Human Motivation Final Cummulative

Effectiveness of punishment

! Does stop behavior immediately ! Does not work long-term ! Needs to be consistent to work ! If punisher is absent, behavior continues ! Need for constant supervision and regulation Person can become a conditioned punisher ! Side effects ! Emotional reactions ! E.g. punishing crying leads to more crying

You might hear a person who is experiencing learned helplessness saying each of the following except:

" I failed, but it wasn't my fault"

Antecedent Strategies to change behavior

Adapt curriculum to the child's level Provide extra supports Child choice Incorporation of interests Prompting Cooperative Learning/Naturalistic Teaching strategies

Postive Punishment

Add to environment and decrease behavior EX: A child picks his nose during class and the teacher reprimands him in front of his classmates.

Winter and Stewart (1978) reported that the need for power is a desire to make the physical and social world conform to their personal image or plan for it. Which of the following responses is not one of the three characteristics attributed to individuals high in the need for power?

Affiliation

Psychological needs

An inherent source of motivation that generates the desire to interact with the environment so as to advance personal growth, social development, and psychological well-being

Compassion

As a Positive Emotion when it connotes caring and when the focus is on the another who is suffering. As a Negative Emotion when it is tightly paired with distress and suffering and when the individual focuses on that personal distress.

Explanatory style in learned helplessness

Global: cause of the negative events in consistent across different contexts Stable: cause is consistent across time Uncontrollable: cause is due to factors outside of person and outside of own control

sources and effects of self-efficacy

Goes into extent of ____-________. -personal behavior history -vicarious experience (modeling) -verbal persuasion (pep talk) -Physiological Activity Comes out of extent of ____-________. -Choice (approach vs. avoid) -Effort and persistence -Thinking and decision making -Emotional reactions (stress, anxiety)

The Sheidon, Elliot, Kim, & Kasser (2001) study

Measuring Universal Psychological Needs: "describe most satisfying events in the last month"- done with U.S. and South Korean samples During this event, I felt: 1.Self-esteem: That I had many positive qualities. Quite satisfied with who I am. A strong sense of self-respect. 1.Autonomy That my choices were based on my true interests and values. Free to do things my own way. That my choices expressed my "true self." 1. Relatedness A sense of contact with people who care for me, and whom I care for. Close and connected with other people who are important to me. A strong sense of intimacy with the people I spent time with. 2. Competence That I was successfully completing difficult tasks and projects. That I was taking on and mastering hard challenges. Very capable in what I did

Priming: Bargh, Chen, & Burrows (1996) study 2

Participants given scrambled sentence task with words relevant to elderly stereotype walked more slowly down the corridor after completing it

Learned helplessness

Perceived lack of control over environment and circumstances Once thought of as "lazy" Is a conditioned response Martin Seligman's studies of non-contingent punishment (shocking dog)

Interaction Effects:

Personality and Affective Forecasting • Those who were high on impulsiveness also had greater expectations of the pleasurableness of smoking and were found to smoke more frequently and be less motivated to quit (Doran et al., 2007)

Set-point theory

Range of weight the body has to perform the best. When trying to lose weight, the body will fight to maintain the particular weight range

Expected utility theory

Selecting a goal is based on goal's utility and goal's probability of being achieved. Example: - Expected utility = Utility x Subjective Probability. • Would you rather? - Prospect A: 75% chance of winning $1,000 versus - Prospect B: 25% chance of winning $1,000

influences on addiction- Affective forecasting

Smokers underestimate their loss of autonomy (hooked on) and extent of their craving for cigarettes in the future. • Loss of autonomy occurs much sooner than predicted as well. • Half of teenagers who smoked reported loss of autonomy by the -me they were smoking 7 cigarettes per month. Some reported loss of autonomy less than two days a[er inhaling (Doubeni et al., 2010) • Beginning drug users predict they would not commit any moral indiscretions (e.g. stealing from a roommate or parents) due to drug use. • Underestimate the power of their emotional state and craving • Heroin addicts underestimate the power of craving a[er a period of drug abstinence ->relapse

Libet's Experiments

Showing that our brains initiate conscious voluntary movements as well as the will to move before we are consciously aware of the will to move. (brain scan to see if moving your hand is decided before it actually moves) AKA free will vs. determinism

Self-Management: Benefits

Structured system, yet flexible • Transfer of behavior control from adult to child • Decrease need for constant adult supervision • Increase independence of the child • Can be easily adapted for different ability levels

The plain packaging campaigns for tobacco

Study in France (2010) found plain packaging caused individuals to rate the packs as "repelling" and they "did not feel like purchasing such packs" 78% increase in calls to smoking cessation hotline after introduction of "plain packaging" mandates Canadian study (2008) : 1/3 of the responders stated that people their age would be less liekly to start smoking if all tobacco products were sold in plain packaging British study (2011) found those smoking cigarettes in plain packaging for 2 weeks were more likely to forgo a cigarette and indicate that they wished to quit Since the adoption of plain packaging laws in Australia (December 1, 2012), cigarette consumption has fell more than 12% in just one year (2013-2014)

Consider the motivation of an athlete. Which of the following relationships between a coach and an athlete reflects a person-environment dialectic?

The athlete shows interest, the coach recommends a game to play as practice and the athlete plays the game out of interest

Needs

are conditions within the individual that are essential and necessary for the maintenance of life and for the nurturance of growth and well-being.

Libertarian Free WIll

belief that some human actions are freely chosen

Goals are generated

by others by ourselves

Which of the following statements best defines motivation? Motivation is:

a force that energizes and directs behavior.

A reward is different from a reinforcer in that:

a reinforcer increases the behavior that precedes it in the future, while the reward may or may not have that effect.

According to a biological view of emotion, about how many different emotions are there?

a small number—between 2 and 10

In order to satisfy the relatedness need

a social bond must form

In his research with chess masters, rock climbers, dancers, and surgeons, Csikszentmihalyi found that the fundamental antecedent to "flow" is that the activity must provide its participants with

an optimal challenge

The principal antecedent of _____ is physical and psychological restraint or interference, as in the experience showing that a situation is "not what it should be."

anger

According to current research, general personality factors are not necessarily the regulators of achievement behavior in specific life domains such as school, sports, and work. This statement represents a problem associated with the

classical approach to achievement motivation

______ is a "messy construct" that functions as an umbrella to unite beliefs, expectations, goals, plans, and self-concept.

cognition

Which of the following group of theorists would most likely agree with this statement: "Before emotion can occur, a person engages in a meaning interpretation of the event to evaluate its importance or relevance to personal well-being."

cognitive emotion researchers only

According to Condon and Barrett (2013), ___________ is often regarded as a positive emotion, but the sympathy it entails for another's suffering produces elements of psychological distress.

compassion

Structure enhances engagement because it involves and satisfies the need for

competence

Extrinsic reinforcement

concerns with competition, evaluation, recognition, money or other tangible incentives, and constraint by others

The _______ is characterized by a relative insensitivity to inner guides and [A1] closer attention to behavioral incentives, cues, and pressures that exist in the environment

control causality orientation

In Buddhist thought (as expressed by the Dalai Lama), which are the three most destructive emotions?

craving, agitation, and hatred

Negative Punishment

decrease behavior and remove from environment EX: For a child that really enjoys a specific class, such as gym or music classes at school, negative punishment can happen if they are removed from that class and sent to the principal's office because they were acting out/misbehaving.

Which of the following is not a way in which goal-setting improves performance? Goal-setting

decreases stress

Thirst comes mostly from

dehydrated cells

According to research conducted by Gollwitzer, Heckhausen, and Steller (1990), individuals show a "cognitive tuning" toward information expressing the pros and cons of one goal versus rival goals. This process represents a ________ mindset.

deliberative

In their studies in which participants judged how much control they had in a low-control situation, Alloy and Abramson concluded that:

depressed individuals made accurate judgments of control while nondepressed overestimated their control

Nolen-Hoeksema and colleagues assert that rumination-based __________ impairs problem solving, distracts attention, stimulates negative thinking, erodes social support, and replaces reparative coping behaviors with self-harm and destructive bingeing behaviors.

depression

Humanistic theorists emphasize that human beings are motivated to

develop their full potential

Temperament

differences in emotionality that result from genetically inherited characteristics. • Example: different breeds of dogs have different temperaments, e.g., Beagles and Terriers are more sociable than are Basenjis, Shetland Sheepdogs, and Chows

When one's current GPA is several points lower than the GPA one had wished for at the beginning of the school year, what sort of motivational construct comes into existence?

discrepancy

___________ is the considered the oldest emotion, with its original function being to prevent the oral incorporation of offensive substances

disgust

The limited strength model of self-control suggests that the amount or strength of willpower is crucial to successful self-control and that when one exerts control, this depletes some of the resources that make later attempts more likely to fail. What is depleted during self-control attempts?

glucose

The fundamental assertion of positive psychology therapy is that

good mental health requires more than the absence of mental illness

Dweck (1999, 2006) asserts that people think about their personal qualities such as intelligence and personality characteristics in two ways. Some see them as fixed, whereas others see them as malleable. This view represents ______________ mindsets

growth-fixed

Affective forecasting

efforts to predict one's emotional reactions to future events Example: Study asked photography students to choose two favorite pictures they took and give one to the teacher. 1⁄2 were told choices were permanent. 1⁄2 were told they could exchange them if they changed their minds after several days - Those who were given 'me to change their minds were less pleased with their decisions that those whose choices were irrevocable.

In the chicken-and-egg debate over whether emotions are caused primarily by biology or by cognitions, the conclusion reached by the text is that:

emotion is a complex interactive chain of events

During emotional socialization, an adult tells a child, "Louis, I see you are throwing a temper tantrum; boy-o-boy, you must be mad, really mad." This socialization experience exemplifies the passing along of:

emotion knowledge

Motivation study concerns itself with those processes that give behavior its:

energy and direction.

In Kraut and Johnston's study of bowlers, the researchers found that bowlers were much more likely to smile when they _____ than when they _____.

engaged their friends; made a good bowling score

When an activity involves our psychological needs, we tend to feel high ___; when that same activity satisfies our psychological needs, we tend to feel high ___.

interest; enjoyment

Schadenfreude

is a German word that entails taking pleasure in the misfortune of others and typically arises when the other person is disliked , envied or resented.

Shadenfreude

is a German word that entails taking pleasure in the misfortune of others and typically arises when the other person is disliked , envied or resented. • More common In men than in women (Singer et al., 2006) • Explain it as being "well-deserved" • People with low self-esteem are more likely to feel ______________ • Very common towards a sports rival (for both the teams and their fans) (Leach et al., 2003) and in politics (Combs et al., 2009) • Correlated with feelings of envy (Takahashi et al., 2009) • War images may conjure up feelings of empathy, but may induce _____________ (Sontag(2003) Regarding the Pain of Others)

According to Buck's proposition that emotions are the readout of motivational states, motives energize and direct behavior, while emotions

facilitate or inhibit that behavior

Carl Rogers did not like the term teacher because he felt that the only learning that mattered was student-initiated learning. Instead of teacher, he preferred the term

facilitator

_________ functions as a warning signal for forthcoming physical or psychological harm that manifests itself in an impulse to freeze or flee (as in the "flight" part of the fight-or-flight response)

fear

In the Cultivating Compassion intervention, researchers developed a program to help members of a community cultivate a greater capacity for compassion. Specifically, the researchers developed, implemented, and tested the merits of a compassion cultivation training: The results showed that worry levels

for the control group were unchanged, while the experimental participants reported significant decreases in worry

An essential part of effective goal pursuit is:

knowing when to give up on one goal and switch over to another

Motivation and emotion are ________ and can be ___________

malleable; changed and strengthened

Which one of the following is an autonomy-supportive behavior?

listens carefully

If a classroom teacher defines success as showing improvement and places a high value on learning and effort, then her students are likely to adopt which type of achievement goal during learning activities?

mastery goal

Which of the following best explains the process leading to feelings of hunger?

the liver sends a signal to the brain when blood glucose is low

Which of the following experiences is central to object relations theory?

parental abuse and neglect

Research finds that those with high self-esteem choose to interact with people who evaluate them positively, while those with low self-esteem choose to interact with people who evaluate them negatively. This shows that, generally speaking

people choose to interact with people who treat them in a way that they want to be treated

If a person receives a paycheck for coming to work on time, then the worker becomes more likely to come to work on time in the future. This example illustrates that the paycheck acts as a(n):

positive reinforcer

People often say that the best way to motivate others is to increase their self-esteem, as in "Find a way to make people feel good about themselves, and then all sorts of good things start to happen." In response to this approach to motivation, the textbook concluded that

practically no evidence supports this approach to motivation.

An individual who is sensitive to negative outcomes, avoids possibilities of loss, and adopts a vigilant behavioral strategy of caution that might be characterized as "do the right thing" is demonstrating a ____________ mindset

prevention

Regulatory Focus Theory (RFT; Higgins, 1997, 1998) suggests that people strive to achieve their goals by using two separate and independent motivational orientations or mindsets. These mindsets are

prevention and promotion

Reinforcement is to _____, as punishment is to _____.

promoting behavior; suppressing behavior

Many people with long-term goals, such as becoming a doctor, eventually abandon their long-term goal pursuit. The essential motivational problem with long-term goals is that they:

provide insufficient opportunity for performance feedback and positive reinforcement.

Taking the time to go over with a student or employee why a task is worth their attention and effort represents which of the following autonomy-supportive strategies?

provides explanatory rationales

Motivational and emotional processes frequently operate parallel with one another such that people commonly want and fear the same thing at the same time. This statement describes

psychodynamics

A teacher gives a child a time-out for teasing a classmate, and then the time-out succeeds in making the child's future teasing behavior less likely in the future. This example illustrates that the time-out acts as a(n):

punisher

Which one of the following happiness exercises is not a recommended approach to therapy within positive psychology therapy?

quest to avoid the daily mistake

influences on addiction- priming

reinstatement of a strong drug craving with a single dose of alcohol, nicotine, cocaine, or heroin. • The first drink of alcohol increases the desire for a second drink, or the first cigarette increases the desire for a second cigarette

According to Averill (1968, 1979), ______________ indirectly motivates people to seek and maintain social cohesion within groups.

sadness

Bauer and Baumeister (2011) assert that _____________ is the ability to suppress, restrain, and even override an impulsive desire, urge, behavior, or tendency to pursue a long-term goal

self-control

intrinsic reinforcement

self-determination, competence, task involvement, curiosity, enjoyment, and interest

The following question represents which motivational construct: "If things start to go wrong during my performance, do I have the resources within me to cope successfully and turn things around for the better?

self-efficacy

Determinism

the doctrine that all events, including human action, are ultimately determined by causes external to the will. Some philosophers have taken ___________ to imply that individual human beings have no free will and cannot be held morally responsible for their actions.

Triumph

the emotional reaction that follows victory in a competitive situation Signals dominance and social power over the defeated

People who write down when and where they will carry out their goal-striving behavior are more likely to actually attain their goals than people who set the same goal but do not write down how they will do it. The motivational construct that explains this effect is

the implementation intention the goal

Factors that influence eating behavior

the time of day, stress, and the sight, smell, appearance, and taste of food. Eating behavior increases significantly with variety: variety of foods, a variety of nutrients, and a variety of tastes.

In terms of the historical study of motivation, what was so important about the fact that motivational thinkers began to emphasize the active nature of the person?

the understanding that motivation is a constant, ever-present, never-ending, and universal aspect of every living person.

The problem with placing too much emphasis on self-esteem in a motivational analysis of behavior is that:

there are few findings that self-esteem causes anything at all

What might be a take-home message from Chapter 17?

there is nothing so practical as a good theory

In the Supporting Psychological Need Satisfaction intervention,21 experienced middle and high school teachers implemented an Autonomy Support Intervention Program (ASIP). The intervention results showed that

there were significant between-group differences, and experimental participants demonstrated greater levels of autonomy support

The goal of psychoanalytic therapy has been to:

understand the confusing activities of the unconscious so as to free the ego to deal effectively with reality allow unconscious, rather than conscious, mental forces to regulate motivation, emotion, behavior, and social interaction

Self-perception theory is more applicable to situations in which people's attitudes are initially _____, while cognitive dissonance theory is more applicable to situations in which people's attitudes are initially _____.

vague, ambiguous, and weak; clear, salient, and strong

As one person watches a peer perform incompetently and verbalize distress, the observer comes to believe, "If she can't do it, what makes me think I can?" The observer's self-efficacy belief has been affected by:

vicarious experience

When one student who doubts his computer skills watches another student cope very well with the demands of a computer, the first student's efficacy expectation rises. The student's increased efficacy expectation was due to the influence of:

vicarious experience

Arousal theory of motivation

we seek an optimum level of excitement or arousal. People with high optimum levels of arousal will be drawn to high excitement behaviors, like bungee jumping. While the rest of us are satisfied with less exciting and less risky activities.

According to psychoanalysis, the basic purpose of dreaming is

wish venting

Reversing a Negative Self Concept

• Praise? • Help person see dis-confirming evidence - Challenge the certainty of their self-concept • Present extreme negative view of them - "Reverse Psychology" or "prescribing the symptom" - Psychological need for Autonomy

Disappointment

• arrives when comparing the outcome one received versus a better outcome that might have resulted from the same action. • E.g.: I anticipated getting the job, but did not. • e.g. "I feel powerless" • Motivational tendency: do nothing

For an entity theorist, the meaning of effort is

"The harder you try, the dumber you therefore must be."

When people have days that allow them to feel self-determined, competent, and interpersonally related, they are more likely to agree with which of the following statements

"Today was a good day. I feel energized."

Which of the following quotations best represents an outcome expectation?

"What I do will work."

Which of the following statements best reflects an effective implementation intention?

"When I encounter situation X, I will perform behavior Y"

If you were going to measure how motivated a person was, you could:

- measure the effort, persistence, and latency of their behaviors. - measure how actively involved the person was in a task. - measure their heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory rate. - ask them.

Self-Management Procedures

1. Operationally define and measure the target behavior 2. Set goals and identify reinforcers 3. Develop self-management method/device 4. Teach the child to use the self-management system 5. Fade the structured device

Joy 3 fundtions

1. facilitates our willingness to engage in social activities. 2. creates the urge to play and be creative. 3. is a positive feeling that makes life pleasant and balances negative affect.

Automatically Triggered Aggression Berkowitz & LePage (1967) "The Weapons Effect"

100 midwestern male undergraduates thought they were coming in to study physiological reactions to stress and stress would be created by mild electric shocks Confederate was to come up with things a used car dealer might do to increase sales, while participant was to come up with ideas a publicity agent might employ in order to better a popular singer's record sales and public image Both would evaluate the other's responses by choosing how many shocks to give them (1 if very good, 10 if very bad rating) On table either shotgun and revolver OR badminton racquet and shuttlecocks OR nothing on table Half given 7 shocks beforehand by confederate OR Half only 1 shock as evaluation of participant's work 6 shocks given on average when subject had given him shocks when weapons were on table vs. 4 shocks given with nothing was on table

Innate psychological needs

Achievement, autonomy, belong (relate, affiliate), closure, cognition, competence, meaning, power, self- esteem. Self-determination theory: Needs of autonomy, competence, and belonging are innate and motivate behavior.

The A-B-C's of behavior

Antecedent: Anything that happens immediately preceding a behavior. • Behavior: The child s response to the antecedent. • Consequence: The outcome of the child s behavior; what results as an effect of the child s response

Disorders associated with Fear

Anxiety: does not have a identiable threat and creates a state of undirected arousal and tension. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: arises from an experience of extreme danger that elicits intense fear and long-term trauma. Phobias: are fears of specific situations, events, bodily injury, animals, and places.

Empathy

Arises from mimicry, in which one's own facial expressions, voice tone and posture matches the other person from perspective taking, where one imagines oneself in another's place heightens the perceptions of closeness toward the other and creates an approach- based prosocial motivational orientation

Fear

Arises from the person's interpretation that the situation is dangerous. The most common fear-activation situations are those rooted in the anticipation of physical or psychological harm. Fear motivates protection, functioning as a warning signal for forthcoming harm and manifests itself in an impulse to freeze of Klee.

4 main functions of behavior

Attention, Avoidance, Tangible, not Escape

_____ is the need to experience self-direction and personal endorsement in the initiation and regulation of one's behavior, and it reflects the desire to have one's choices and preferences rather than environmental events determine one's actions.

Autonomy

_____ refers to a physiological stop system that terminates drive.

Negative feedback

_____ is the need to be effective in interactions with the environment, and it reflects the desire to exercise one's capacities and skills and, in doing so, seek out and master optimal challenges

Competence

Proponents of operant conditioning endorse the following conceptualization of behavior: S-> R -> C. What does the "C" stand for?

Consequence

ENVY: A Painful Emotion Caused by the Good Fortune of Others

Constructive Aspect Benign envy aims at improving one's position and leads to constructive behavior aimed at moving up to the superior position held by the envied person. Destructive Aspect Malicious envy aims at improving one's position by pulling down the envied person and leads to destructive behavior.

A motivational psychologist would agree with each of the following statements, except:

Correct To adapt optimally, people need positive, approach-based motives rather than aversive, avoidance-based motives.

___________ revolve(s) around a flexible decision-making process in which the individual considers many different ways to reduce incongruities between a present state and an ideal state.

Corrective motivation

History of motivational theories

Current Day - Resurgence of hedonism • Expanded to include function of self-control • Study of emotion regulation for goal achievement - Behaviorist • Traced back to Thorndike's Law of Effect (1898, 1911) - Cognitivist • Positive psychology - Negative state of "drive" is not necessary to engage productively - Positive experiences and feelings can "drive" happiness and productivity

Influences on addiction: operant Conditioning

Drugs use is motivated by pursuing drug highs or escaping from drug lows. - As positive reinforcers, psychoactive drugs produce pleasure. • Also, Exercise high (euphoria and mood improvement) is positive reinforcer reported by addicts • As negative reinforcers, psychoactive drugs can relieve emotional pain • People who are stressed or who are in distress are more likely to crave and use drugs (Goeders, 2004; Deckers, 2014) - As negative reinforcers, taking psychoactive drugs reduce general discomfort and the agony of withdrawal. • Alcohol withdrawal symptoms: tremors, sweating, anxiety • Cocaine withdrawal symptoms: fatigue and increased appetite • Nicotine withdrawal symptoms: anxiety and insomnia • Positive reinforcement starts drug use, and negative reinforcement maintains drug use.

Crash Course on Free Will vs. Determinism video

EX: Oedipus: There is no escaping fate. overall take home message: everything is predetermined

Which of the following is taken as evidence that emotions are biologically generated events?

Electrical stimulation of the brain can cause an emotional reaction Emotions occur in infants and children Emotions are often difficult to verbalize

Entity Mindset (Fixed)

Examples: I believe that intelligence is fixed I was born bright/not very bright I tend to conform to the low aspirations of my peers I don't like challenge I don't want to risk looking stupid I am vulnerable I like easy performance goals and being told I've done well I react to failure by switching off and avoiding the issues

Incremental Mindset (growth)

Examples: I believe that intelligence is not fixed My intelligence can be improved through learning I can ignore the low aspirations of my peers I react to failure by trying harder I engage in self- monitoring I have learning goals I like feedback on my performance so I can improve I thrive on challenge I throw myself into difficult tasks I am self-confident About 40% of US students hold an ___________ theory of ability

Whose theory of motivation is being summarized: The purpose of behavior is to serve the satisfaction of bodily needs. If need-based energy accumulates unchecked over time, motivation arises as a sort of emergency warning system in the form of psychological anxiety that signals action needs to be taken. Once action is initiated, both bodily need and psychological anxiety are quieted.

Freud's drive theory

Which of the following ways of delivering praise best supports the motivation of the other person? Saying:

Great job! I like how you colored inside the lines on this picture!

A motivation researcher interested in understanding why a person eats a meal needs to answer all of the following questions, except:

How is food digested?

Which of the following sequence of events best reflects the James-Lange theory of emotion?

I see a dog, my heart races, I feel fear

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

If you can know the emotion, you can understand the attribution If you can change the attribution, you can change the emotion It is the norm to share emotions with others Social-affective sharing: listening, understanding, etc. Cognitive sharing: reframing the event, reappraising the emotional episode, creating meaning, encouraging the abandonment of failed goals, reprioritizing one's goals and motives Emotional recovery requires cognitive sharing Note: cognition is a cause and result of emotion, NOT a component of emotion itself

influences on addiction- goal theories

Individuals can cognitively decide whether to expose themselves to drug stimuli. - Plan for reduction of competing goals and avoid conditioned stimuli • 4 stages of motivation for change: - 1) a person willfully contemplates, (e.g. considering the pros and cons) - 2) prepares, (e.g. commit to change and form a goal and plan to meet that goal) - 3) executes, - 4)maintains change, i.e. stops using drugs. • Intrinsic motivators versus Extrinsic motivators: - Personal reasons for quitting are more effective than external • E.g. court ordered drug treatment has much less positive outcomes than those who voluntarily check in for drug treatment

Which of the following proved to be an important criticism to refute instinct theory?

Instinct theory confuses naming with explaining.

Experience of flow

Intense and focused concentration on the present moment Merging of action and awareness A loss of reflective self-consciousness A sense of personal control or agency over the situation or activity A distortion of temporal experience, one's subjective experience of time is altered Experience of the activity as intrinsically rewarding, also referred to as autotelic experience

Ways to support autonomy

Interpersonal sentiment and behavior to identify, nurture, and develop another's inner motivational resources

Ways to increase gratitude and happiness

Invest in positive emotions: focus on increasing opportunities to experience gratitude, interest and other positive emotions Frequency of positive emotions matters more than absence of negative emotions (U.N., 2016) "Looking for the good": can do this by changing attributions and explanatory style and becoming more mindful of our emotions E.g. track emotions to discover what makes you more happy and what are triggers of negativity Balance

Which one of the following best represents Lazarus's concept of primary appraisal?

Is this event a personal threat?

polygraphs

It detects physiological changes (e.g. heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, skin conductivity), NOT lies Scientific studies on polygraph show low reliability and validity (National Research Council, 2003) Reason why polygraph results can't be used against you in court In 261 DNA exoneration cases where the suspect claimed innocence, 100% of investigators and prosecuting attorneys thought they were lieing (Navarro, 2011) And in 1⁄4 of these cases, the individual gave a false confession

Universal Emotions

Joy Shame Sadness Love Disgust Anger Fear Disappointment

Which of the following statements is true about sexual motivation?

Men and women experience and react to sexual desire very differently

Positive psychology

Negative state of "drive" is not necessary to engage productively - Positive experiences and feelings can "drive" happiness and productivity

Paradigm Shift

Motivated vs. Unmotivated changing to Approach motivation vs. Avoidance motivation

Achievement motivation

Need to achieve: a disposition to engage in task-oriented or achievement behavior. Also known as motive to achieve success (Ms). Ms is characterized by doing a task well and with a high internal standard of excellence. Motive to avoid failure: (Maf) is the tendency to inhibit achievement behavior so as not to fail. Maf is characterized by anxiety and fear of failing a task.

Which of the following is NOT one of the themes proposed by Maslow's need hierarchy?

Needs vary in how innate they are, as some are innate and others are learned

How your brain learns

Neurons know how to grow dendrites, just like a stomach knows how to digest food. Learning = Growth of dendrites. New dendrites take time to grow; it takes a lot of practice for them to grow.

What does research say about the cultural prescription to drink 8 glasses of water each day?

No evidence exists to support this advice.

Research on choice

Numerous studies show that giving choice increases motivation (Koegel, Dyer, & Bell, 1987; McCombs, 2001; Nunley, 2002; Wright, 2001; Birdsell, Ream, Seyller, & Zobott, 2009; Thompson & Beymer, 2015; Deci, 1975, 1981; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Glass & Singer, 1972; Langer & Rodin, 1976; Rotter, 1966; Schulz & Hanusa, 1978; Taylor, 1989; Taylor & Brown, 1988; Cordova & Lepper, 1996; Dember, Galinsky, & Warm, 1992; Swann & Pittman, 1977; Pinterich, 2003; Patall, et al., 2008) E.g. When given choice between two homework assignments, students reported more interest and enjoyment of the homework (Patall, et al., 2010) E.g.Whengivenchoiceofreadingmaterials,foundmorepositivefeelingsaboutreading (Worthy et al., 1998) and a stronger sense of ownership, increased reading and enjoyment of more books (Pachtman & Wilson, 2006) Patall,etal.,2008Meta-analysisof41studies.Choiceenhancedintrinsicmotivation, effort, task performance, perceived competence and preference for challenge Pinterich(2003)foundchoiceledtomoreincreasesinmotivationthansettinggoalsor using collaborative groups. Studentsgivenchoicearemoreengageed,persistent,exhibitmoreself-regulated learning behaviors, have higher perceived competence and levels of aspiration (Cordova & Lepper, 1996) Works best when there is a slight interest in the overall task to begin with Maybeculturaldifferences Personal choice seems to increase liking, engagement and learning more in Anglo Americans than in Asian Americans

Mastery Learning Model

Or "learning for mastery" (Benjamin Bloom, 1968) Personalized System of Instruction (Fred Keller) Break down content into units For those that show mastery on the formative assessments, give enrichment opportunities (e.g. group projects, working in pairs on additional problems, etc.) For those that "need improvement", give further instruction and practice. (e.g. alternative textbooks, workbooks, peer tutoring, laboratory experiments, puzzles, etc.) Review of effects(Kulik et al., 1990) Positive improvement in learning and more positive attitudes towards this style reported by students

Classical conditioning

Pairing antecedents (unconditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus) to elicit a behavior Condition a reflex Pavlov's dogs Watson's Little Albert

Priming: Bargh, Chen, & Burrows (1996) Study 1

Participants given 30 scrambled sentence task with either rude words (e.g. rude, bother, disturb, intrude, etc.), polite words (e.g. respect, honor, considerate, appreciate, etc.) or neutral words (exercising, occasionally, rapidly, practiced, send, etc.). Instructed to come bring their completed task to experimenter when done to get next task. Experimenter and confederate were in conversation Dependent variable: how long would the person wait before interrupting the conversation Participants in the rude priming condition interrupted significantly faster (326 seconds) than the polite priming condition (558 seconds) ~60% of those in rude condition interrupted, wheras only about 18% of those interrupted in a full 10 minutes of conversation.

With which of the following statements would an intrinsic motivation theorist most readily agree?

People are inherently active.

People fail to self-regulate their bodily appetites for three primary reasons. Which one of the following is not one of those reasons?

People pay relatively too much attention to their long-term goals and relatively too little attention to their short-term goals

Priming further studies

People primed with concept of professor/intelligent performed better on knowledge tasks (Dijksterheuis & van Knippenberg, 1998) People primed with picture of dog behave more loyally (Chartrand, Fitzsimons, & Fitzsimons, 2008) People primed with concept of warmth behave more prosocially (Vohns, Redden, & Rahinel, 2013) Activating business versus religion concepts caused people to behave less cooperatively in ethical dilemma games (Smeesters, Yzerbyt, Corneille, & Warlop, 2009)

Pride: A Complex Emotion with Two Facets

Positive Aspect Pride in one's success promotes achievement behavior, an authentic and heartfelt self-esteem, and prosocial behaviors such as volunteering and altruism. Negative Aspect Pride can be associated with narcissism and contribute to aggression, relationship conflict and antisocial behavior such as manipulating others. Arrogance Conceit Self-aggrandizement

Self-Managment

Positive behavior support (PBS) strategy used to improve behavior deficits or reduce problem behaviors through self-monitoring. • Child taught to discriminate their own behaviors and determine whether or not a specific behavior has occurred. • The child monitors and records occurrence of this behavior, and then receives a reward. Global Goals: Teaching children to be aware of their behaviors and to increase ability to self-monitor, modify, and reinforce their own behaviors.

Consequent strategies to change behavior

Praise, positive feedback, earning reinforcers, self-management strategies Never punishment

Priming: Bargh, Chen, & Burrows (1996) Study 3

Primed with either a picture of a young African American male or young caucasian male Asked to do boring and tedious computer task. At 130th trial, computer alerted participant of data- saving failure and would have to do the entire task again Coded their facial expressions for hostility from 0-10 Those primed with African-American faces showed more hostility than those not primed Were not explained by person's reported level of prejudice on scale

operant conditioning

Rewards and punishments Skinner

Research on factors related to goal formation

Self-efficacy: belief in one's capability of successfully performing a specific task or achieving a specific goal. - Success and failure can raise and lower self-efficacy. - Self-efficacy, in turn, can raise or lower goal motivation. • Weinberg et al. (1979) Study - One group: created low self-efficacy by telling they were competing on a muscle endurance task with a varsity track athlete who had outperformed the participant on a similar task - Other group: created high self-efficacy by telling participants they were competing against someone with a knee injury who had done poorly on a similar task • High self-efficacy participants predicted better performance for themselves and outperformed the low self-efficacy participants

Which of the following statements regarding self-esteem is most true?

Self-esteem is a by-product of life's satisfactions, triumphs, and positive relationships

Explanatory style: Pessimistic

Tendency to explain bad events with attributions that are stable and uncontrollable. Permanent- "It will never change" Personal- "It's my fault" Pervasive- "I can't do anything right" Associated with academic failure, social distress, impaired job performance, depression, weakened immune systems

Explanatory style: Optimistic

Tendency to explain bad events with attributions that are unstable and controllable. Related to the self-serving bias of an illusion of control which contributes to enhancing self-esteem and promoting an optimistic view of the future.

Implicit Aptitude Test (IAT)

Test to see thoughts and feelings outside of conscious awareness and control.

The textbook concludes that contemporary motivation study is in a new paradigm. What is so new about the new paradigm?

The contemporary landscape is more like an intellectual democracy of ideas than it is like the kingship of the grand theories era.

Anger

The core antecedent of anger is the presence of an obstacle in one's goal pursuit, so anger's key function is to prepare the person to overcome such obstacles. ______ is the most passionate emotion. _____ arises when people want to keep control of something that is theirs. _____ can clarify relationships problems, energize political agendas and spur a culture to change for the better. _____ is also dangerous, because its purpose is to destroy barriers in the environment and anger can lead to aggression.

Which of the following is the more likely outcome of a smoker's repeated efforts to suppress the thought of smoking a cigarette?

The thought will gradually become more and more like an obsession

Which statement concerning negative reinforcement and punishment is most true?

They have opposite effects on behavior.

Physiological needs

Thirst, hunger, and sex

The most frequent source of a person's day-to-day emotion is:

other people

___ is an unpressured willingness to engage in an activity; ___ refers to an environment that offers decision-making flexibility in regulating one's behavior.

Volition; perceived choice

Create growth mindset

We need to praise: Effort Strategies that lead towards success Good learning processes (AfL strategies) Resilience We should not praise: Intelligence, "cleverness" or talent

Among the following questions, which is considered to be a core, perennial question within motivation study?

What causes behavior?

History of motivational theory: will and instinct

Will: mind (Descartes) - Motivation arose from the will - Mind/body dualism - Emotions are an internal source of motivation that push humans into action Instinct: biology (evolutionary psychology) - Motivation comes from unlearned, automated, inherited instincts - People differ in their strength of instincts due to natural selection

People who adopt a mastery rather than a performance goal show a greater tendency toward the following except

a preference to work on the task by themselves without asking for help from others

The ______ runs on automatic pilot as it carries out countless computations and innumerable adjustments during acts such as driving a car and playing the piano

adaptive unconscious

Positive punishment

add to environment increase behavior EX: For your psychology class, you watch a video about the human brain and write a paper about what you learned. Your instructor gives you 20 extra credit points for your work.

postive reinforcement

add to environment and increases behavior

Facial expressions

are largely innate Similar in all cultures Members identify expressions more accurately for their own cultural group than for a different group. Deaf and blind children exhibit same facial expressions as seeing and hearing do

Shame

arises after the violation of standards associated with morality and competent functioning. associated with feelings of inferiority, a sense of worthlessness, and a damaged self-image. Moral and performance failures signal that something is wrong with the self. Function= to provide immediate feedback about how well one's self stands up to moral and performance-based standards of acceptability.

Contempt

arises from a sense of being morally superior to another person. is an inherently social emotion, because it occurs only during social interactions. The function of _______ is to maintain the social hierarchy. signals one's dominance and superiority over another.

Regret

arises with the nonoccurrence of a desired outcome caused by a wrong behavior or bad choice. • E.g.:" I didn't study for the test and now I regret it." • E.g. "I should have known better" • Motivational tendency: correct my mistake

The facial feedback hypothesis:

asserts that emotion arises from proprioceptive feedback from facial behavior

The greater one's effectance motivation, the greater one's desire to seek out and approach situations that

challenge existing skills and competencies

As an individual learns from parents and peers what behaviors and characteristics are "good and bad" and "right and wrong," he or she learns

conditions of worth

Pairing "science" and "motivation" in the phrase "motivational science" means that answers to motivational questions require:

data-based, empirical evidence to validate objectively one's claims about how motivation works.

Research on microexpressions

do signal emotions, however there's not a microexpresion for deception

Brief history of motivational theory: Drive

drive to meet bodily needs/anxiety (Freud & Hull) - "pleasure principle" (1920): instinctual seeking of pleasure and avoidance of pain in order to decrease psychological and biological tension • "reality principle": person may forgo immediate pleasure if result is greater pleasure later - Hull (1940s-50s): drive arises when animal is deprived of a needed substance • Drive energizes behavior

Influences on addiction: classical Conditioning

environmental stimuli become associated with drug use and trigger cravings - E.g. after a year of drug abstinence walking by familiar buildings where used to get or do drugs spurs a physical reaction of craving and withdrawal symptoms (e.g. eyes water, sweat, nauseated) - Attentional Bias for Drug Stimuli: E.g. cocaine addict going to a friend's house where there is a mirror on the table. This object becomes the most salient stimulus in the room and can't take her eyes off it and feels a rush of excitement over possibility of getting high • Strength of attentional bias predicts drop out of drug treatment and relapse (Stacy & Weirs, 2010) - Craving is elicited by drug stimuli not consciously chosen • This is why addicted individuals have no control over their cravings even though they are consciously aware of them

The smell of food, the appearance of food, the time of day, and the presence of other people who are eating all represent ___ that contribute to and regulate the rise and fall of hunger and eating.

extraorganismic mechanisms

The purpose of the cross-cultural investigations that tested whether human beings display similar facial expressions of emotion regardless of cultural/national differences was to demonstrate that:

facial behavior has an innate, unlearned component

Compared to people in neutral moods, people who feel good (i.e., experience positive affect):

have greater access in memory to happy thoughts and positive memories

The environmental incentive that activates the emotional and behavioral potential of the social need for intimacy is

having a warm, secure relationship

In the marshmallow study, a young child is shown a marshmallow and offered the following deal: "You may eat the marshmallow whenever you want to, but if you hold off and do not eat the marshmallow and instead wait until I return to the room in 15 minutes, then you will get a second marshmallow." The results showed that children who demonstrated higher self-control (i.e., they waited the 15 minutes) had:

higher grade point averages

Bodily systems show a remarkable capacity for maintaining a steady state of equilibrium, even as these systems perform their functions and are exposed to widely differing and stressful environmental conditions. The term that describes the body's tendency to maintain a steady state is:

homeostasis.

The integration of self-efficacy and perceived control beliefs that one can attain desired goals leads to the psychological experience of

hope

During failure feedback, mastery-oriented individuals generally focus on:

how they can remedy the failure.

Risk factors contributing to depression

impairs problem solving, distracts attention, stimulates negative thinking, and erodes social supports.

According to McClelland, Koestner, and Weinberger (1989), the best predictor of people's behavior is a(n)___________ motive

implicit

Identify the type of need described here: It is inferred from a person's characteristic thought, emotions, and behavior

implicit needs

In the Promoting Emotion Knowledge intervention, researchers developed a program within the context of Head Start to deliver an "Emotions Course" and an "Emotion-Based Prevention Program" to promote children's emotion knowledge. Overall, this intervention showed that children could

increase their emotion knowledge and increase their effective emotion regulation abilities

Researchers suggest that acts of kindness are just as likely to activate ___________in us as they are to activate ___________

indebtedness; gratitude

Prospect theory

is appraised with decision weight - Psychological value of loss is greater than value of identical gain - People prefer smaller gains that are highly likely over larger gains that are less likely • High uncertain loss preferred over small certain loss.

The consensus in humanistic thinking about the problem of evil is that evil

is not inherent in human nature

Sadness

is the most negative, aversive emotion. arises from the experiences of separation and failure. turns our attention inward and promotes personal reflection. One beneficial aspect is that sadness indirectly facilitates the cohesiveness of social groups May Lead to Depression The key trigger that slips sadness into depression appears to be rumination. Rumination-based depression impairs problem solving, distracts attention, stimulates negative thinking, and erodes social supports.

Persistence

is the time interval between the initiation of a response and its cessation.

The time a person delays a response following an initial exposure to a stimulus event (e.g., how much time it takes before one starts studying upon entering the library) is called:

latency

Helplessness is

learned

In the Increasing a Growth Mindset intervention, researchers developed an intervention program to help adolescents endorse a growth mindset in thinking about a person's personality. The results of the intervention showed overall that aggressive retaliation became

less likely, while a prosocial behavior response became more likely

According to the ice cream eating study, which of the following is true? Compared to how much they eat when alone, people eat:

more in the presence of other people who are also eating

Internalization of "good and bad" and "right and wrong" learned from our parents

moves the person away from the organismic valuation process

Which of the following events increases the future probability of a behavior?

negative reinforcement

If a person takes an aspirin and the aspirin makes a headache go away, then the person becomes more likely to take an aspirin for a headache in the future. This example illustrates that the aspirin acts as a(n):

negative reinforcer

Research on sexual orientation—one's preference for sexual partners of the same or opposite sex—suggests that sexual orientation is

not a choice, as best explained by genetics and prenatal hormonal influences

Which of the following is key to developing competent self-regulation?

observation and imitation of an expert model

In the radish study (Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998), participants in the experimental group were assigned the high self-control task of eating radishes (and resisting the chocolate chip cookies), while participants in the control group were assigned the no-self-control task of eating the chocolate chip cookies. Participants were then asked to complete a series of impossible-to-solve geometry problems. The results showed that:

on average, participants who ate the chocolate chip cookies persisted in solving the geometry problems for longer periods of time

A(n) _______ is the personal tendency to explain why bad events happen to the self by using attributions that are unstable and controllable.

optimistic explanatory style

Disgust

original, primitive function was to prevent the oral incorporation of offense substances, like spoiled food. • _______ involves feeling motivated to get rid or get away from a contaminated or spoiled object. Domains of _______ • Food, bodily waste products, animals, sexual behaviors, contact with death or corpses, violations of the exterior body (gore, deformity), poor hygiene, contact with unsavory people, and moral offenses.

The following statement expresses a _______ goal orientation, "My goal in this class is to get a better grade than most of the other students."

performance-approach

People high in the dispositional need for achievement tend to adopt ______________, whereas people high in the dispositional fear of failure tend to adopt ________________.

performance-approach, performance-avoidance

All other things being equal, the person who adopts a ________ goal orientation is relatively more likely to suffer a low sense of personal control, low vitality, and low life satisfaction

performance-avoidance

Flow occurs when

personal competence and activity challenge are high

The environmental incentive that activates the emotional and behavioral potential of the social need for affiliation is

pleasing others and gaining their approval

negative reinforcement

removes from environment and increases behavior Ex: Before heading out for a day at the beach, you slather on sunscreen (the behavior) to avoid getting sunburned (removal of the aversive stimulus).

Maslow's self-actualization theory

represents growth of an individual toward fulfillment of the highest needs; those for meaning in life, in particular.

Proponents of operant conditioning endorse the following conceptualization of behavior: S-> R -> C. What does the "R" stand for?

response

In the case study vignette of the "Suffering Student" on page 500, what might this student have benefitted from in terms of his motivation for the class?

self-management techniques development of growth mindset positive, successful experiences in class

Having the benefit of a tutor or coach who models how to do do things such as setting goals, developing strategies, formulating implementation intention, monitoring performance, and evaluating how well one is doing is a description of:

self-regulation

De Hooge and colleagues suggest that the functional purpose of ___________ is to motivate behaviors that will restore a positive view of the self that has just been threatened or challenged by one's own moral violation or display of incompetence

shame

Embarrassment

signals that "something is amiss" and that some aspects of the self needs to hidden or carefully self-monitored. Can occur after a social blunder that is committed in front of an audience, suggesting some deKiciency. Can also occur during positive social situations such as being congratulated. Function = to appease the audience by taking action to repair the negative self- impression.

Guilt

signals that one's behavior has caused harm, loss, or distress to a relationship partner arises after the person evaluates his behavior (not himself) as a failure The focus during guilt is on the self's behaviors and actions, rather than on the self's worth (as in shame) Focus on the behavior and on what needs to be done to undo the hurtful consequences of the behavior Often involve making amends and apologizing to undo the distressing consequences of the behavior.

Compared to people in a neutral or negative mood, people under the influence of positive affect are significantly more likely to:

solve problems in a creative way

When presented with a _____, people generally experience not only positive emotions like hope that energize their approach behavior but also negative emotions like anxiety that energize their avoidance behavior

standard of excellence

Proponents of operant conditioning endorse the following conceptualization of behavior: S-> R -> C. What does the "S" stand for?

stimulus

The more people strive for validation, the more likely they are to

suffer high anxiety during social interaction

Compared to people who pursue inner guides such as self-actualization, people who devote their lives to the pursuit of the American dream (money, fame, popularity):

suffer more psychological distress

The finding that heart rate and skin temperature increase for one emotion (e.g., anger) but change very little for other emotions (e.g., disgust) is an important finding because it ____ of emotion.

supports the James-Lange theory

What does the cognitive mechanism TOTE stand for?

test, operate, test, exit

Cognitive emotion theorists most endorse the position that

the appraisal, not the stimulus event itself, causes emotion

According to Baumeister and colleagues, self-control depletes essential brain fuel. Besides not consuming sugar-rich foods, how else might someone exert effective self-control according to the text?

through practice

Homeostasis

to maintain constant internal body conditions