Human Relations Chapter 10 motivation

When electing to use intermittent reinforcement, there are four alternatives:

ixed interval schedule (giving a salary paycheck every week, breaks and meals at the same time every day). Variable interval schedule (giving praise only now and then, a surprise inspection, a pop quiz). Fixed ratio schedule (giving a piece rate or bonus after producing a standard rate). Variable ratio schedule (giving praise for excellent work, a lottery for employees who have not been absent for a set time). Ratios are generally better motivators than intervals. The variable ratio tends to be the most powerful schedule for sustaining behavior.

Manifest needs theory (Mcclellands classification)

of motivation is primarily McClelland's classification of needs as achievement, power, and affiliation

Clayton Alderfer reorganizes Maslow's needs hierarchy into three levels of needs: existence

physiological and safety needs), relatedness (social), and growth (esteem and self-actualization). Today's companies focus on fulfilling higher-level needs.1

People with a high n-Ach

tend to be characterized as: wanting to take personal responsibility for solving problems, goal oriented (they set moderate, realistic, attainable goals. seeking challenge, excellence, and idiviuality. Tanking calculated, moderate risks, desiring concrete feedback on their performance, willing to work har. need for achievement is correlated with performance. Managers tend ot have a high, but not a dominant, n-Ach

3 steps Mbo Plan

tep 1. Set Individual Objectives and Plans. Each subordinate jointly sets objectives with the manager. The objectives are the heart of the MBO program and should meet the five criteria discussed earlier. Step 2. Give Feedback and Evaluate Performance. Employees must know how they are progressing toward their objectives. Thus, the manager and employee must meet frequently to review the latter's progress. Step 3. Reward According to Performance. Employees' performance should be measured against their objectives. Employees who meet their objectives should be rewarded through recognition, praise, pay raises, promotions, and so on.59 MBO program is a motivator (not a hygiene) because it meets employees' needs for esteem/self-actualization, growth, and power/achievement. An MBO program empowers employees to increase responsibility with an opportunity for creating meaningful, challenging work to help them grow and accomplish what they and the manager want to accomplish.

. To use ERG theory, answer six questions:

(1) What need does the individual have? (2) What needs have been satisfied? (3) Which unsatisfied need is the lowest in the hierarchy? (4) Have some higher-order needs been frustrated? If so, how? (5) Has the person refocused on a lower-level need? (6) How can the unsatisfied needs be satisfied Based on social needs

How motivation affects behavior, human relations

.

positive reiforcement

A method of encouraging continued behavior is to offer attractive consequences (rewards) for desirable performance. For example, an employee is on time for a meeting and is rewarded by the supervisor's thanking him or her. The praise is used to reinforce punctuality. Other reinforcers are pay, promotions, time off, and increased status. Positive reinforcement is the best motivator for increasing productivity.

Power

People with a high need for power tend to be characterized as: wanting to control the situation; wanting influence or control over others; enjoying competition in which they can win (they do not like to lose); willing to confront others. People with high n-Pow tend to have a low need for affiliation. Managers tend to have a dominant need for power.

Performance formula/motivation formula

Performance = Ability × Motivation × Resources.

punishment

Punishment is used to provide an undesirable consequence for undesirable behavior. For example, an employee who is late for a meeting is reprimanded. Other methods of punishment include harassing, taking away privileges, probation, fining, and demoting. Using punishment may reduce the undesirable behavior, but it may cause other undesirable behavior, such as poor morale, lower productivity, and acts of theft or sabotage. Punishment is the most controversial method and the least effective at motivating employees.

Process motivation theories

attempt to understand how and why people are motivated. Their focus is more on behavior than needs.23 Why do people select certain goals to work toward?24 Why do people select particular behavior to meet their needs? How do people evaluate need satisfaction? Expectancy and equity theories attempt to answer these questions.

The level of performance attained is determined by three interdependent factors:

bility (IQ, skills), motivation (willingness to work hard), and resources (things needed to do the task)

objective model

To + Action verb + Specific, measurable, and singular behavior + Target date

Valence

Valence refers to the value a person places on the outcome or reward. Generally, the higher the value (importance) of the outcome or reward, the better the chance of motivation.

The goal of human relations

we must know our own needs and others' needs, and satisfy them

expectancy theory

which is Vroom's formula, states that Motivation = Expectancy × Valence. Motivation depends on how much people want something and how likely they are to get it.25 Expectancy and valence are two important variables in Vroom's formula that must be met for motivation to take place. expectancy refers to the person's perception of his or her ability (probability) to accomplish an objective.26 Generally, the higher one's expectancy, the better the chance Page 243for motivation. When employees do not believe that they can accomplish objectives, they will not be motivated to try. Also important is the perception of the relationship between performance and the outcome or reward. Generally, the higher one's expectancy of the outcome or reward, the better the chance for motivation. This is called instrumentality. If employees are certain to get a reward or to be successful, they probably will be motivated. When not sure, employees may not be motivated.

extinction

witholds the pay raise of an employee for being less productive at work

incentive and recognition programs

As discussed with reinforcement theory, people do respond to incentives44 and we can nearly always get them to do what we want them to Page 247do as long as we find the right levers (combination of types and schedules of reinforcement) to motivate the desired behavior. People respond to incentives, even though not necessarily in the expected way. If people don't do what we expect or want, you can certainly find some hidden incentives that explain why.45 Pay practices are an important incentive in attracting and retaining employees.46 Because managers know financial incentives (often called reward programs) do motivate employees to higher levels of performance, many organizations have formal incentive programs, such as pay-for-performance, bonuses, profit sharing, and stock options. 1-800-Flowers says "Share the Wealth.47 At Latino-owned LinkAmerica, everyone receives a bonus each quarter it reaches its profit goals.48 Many organizations also have recognition programs, which tend to offer nonfinancial (not cash) rewards, such as banquets and employee of the year/month/week awards. Recognition programs can also include things like luncheons, plaques, gift certificates, mugs, t-shirts, and so on. Incentive and recognition programs are generally two separate programs. One great method of recognition that we all can use and that is not part of a formal program is giving praise—our next topic.

Motivation theories

ERG The needs hierarchy theory

avoidance reinforcement (negative)

Avoidance is also called negative reinforcement. The employee avoids the negative consequence. For example, an employee is punctual for a meeting to avoid negative reinforcement, such as a reprimand. Rules are designed to get employees to avoid certain behavior. Notice that with avoidance there is no actual punishment; it's the threat of the punishment that controls behavior.

Implement to motivate employes

Clearly define objectives and the necessary performance needed to achieve them. Tie performance to rewards. High performance should be rewarded. When one employee works harder to produce more than other employees and is not rewarded, he or she may slow down productivity. Be sure rewards are of value to the employee. You need to realize that what motivates you may not motivate someone else. You should get to others as individuals.28 Make sure your employees believe you will do as what you say you will do. You need people's trust (

global

Cultural differences suggest that the order of hierarchy may vary across cultures. In risk-averse countries such as Japan, Greece, and Mexico, security needs would be at the top of the needs hierarchy. In countries such as Denmark, Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, and Finland, which prefer quality of life (relationships) over quantity of life (possessions), social needs would be at the top. As related to two-factor theory, the intrinsic motivation of higher-level needs can be more relevant to wealthy societies than to poor societies. Manifest Needs Theory Cultures also differ in the extent to which they value need for achievement. The concern for high performance is common in high quantity-of-life countries, including the United States, Canada, and Great Britain; it is almost absent in high quality-of-life countries, including Chile and Portugal. One major cultural difference is in the focus on individualistic versus group approaches to business. Individualistic societies (the United States, Canada, Great Britain, Australia) tend to value self-accomplishment. Collective societies (Japan, Mexico, Singapore, Pakistan) tend to value group accomplishment and loyalty. So individual versus group incentives tend to vary by country. Equity Theory Equity theory as it relates to fairness tends to be a value upheld in most cultures. However, equity can call for higher producers to be paid more. This tends to be more of a motivator in individualistic countries than it is in collective countries, where people tend to prefer equality and all are paid the same regardless of output. On the other hand, U.S. unions, including teachers, also tend to prefer equal pay to merit pay. Expectancy Theory Expectancy theory holds up fairly well cross-culturally because it is flexible. It allows for the possibility that there may be differences in expectations and valences across cultures. For example, societal acceptance may be of higher value than individual recognition in collective societies. So managers in different countries can offer rewards that are of value to their employees. Page 254 Reinforcement Theory Reinforcement theory also holds up well cross-culturally. People everywhere tend to use behavior that is reinforced. We all can be told or can figure out what behavior is rewarded and use the behavior to our benefit. Management everywhere tends to set up rules and penalties for breaking them. However, how well the punishment fits the offense can vary. In the United States it is much easier to fire employees than it is in Europe. Goal Setting Motivational goal setting relies on a need for achievement and high levels of performance, and it is based on quantity-of-life issues. Thus, the United States sets challenging objectives and achieves them. However, goal setting is less motivational to cultures in which achievement is not important and quality of life is important, such as Portugal and Chil

ways to enrich jobs

Delegate more variety and responsibility. Give employees challenging assignments that help them grow and develop new skills. Form natural work groups. The work group can also perform its own identifiable work with increased responsibility. Make employees responsible for their own identifiable work. Let employees make the entire product rather than one part of it. Give employees more autonomy. Allow employees to plan, schedule, organize, and control their own jobs. Making employees responsible for checking their own work eliminates the need for checkers.

Criteria for setting objectives ( to motivate people to high levels of performance, objectives should be

Difficult but achievable. To have high levels of performance, you need to set high standards. Sam Walton (founder of Walmart) said, "High expectations are the key to everything." Individuals perform better when assigned difficult objectives, as opposed to being assigned easy ones, or having no goals, or simply being told to "do your best." However, if people do not believe that the objectives are achievable (expectancy theory), they will not be motivated to work for their accomplishment. Worse, when objectives are too difficult and incentives are high enough, many people will use unethical and illegal means to achieve the objectives, for example, Enron and WorldCom. Observable and measurable. You can't manage what you don't measure.55 If people are to achieve objectives, they must be able to observe and measure their progress regularly. Individuals perform better when their performance is measured and evaluated. Page 249Specific, with a target date. To be motivated, employees must know exactly what is expected of them and when they are expected to have the task completed—a deadline. However, some objectives do not require or lend themselves to target dates. For example, the objectives in the skill-building exercises do not list a target date. Participatively set when possible. Groups that participate in setting their objectives generally outperform groups with assigned objectives. Managers should use the appropriate level of participation for the employees' capabilities. ("Situational Supervision," Chapter 7). Accepted. For objectives to be met, employees must accept them.56 Without acceptance, even meeting the above four criteria can lead to failure. Using participation helps get employees to accept objectives.

giving praise

Employees want full appreciation for work done. When was the last time your boss gave you a thank-you or some praise for a job well done? When was the last time your boss complained about your work? When was the last time you praised someone? What is the ratio of praise to criticism? Giving praise develops a positive self-concept and leads to better performance through the Pygmalion effect. Praise is a motivator (not a hygiene) because it meets employees' needs for esteem/self-actualization, growth, and achievement. It is probably the most powerful, least expensive, simplest, and yet most underused motivational technique. Ken Blanchard and Spencer Johnson popularized giving praise through their best-selling book, The One-Minute Manager.49 They developed a technique that involves giving one minute of praise. Model 8.1 is an adaptation. The steps in giving praise are as follows: (1) tell the person exactly what was done correctly; (2) tell the person why the behavior is important; (3) stop for a moment of silence; and (4) encourage repeat performance. Blanchard calls it one-minute praise because it should not take more than one minute to give the praise. It is not necessary for the employee to say anything. The four steps are illustrated below. MODEL 8.1 | Model for Giving Praise Step 1: Tell the person exactly what was done correctly. When giving praise, look the person in the eye to show sincerity. It is important to be very specific and descriptive. General statements like "You're a good worker" are not as effective. supervisor: Julio, I just overheard you deal with that customer's complaint. You did an excellent job of keeping your cool; you were polite. That person came in angry and left happy. Step 2: Tell the person why the behavior is important. Briefly state how the organization and/or person benefits from the action. It is also helpful to tell the employee how you feel about the behavior. Be specific and descriptive. supervisor: Without customers we don't have a business. One customer bad-mouthing us can cause hundreds of dollars in lost sales. It really made me proud to see you handle that tough situation the way you did. Step 3: Stop for a moment of silence. This is a tough one. The rationale for the silence is to give the person the chance to feel the impact of the praise. It's like "the pause that refreshes." Step 4: Encourage repeat performance. This is the reinforcement that motivates the person to keep up performance. Blanchard recommends touching the person because it has a powerful impact. However, he recommends it only if both parties feel comfortable. Others say not to touch because it could lead to a sexual harassment charge.

Levels of needs included in the ERG theory of motivation

Existence- Physiological and safety needs Growth- Esteem and self actualization

Extinction

Extinction attempts to reduce or eliminate undesirable behavior by withholding reinforcement when the behavior occurs. For example, an employee who is late for the meeting is not rewarded with praise. Or a pay raise is withheld until the employee performs to set standards.

positive motivator

Generally, positive reinforcement is the best motivator. Continuous reinforcement is better at sustaining desired behavior; however, it is not always possible or practical. Following are some general guidelines: Make sure employees know exactly what is expected of them. Set clear objectives.42 Select appropriate rewards. A reward to one person could be considered a punishment by another. Select the appropriate reinforcement schedule. Do not reward mediocre or poor performance. Look for the positive and give praise, rather than focusing on the negative and criticizing. Make people feel good about themselves (Pygmalion effect). Never go a day without giving praise. Do things for people, instead of to them, and you will see human relations and productivity increases. Treat employees welld

objective and MBO

Goal setting is important,50 because setting difficult objectives leads to higher levels of motivation and performance,51 and successful people are goal-oriented.52 In fact, goal setting theory was rated number 1 in importance among 73 management theories.53 The objectives state what is to be accomplished within a given period of time. Objectives are end results; they do not state how the objective will be accomplished. How to achieve the objective is the plan.54 In this section, you will learn the five criteria objectives should meet, how to write objectives, and how to use management by objectives (MBO).

Two factor theory

Herzbergs classification of needs as hygienes and motivators.

Herzbergs two factor theory of motivation

Hugienes= Also known as extrinic factors because attempts to motivate come from outside the job itself Motivators-Also known as intrinsic factors because motivation comes from the job itself According to Herzberg, job enrichment and job design are motivators (not hygienes) because they meet employees' needs for esteem, self-actualization, growth, power, and achievement. Thus, job design and job enrichment are processes used to motivate employees.

Process people go through to meet their need

Need → Motive → Behavior → Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction

major assumptions of the needs hierarchy theory of motivation developed by Abraham Maslow

People will not be urged to attain a higher level need unless the lower level has been a least minimally satisfied. People's needs are arranged based on their importance, starting from basic needs and ending with complex needs. Ones ego, status, self-respect, and recognition for accomplishments, and feeling of self-confidence and prestige are considered ones esteem needs

Affiliation

People with a high n-Aff tend to be characterized as: seeking close relationships with others; wanting to be liked by others; enjoying lots of social activities; seeking to belong (they join groups and organizations). They tend to have a low n-Pow. They also tend to avoid supervision because they like to be one of the group rather than its leader.

content motivation theory

THe needs of hierarchy theory THe tow factor theory THe manifest needs theory The ERG theory Focuses on peoples needs to understand what motivates them

continous reiforcement

With a continuous method, each desired and undesired behavior is reinforced. Examples of this method would be a machine with an automatic counter that lets the employee know exactly how many units have been produced, or a supervisor who punishes employees for breaking rules every time.

intermittent reinforcement/interval schedule/ratio schedule

With intermittent reinforcement, the reward is given based on the passage of time or output. When the reward is based on the passage of time, it is called an interval schedule. When it is based on output, it is called a ratio schedule. When electing to use intermittent reinforcement, there are four alternatives:

four step model for self motivation

create objectives develop plans to achieve the set goals get feedback and compare actual performance to the set obectives reinforce desirable behavior or punish if the behavior does not meet the set objectives

Need Hieracrchy

is Maslow's theory of motivation, which is based on five needs. Physiological needs. These are your primary or basic needs. They include air, food, shelter, sex, and relief or avoidance of pain. These needs include adequate salary, breaks, and working conditions. Safety needs. These needs include safe working conditions, salary increases to meet inflation, job security, and fringe benefits that protect the physiological needs. Social needs. These needs include the opportunity to interact with others, be accepted, and have friends. Esteem needs. Your ego, status, self-respect, recognition for accomplishments, and a feeling of self-confidence and prestige. These needs include titles, the satisfaction of completing the job itself, merit pay raises, recognition, challenging tasks, and the chance for advancement. Recall the importance of a positive self-concept (Chapter 3).16 Self-actualization. You develop your full potential by seeking growth, achievement, and advancement. These needs include the development of one's skills; the chance to be creative; achievement and promotions; and the ability to have complete control over one's job.

equity theory

is primarily Adams's motivation theory, which is based on the comparison of perceived inputs and outputs. According to equity theory, people compare their inputs (effort, experience, seniority, status, intelligence, and so forth) and outputs (praise, recognition, pay promotions, increased status, supervisor's approval, and the like) with those of relevant others.30 A relevant other could be a coworker or a group of employees from the same or from different organizations or even from a hypothetical situation. Notice that our definition mentions perceived, not actual inputs and outputs.31 Equity may actually exist. However, if employees believe there is inequity, they will change their behavior to create equity, such as doing less work, changing the situation (like getting a raise), or getting another job.32 Most employees tend to inflate their own efforts or performance when comparing themselves with others. They also overestimate what others earn. Using equity theory in practice can be difficult because you don't know: (1) who the employee's reference group is, and (2) what his or her view of inputs and outcomes is. However, it does offer some useful general recommendations: Be aware that equity is based on perception, of being treated fairly, and the quality of human relations,33 which may not be correct. It is possible for the supervisor to create equity or inequity.34 Some managers have favorite subordinates who get special treatment; others don't. Page 244Rewards should be equitable. When employees perceive that they are not treated fairly, morale and performance problems occur; resentment and retaliation are common.35 High performance should be rewarded, but employees must understand the inputs needed to attain certain outputs. Realize that what people know or don't know isn't important. All that really counts is what they feel.36 The perception of large inequity gets people emotional. Seeks social equity in the rewards they get for their performance

Reinforcement (Skinner)

is primarily Skinner's motivation theory: Behavior can be controlled through the use of positive or negative consequences. It is also called behavior modification and operant conditioning. Reinforcement is not about meeting needs, it's about getting people to do what we want them to do by answering their often unasked question, "What's in it for me?"39 In essence you are saying, "If you do this behavior [stimulus calling for response behavior] I will give you this reward or this punishment if you don't [consequence—types of reinforcement] and this is how often I will give you the reward or punishment [schedules of reinforcement]."40 Skinner states that supervisors can control and shape employees' behavior while at the same time making them feel free. The two important concepts used to control behavior are the types of reinforcement and the schedule of reinforcement. THe context of the reinforcement theory of motivation., BF skinner states: Rewarded behavior of employees tends to be repeated, unlike unrewarded behavior Extinction focuses on : Encouraging employees desirable behavior by refraining from reinforcement when the behavior occurs Punishment Reinforcment: A supervisor can harass, fine, and demote them Skinner's reinforcement theory of motivation in the correct order of occurrence Stimulus, Response, Consequences Reducing or eliminating employees underesirable behavior by refraining from reinforcement when the behavior occurs

job design/ Job simpification

is the employee's system for transforming inputs into outputs. The more effective and efficient the method, the more productive the employee. A common approach to job design is work simplification. The idea behind work simplification is to work smarter, not harder. Job simplification is the process of eliminating, combining, and/or changing the work sequence to increase performance. To motivate employees, have them break the job down into steps and see if they can: Eliminate. Does the task have to be done at all? If not, don't waste time doing it. Combine. Doing more than one thing at a time often saves time. Change sequence. Often a change in the order of doing things results in a lower total time THey satisfy employees needs for esteem, self actualization and growth

Motivation

is the internal process leading to behavior to satisfy needs Motivation is satisfaction based

Job enrichment

is the process of building motivators into the job itself by making it more interesting and challenging. It is a key way to motivate better job performance.60

In the 1950s, Frederick Herzberg and associates'

research findings disagreed with the traditional view that satisfaction and dissatisfaction were at opposite ends of a continuum.1 Herzberg classifies two needs that he calls factors. Herzberg combines lower-level needs into one classification he calls hygienes; and he combines higher-level needs into one classification he calls motivators. Hygienes are also called extrinsic factors because attempts to motivate come from outside the job itself.19 Motivators are called intrinsic factors because motivation comes from the job itself. See Exhibit 8.2 for an illustration of Herzberg's theory.

Management by objectives (MBO)

s the process in which managers and their employees jointly set objectives for the employees, periodically evaluate the performance, and reward according to the results. MBO was started by Peter Drucker.