tilted to one side C. Ringing in the ears D. Feeling like you are moving faster and faster E. Pain in the middle ear

A. Feeling like you are spinning

17. Oxygen diffuses from blood into a muscle cell. This process is known as A. Internal respiration B. External respiration C. Cellular respiration D. Ventilation E. Inspiration

A. Internal respiration

2. Betty suffered a stroke, preventing her from smiling on the right side of her face. The stroke occurred in the: A. Left frontal lobe B. Right frontal lobe C. Left parietal lobe D. Right parietal lobe

A. Left frontal lobe

1. The deep gray matter of the cerebrum has abundant: A. Multipolar neurons B. Unipolar neurons C. Oligodendrocytes D. Schwann cells E. All of the above

A. Multipolar neurons

4. Before the bacterial cause of stomach ulcers was known, a more extreme treatment called vagotomy (cutting of the vagus nerve) was sometimes performed. If both vagus nerves are completely removed, what would be a likely result? A. Rapid heartbeat B. Excessive peristalsis in the large intestine C. Inability to hear D. Inability to breathe E. Excessive sweating

A. Rapid heartbeat

25. Which of the following structures contains melanin? A. Retina B. Vitreous humor C. Sclera D. Lens E. None of the above

A. Retina

27. The diagram at right is the same one presented in class to show two neurons in one of the divisions of the peripheral nervous system. What division of the peripheral nervous system do these neurons belong to? A. Sympathetic (all except the adrenal medulla and its innervation) B. Parasympathetic C. Somatic motor D. Sensory E. Adrenal medulla and its innervation

A. Sympathetic (all except the adrenal medulla and its innervation)

20. Where is simple squamous epithelium found in the kidney nephron or collecting duct? A. Thin segment of the loop of Henle B. Thick segment of the loop of Henle C. Distal convoluted tubule D. Proximal convoluted tubule E. Collecting duct

A. Thin segment of the loop of Henle

1. Cilia occur in or on: A. epithelium of upper respiratory tract B. epithelium of kidney tubules C. goblet cells D. A and B E. A and C

A. epithelium of upper respiratory tract

Temporal lobe

Auditory cortex -receives and interprets auditory stimuli (hearing) -Exhibits tonotopy (mapping by sound frequency) Olfactory cortex -Receives and interprets olfactory stimuli (smell) -Close relationship with limbic system (emotion and emotional memory) Higher levels of visual processing = e.g. face recognition

18. Which of the following is an example where elastic connective tissue is a major component? A. Fibrous capsules of organs and joints B. Artery walls C. Lymphoid organs D. Fascia E. Dermis

B. Artery walls

11. The pulmonary trunk A. Is a vein carrying deoxygenated blood B. Is an artery carrying deoxygenated blood C. Is a vein carrying oxygenated blood D. Is an artery carrying oxygenated blood E. Alternates between carrying oxygenated and deoxygenated blood

B. Is an artery carrying deoxygenated blood

22. In the diagram in Question 21, blood flows directly from the ___ to the asterisk. A. Left atrium B. Pulmonary veins C. Pulmonary arteries D. Pulmonary trunk E. Superior vena cava

B. Pulmonary veins

28. In the diagram used for Question 27, Structure A is a _____ and Structure B is the site of _____ release. A. Ventral ramus; acetylcholine B. Spinal nerve; acetylcholine C. Dorsal ramus; norepinephrine D. Ventral ramus; norepinephrine E. Spinal nerve; norepinephrine

B. Spinal nerve; acetylcholine

29. The auditory cortex occurs on which of the following lobes? A. Occipital lobe B. Temporal lobe C. Insula D. Frontal lobe E. Parietal lobe

B. Temporal lobe

10. Retinal detachment typically means A. The optic disc pulls away from the optic nerve B. The pigmented and neural layers of the retina separate from each other C. The retina separates from the choroid D. The choroid separates from the fibrous layer E. None of the above

B. The pigmented and neural layers of the retina separate from each other

3. The type of membrane that covers the outside (superficial) surface of the digestive organs is called the: A. mucous membrane. B. serous membrane. C. glandular membrane. D. squamous membrane. E. secretory memrane.

B. serous membrane.

2. The alveoli (surface responsible for gas exchange) in the lungs are lined with _____________ epithelium. A. stratified squamous B. simple squamous C. simple columnar D. pseudostratified columnar E. transitional

B. simple squamous

17. Half of all the brain's neurons are found in the: A. Medulla oblongata B. Hippocampus C. Cerebellum D. Cerebrum E. Reticular formation

C. Cerebellum

19. In the diagram at right, region 2 contains ___ which flows directly into region ___. A. Blood; 1 B. Blood; 3 C. Cerebrospinal fluid; 1 D. Cerebrospinal fluid; 3 E. Cerebrospinal fluid; 4

C. Cerebrospinal fluid; 1

8. The drug atropine, which blocks the effects of the parasympathetic nervous system, can be used to increase heart rate in cardiac patients. What other effect(s) would you expect this drug to have? A. Sweaty skin B. Increase blood flow to skeletal muscles C. Dry mouth D. All of the above E. None of the above

C. Dry mouth

11. Focusing the eye on a distant object (as opposed to focusing on a nearby object) requires A. Contraction of the ciliary body B. Contraction of the iris C. Flattening the lens D. Releasing tension in the ciliary zonule E. C and D

C. Flattening the lens

5. The parasympathetic nervous system, unlike the sympathetic nervous system, is characterized by: A. The secretion of acetylcholine by the preganglionic neuron B. More axon branches, enabling a more coordinated response C. Longer preganglionic axons D. All of the above E. None of the above

C. Longer preganglionic axons

10. The best way to see a very dim star at night is to: A. Look straight at the star, relaxing your ciliary body B. Look straight at the star, contracting your ciliary body C. Look to one side of the star with both eyes D. Try to focus one eye on the star and the other eye to one side of the star E. Squint your eyelids while looking directly at the star

C. Look to one side of the star with both eyes

26. A nerve that carries exclusively afferent pathways A. Cannot exist B. Must be a spinal nerve C. Must be a cranial nerve D. Could be either a spinal nerve or a cranial nerve E. Occurs in young children, but not in adults

C. Must be a cranial nerve

21. Indicate the correct pathway in the flow of urine (initially blood plasma) (many steps omitted): A. Glomerulus -> glomerular capsule -> urethra -> ureter B. Podocytes -> proximal convoluted tubule -> distal convoluted tubule -> loop of Henle C. Renal corpuscle -> proximal convoluted tubule -> thin segment of loop of Henle -> thick segment of loop of Henle D. Podocytes -> distal convoluted tubule -> loop of Henle -> proximal convoluted tubule E. Collecting duct -> nephron -> ureter -> urinary bladder -> urethra

C. Renal corpuscle -> proximal convoluted tubule -> thin segment of loop of Henle -> thick segment of loop of Henle

20. In the diagram in question 19, the fluid leaving region 4 will first enter what chamber of the heart? A. Left atrium B. Left ventricle C. Right atrium D. Right ventricle E. [Not a choice]

C. Right atrium

6. The adrenal medulla A. Secretes mainly norepinephrine B. Secretes mainly acetylcholine C. Secretes into (interstitial fluid and then into) the blood D. A and C E. B and C

C. Secretes into (interstitial fluid and then into) the blood

13. The second sound (the "dup" in "lub-dup") of each heart beat results when A. The squeezing down of the ventricles pushes blood against the walls of the heart B. Blood rushes into the ventricles to fill the vacuum produced after contraction C. The large arteries connected to the heart recoil, causing valves to close D. The chordae tendineae are suddenly pulled tight by the closing valves E. Blood rushing out through the arteries vibrates the artery walls

C. The large arteries connected to the heart recoil, causing valves to close

4. Adipose tissue is a major component of: A. epidermis B. dermis C. hypodermis D. pancreas E. ligaments

C. hypodermis

10. Internal respiration occurs A. In the muscle tissue forming most of the wall of the heart B. In the systemic circuit C. In the pulmonary circuit D. A and B E. All of the above

D. A and B

15. The limbic system includes A. Hippocampus B. Cingulate gyrus C. Reticular formation D. A and B E. All of the above

D. A and B

19. What function(s) occur(s) in the distal convoluted tubule of the nephron? A. Resorption B. Secretion C. Filtration D. A and B E. All of the above

D. A and B

8. A team of microscopic science fiction characters find themselves swimming in the perilymph of the scala vestibuli. Which of the following would they be able to reach merely by swimming? A. Round window B. Oval window C. Tectorial membrane D. A and B E. All of the above

D. A and B

5. You are shrunk down to microscopic size, magically transported into the body of your roommate, and find that your feet are standing on the surface of a mesothelium, and you are in a body cavity surrounded by fluid. The fluid is: A. The interstitial fluid of an areolar connective tissue. B. The mucus lining on the mucosa of a hollow organ. C. Serous fluid, which is produced mainly by secretion. D. A filtrate of blood. E. Blood plasma.

D. A filtrate of blood.

18. Functions of the insula include: A. Integrate sensory information B. General visceral senses C. The conscious experience of balance D. All of the above E. None of the above

D. All of the above

1. Which of the following carry both afferent and efferent nerve signals? A. Dorsal root B. Dorsal ramus C. Spinal nerve D. B and C E. All of the above

D. B and C

7. Retroperitoneal organs such as the pancreas A. Are suspended by mesenteries B. Have adventitia C. Have peritoneum D. B and C E. All of the above

D. B and C

7. Identify a region that has only motor neurons (no sensory neurons or interneurons). A. A B. B C. C D. D E. B and C

D. D

5. Where would you expect to find gaps in the blood-brain barrier? A. Somatosensory cortex B. Gustatory cortex C. Thalamus D. Hypothalamus E. None of the above

D. Hypothalamus

12. Blood flows through the mitral valve into the A. Aorta B. Pulmonary trunk C. Right ventricle D. Left ventricle E. Right atrium

D. Left ventricle

8. The sword pierced Octavius' belly, and the point of the sword ended up just reaching an olive in his stomach. Numerous layers of his body tissues and internal spaces were pierced in the process. Each of the following lists only some of these. Which of the following gives the layers or spaces in the correct order (from superficial to deep)? A. Visceral peritoneum, peritoneal cavity, mesothelium B. Lamina propria, mesothelium, lumen C. Peritoneal cavity, visceral peritoneum, parietal peritoneum D. Mesothelium, epithelium of mucosa, lumen E. Peritoneal cavity, parietal peritoneum, lumen

D. Mesothelium, epithelium of mucosa, lumen

14. The fovea centralis A. Contains both rods and cones B. Is not sensitive to color C. Detects light from the peripheral field of vision D. Provides the most acute visual discrimination E. Is where the optic nerve connects to the retina

D. Provides the most acute visual discrimination

16. The metencephalon develops into the A. Pons B. Cerebellum C. Medulla oblongata D. Midbrain E. A and B

E. A and B

16. Lymphatic capillaries A. Have a wall consisting of endothelium only B. Have minivalves C. Carry fluid in one direction only D. B and C E. A, B, and C

E. A, B, and C

12. The special senses include: A. Vision and hearing B. Equilibrium C. Olfaction and gustation D. A and B E. All of the above

E. All of the above

24. Cranial Nerve VIII is part of the pathway carrying signals to the brain from the A. Cristae ampullares B. Cochlear nerve C. Hair cells of the Organ of Corti D. B and C E. All of the above

E. All of the above

4. Which brain region is involved in receiving and interpreting information from the somatic sensory division of the PNS? A. Somatosensory cortex B. Temporal lobe C. Occipital lobe D. A and B E. All of the above

E. All of the above

9. The optic nerve A. Is attached at the part of the retina corresponding to the center of the visual field B. Consists of the axons of bipolar cells C. Is part of the fibrous layer of the eye D. Contains both sensory and motor pathways E. Is attached to the optic chiasma

E. Is attached to the optic chiasma

13. Glaucoma is caused by A. Clouding of the lens B. Blood vessel proliferation in the retina C. Buildup of vitreous humor D. All of the above E. None of the above

E. None of the above

15. A nerve fiber A. Is connective tissue at the core of every nerve B. Is also known as a neuron C. Is a group of blood vessels accompanying a fascicle D. Is found only in some nerves E. None of the above

E. None of the above

2. The sympathetic nervous system A. Contains afferent neurons B. Is the somatic motor division of the nervous system C. Is the visceral sensory division of the nervous system D. Includes both somatic motor and visceral sensory neurons E. None of the above

E. None of the above

21. In the diagram at right, what heart valve is indicated by the asterisk? A. Bicuspid B. Tricuspid C. Aortic semilunar D. Atrial semilunar E. None of the above

E. None of the above

7. Assuming no structures are damaged, where would you expect the fluids produced in a middle ear infection to drain into? A. External acoustic meatus B. Scala tympani C. Otitis media D. Vestibule E. Pharynx

E. Pharynx

6. Neurons that have their cell body in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord: A. Are sensory neurons B. Are visceral motor neurons C. Are somatic motor neurons D. Secrete neurotransmitters onto unipolar neurons E. Receive neurotransmitters from unipolar neurons

E. Receive neurotransmitters from unipolar neurons

6. In the idealized diagram of body cavities and membranes that was presented in class, which of the following lists layers and/or spaces in correct order, from superficial to deep? A. Visceral serosa, parietal serosa, mucosa B. Cutaneous membrane, mucous membrane, visceral serosa C. Parietal serosa, lumen, visceral serosa D. Mucous membrane, parietal serosa, cutaneous membrane E. Serous cavity, visceral serosa, mucosa

E. Serous cavity, visceral serosa, mucosa

3. A bullet wound damaged all of the white matter in John's metencephalon. A signal traveling down the internal capsule would be unable to reach his A. Brain stem B. Midbrain C. Insula D. Diencephalon E. The signal could reach any of the above

E. The signal could reach any of the above

Simple cuboidal

Glands -salivary glands -pancreas, ovary -kidney tubules Many have microvilli

distal convoluted tubule

HELP

serous membrane

Lines the spaces between and around the organs in the ventral body cavity (a closed body cavity) Epithelium •Simple squamous Produces watery fluid, mainly by filtration (passive) •Lines major visceral organs (heart, lungs, stomach, ect.) oDoes not include brain and spinal cord •Also lines inner surface of the body wall Tissue layers •Muscle ect. •Visceral serosa oCT oMesothelium (epithelium) •Serous cavity (fluid filled) •Parietal serosa oMesothelium oCT •Muscle ect.

Development of homologous structures in male, female

Male -genital tubercle (penis) -urethral folds (penile urethra) -labioscrotal swellings (scrotum) Female -genital tubercle (clitoris) -urethral folds (labia minora) -labioscrotal swellings (labia majora)

Corpora quadrigemina

Mesencephalon = midbrain -four rounded protrusions in dorsal midbrain -superior colliculi = visual reflexes -inferior colliculi = auditory reflexes

microscopic anatomy of kidney

Nephron -starts and ends in cortex -loop descends into medulla and back to cortex ----> collecting duct (runs through cortex and medulla) ----> out of kidney

Occipital lobe

Primary visual cortex -receives and processes information from eyes -has map of visual field (contralateral, inverted) Visual association area -further visual processing (e.g. form, movement)

mucous membrane

Produces mucus, enzymes, ect. by secretion (active) •Lubrication Lines lumen (internal space) of open body cavities •E.g. respiratory, digestive, reproductive and urinary tract Tissue layers •Lumen •Mucus membrane oEpithelium oLamina propia (CT) •Muscle ect.

Ventricles (eject blood from heart)

Right ventricle: pumps deoxygenated blood to: -pulmonary trunt ---> pulmonary arteries Left ventricle: pumps oxygenated blood to : -aorta (coronary arteries are branches of aorta)

Cutaneous membrane

The skin Directly exposed to the outside world •Produces some watery fluids by secretion Tissue layers •Muscle ect. •Dermis (CT) •Epidermis (epithelium)

lymphodema

accumulation of interstitial fluid due to poor lymphatic drainage -example = elephantiasis -caused by a parasitic worm

Middle ear

an air filled space -Ossicles = Malleus (receives vibration from eardrum) = incus = stapes (transmits vibration to oval window) - Oval window = transmits to internal ear -Round window = where pressure in internal ear pushes back out -Pharyngotympanic tube (eustachian tube) =connects middle ear to pharynx = normally closed. Opened by swallowing or yawning

Atrioventricular valves (AV valves)

between atrium and ventricle -Tricuspid (R AV) - between R atrium and ventricle -Bicuspid (L AV) - between L atrium and ventricle These valves are held in place by chordae tendineae, which are anchored to papillary muscles - prevents eversion (prolapse)

Semilunar valves (SL valves)

between great arteries and ventricles -Aortic SL valve --- between left ventricle and aorta -Pulmonary SL valve --- between right ventricle and pulmonary trunk

Classification of epithelium

by layering: simple vs. stratified -by shape: squamous vs. cuboidal vs. columnar =named for the shape of the apical layer

30. Which of the following indicates the correct order in which light will first reach each structure as it enters and travels to the back of the eye? (Some steps have been omitted to conserve space.) Note: This question is not asking about the nervous signal. a. Cornea --> aqueous humor --> vitreous humor --> photoreceptors --> ganglion cells b. Pupil --> aqueous humor --> lens --> vitreous humor --> retina c. Aqueous humor --> lens --> vitreous humor --> ganglion cells --> photoreceptors d. Cornea --> lens --> vitreous humor --> photoreceptors --> ganglion cells e. Lens --> aqueous humor --> vitreous humor --> bipolar cells --> ganglion cells

c. Aqueous humor --> lens --> vitreous humor --> ganglion cells --> photoreceptors

32. What phenomenon is caused specifically by the anatomy of the optic disc? a. The point of greatest visual acuity in the visual field b. Stereoscopic vision c. The blind spot d. Floaters e. Ability to easily transplant corneas

c. The blind spot

Efferent (motor)

carry impulses to effector organs -somatic motor nervous system -visceral motor (autonomic) nervous system = sympathetic =parasypathetic - rest and digest

Afferent sensory

carry pulses to CNS

Internal ear bony labyrinth

cavities in temporal bone = filled (partially) with perilymph -semicircular canals (balance and equilibrium only) -vestibule (balance and equilibrium only) -cochlea (hearing only)

Tract (nervous)

collection of axons traveling together inside CNS white matter

Ganglion

collection of neuron cell bodies in the PNS

Nucleus

collectiong of neuron cell bodies inside the CNS Gray matter

lymph nodes

contain reticular CT (with reticular fibers) -lymph flows through - pathogens are filtered out by immune cells

31. The maculae of the ear are responsible for sensation of which of the following stimuli? a. Rotation b. Linear acceleration c. Acceleration due to gravity d. b and c e. All of the above

d. b and c

33. Which of the following is/are (a) component(s) of the renal cortex? a. Renal pyramids b. Glomerulus c. Distal convoluted tubule d. b and c e. All of the above

d. b and c

mesentary (serosa)

double layer of peritoneum connecting parietal and visceral peritoneum -supports GI tract - carries vessels & nerves - stores fat

secondarily retroperitoneal

during development some organs become buried in body wall e.g. pancreas -still has peritoneum on one side -has adventitia on other side

Visceral motor (autonomic)

effectors: cardiac and smooth, glands voluntary? never # of synapses = 2

Somatic motor

effectors: skeletal motor voluntary? usually # of synapses = 1

Limbic system

emotion, memory -Amygdala = fear -cingulate gyrus = also important in emotion -hippocampus = forms long-term memories =affected by Alzheimer's disease

statified squamous

function? protection -thickest -keratinized = skin -nonkeratinized = ends of digestive and reproductive tracts

Sulci

grooves between gyri

ganglia

group of neuronal cell bodies in the PNS

Nerves

groups of axons in the pns

components of urinary system

kidney --> ureter --> urinary bladder ---> urethra

Lobes

large regions seperated (mostly) by deep sulci

Mucosa (mucous membrane)

lines lumen (interior space) of GI tract - has simple columnar epithelium throughout most of its length -connective tissue layer called lamina propina

serosa (serous membrane) (peritoneum in abdominopelvic cavity)

lines peritoneal cavity (space between organs) -epithelium (mesothelium) is simple squamous -connective tissue layer -deep (inner) lining of cavity? visceral peritoneum= outer layer of organ wall -superficial lining over cavity? parietal peritoneum = inner layer of body wall -peritoneal cavity is narrow, crowded by organs

Vascular layer of the eye

middle layer -choroid =highly vascular; pigmented (melanin) =provides nutirents and oxygen to inner layer = absorbs scattered light -ciliary body =mostly smooth muscle =attached to lens by ciliary zonule (fibers) =for accommodation (change shape of lens to focus light) =Accommodation -at rest, lens is stretched flat by ciliary zonule --> distant focus - for near focus: contract ciliary body --> less tension in ciliary zonule --> lens recoils to more spherical shape -Iris =smooth muscle -regulates size of pupil (opening) =e.g. smaller for bright light

open body cavities

o E.g. respiratory, digestive, reproductive, urinary tracts

closed body cavities

oDorsal body cavity •Cranial cavity Contains brain •Vertebral cavity Contains spinal chord oVentral body cavity •Thoracic cavity Heart, lungs •Abdominopelvic cavity Mainly organs of digestive, urinary, reproductive systems

intraperitoneal

organs that keep their mesentary e.g. stomach

Fibrous layer of the eye

outermost -sclera = the white of the eye (posterior 5/6) -cornea - transparent =mostly made of regularly arranged collagen =performs most of the light bending =avascular!

Path of nervous signal in retina

photoreceptors ---> bipolar cells ---> ganglion cells -Axons of ganglion cells leave eye as optic nerve (cranial nerve II)

visual neural pathway

photoreceptors --> IDK ---> IDK ---> optic nerve ---> optic chiasm ---> optic tract --> thalamus ---> occipital lobe

General senses

receptors are distributed widely -where are the cell bodies of the general sensory neurons? = dorsal root ganglion of spinal nerves = other sensory ganglia (of cranial nerves)

Inner layer of the eye

retina -Pigmented layer (outer) =Melanin (absorbs light to prevent scattering) =retinal detachment (separation of neural layer from pigmented layer of retina) -Neural layer (inner layer of retina) =photoreceptors ... are on the side away from Light! -rod cells = do not sense color = can sense dim light -cone cells = sense color = cannot sense dim light -Fovea centralis = pit in the retina corresponding to center of visual field = sharpest visual acuity = 100% cones -optic disc = where optic nerve leaves the eye = no photoreceptors --> blind spot

Gyri

ridges of brain tissue

Membranous labyrinth

sacs/ducts within bony labyrinth -filled with endolymph -semicircular ducts -saccule and utricle -cochlear duct (in cochlea)

Functional brain systems

scattered throughout brain but serve closely-related function

Respiratory zone

the anatomical zone where oxygen diffuses into blood What process? - pulmonary alveoli - respiratory bronchioles

Gray and White matter

two general types of nervous tissue in the CNS -white matter = myelinated axons -gray matter = everything else: -unmyelinated axons - dendrites - cell bodies

Conducting zone (passageways for air; no diffusion)

what process? external nose through most tubes in lungs

membrane function

•Protection •Partitioning •Sensation •Exchange •Sliding