IB Study Questions

Describe one model of memory

Multi Store Model of Memory The multistore model of memory (also known as the modal model) was proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) and is a structural model. They proposed that memory consisted of three stores: a sensory register, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). Information passes from store to store in a linear way, and has been described as an information processing model (like a computer) with an input, process and output. multi store model of memory diagram Information is detected by the sense organs and enters the sensory memory. If attended to this information enters the short term memory. Information from the short-term memory is transferred to the long-term memory only if that information is rehearsed (i.e. repeated). If maintenance rehearsal (repition) does not occur, then information is forgotten, and lost from short term memory through the processes of displacement or decay. The Memory Stores Each store is a unitary structure and has its own characteristics in terms of encoding, capacity and duration. Encoding is the way information is changed so that it can be stored in the memory. There are three main ways in which information can be encoded (changed): 1. visual (picture), 2. acoustic (sound), 3. semantic (meaning). Capacity concerns how much information can be stored. Duration refers to the period of time information can last in the memory stores. Sensory Memory • Duration: ¼ to ½ second • Capacity: all sensory experience (v. larger capacity) • Encoding: sense specific (e.g. different stores for each sense) Short Term Memory • Duration: 0-18 seconds • Capacity: 7 +/- 2 items • Encoding: mainly auditory Long Term Memory • Duration: Unlimited • Capacity: Unlimited • Encoding: Mainly Semantic (but can be visual and auditory) Strengths One strength of the multistore model is that is gives us a good understanding of the structure and process of the STM. This is good because this allows researchers to expand on this model. This means researchers can do experiments to improve on this model and make it more valid and they can prove what the stores actually do. Therefore, the model is influential as it has generated a lot of research into memory. Many memory studies provide evidence to support the distinction between STM and LTM (in terms of encoding, duration and capacity). The model can account for primacy & recency effects. The model is supported by studies of amnesiacs: For example the HM case study. HM is still alive but has marked problems in long-term memory after brain surgery. He has remembered little of personal (death of mother and father) or public events (Watergate, Vietnam War) that have occurred over the last 45 years. However his short-term memory remains intact. Weaknesses The model is oversimplified, in particular when it suggests that both short-term and long-term memory each operate in a single, uniform fashion. We now know is this not the case. It has now become apparent that both short-term and long-term memory are more complicated that previously thought. For example, the Working Model of Memory proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) showed that short term memory is more than just one simple unitary store and comprises different components (e.g. central executive, Visuospatial etc.). In the case of long-term memory, it is unlikely that different kinds of knowledge, such as remembering how to play a computer game, the rules of subtraction and remembering what we did yesterday are all stored within a single, long-term memory store. Indeed different types of long-term memory have been identified, namely episodic (memories of events), procedural (knowledge of how to do things) and semantic (general knowledge). Rehearsal is considered a too simple explanation to account for the transfer of information from STM to LTM. For instance, the model ignores factors such as motivation, effect and strategy (e.g. mnemonics) which underpin learning. Also, rehearsal is not essential to transfer information into LTM. For example, why are we able to recall information which we did not rehearse (e.g. swimming) yet unable to recall information which we have rehearsed (e.g. reading your notes while revising). Therefore, the role of rehearsal as a means of transferring from STM to LTM is much less important than Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) claimed in their model. The models main emphasis was on structure and tends to neglect the process elements of memory (e.g. it only focuses on attention and maintenance rehearsal). For example, elaboration rehearsal leads to recall of information than just maintenance rehearsal. Elaboration rehearsal involves a more meaningful analysis (e.g. images, thinking, associations etc.) of information and leads to better recall. For example, giving words a meaning or linking them with previous knowledge. These limitations are dealt with by the levels of processing model (Craik, & Lockhart, 1972).

Explain how belonging to social groups can influence behavior.

"Group behavior" refers to the ways people behave in large- or small-group situations. People join groups for a multitude of reasons, most frequently because membership satisfies a need of the individual. Group membership can provide companionship, survival and security, affiliation status, power and control, and achievement. There is currently no universal description of what constitutes a group, though research has identified a few common requirements that contribute to recognition of a group: Interdependence—Individual members must depend, to some degree, on the output of the collective members. Social interaction—Accomplishing a goal requires some form of verbal or nonverbal communication among members. Perception of a group—All members of the collective must agree they are part of the group. Commonality of purpose—All members of the collective come together to attain a common goal. Favoritism—Members of the same group tend to be positively prejudiced toward other members and discriminate in their favor. How Groups Influence Individual Behavior Individual behavior and decision making can be influenced by the presence of others. There are both positive and negative implications of group influence on individual behavior. For example, group influence can often be useful in the context of work settings, team sports, and political activism. However, the influence of groups on the individual can also generate negative behaviors. While there are many ways a group can influence behavior, we will focus on three key phenomena: groupthink, groupshift, and deindividuation. Groupthink happens when group members, faced with an important choice, become so focused on making a smooth, quick decision that they overlook other, possibly more fruitful options. Groupshift is a phenomenon in which the initial positions of individual members of a group are exaggerated toward a more extreme position. Deindividuation happens when a person lets go of self-consciousness and control and does what the group is doing, usually with negative goals or outcomes. We will discuss these more in detail below.

Discuss one example of neuroplasticity.

"Neuroplasticity" is the brains ability to reorganize itself. In other words, its a way of explaining the mechanism by which learning occurs in the brain. This can occur during childhood, adolescence, or well into adulthood. There are many experiments and examples related to neuroplasticity which come to mind which astounded me when I first learned about them.

Describe one effect of acculturation on human behavior.

Acculturation is the process of adapting and changing as a result of living in a new culture (Berry, 2002). To explain the effects of acculturation on behaviour, we can look at how different acculturation strategies can have different effects on behaviour: the way someone acculturates can influence how they think, feel and act. Key Study #1: Correlational study of Latino-Americans, integration and discrimination (Torres et al., 2012) This study surveyed 669 Latinos from a range of countries (50% born outside of the US) who were living in the Midwest of America. They completed questionnaires to measure their acculturative stress, mental health and experiences of perceived discrimination (e.g. in school). The results showed a positive correlation between discrimination and acculturative stress, but they also found that participants who had a "higher Anglo behavioural orientation" (i.e. were more integrated) had lower levels of acculturative stress. This is one example of how the acculturation strategy used by people adapting to a new culture can affect behaviour - in this case, integrating could moderate (e.g. reduce) the effects of discrimination on mental health.

Explain one influence of culture on behavior.

Aim To investigate the effect of cultural values on testosterone levels after being faced with a social threat. Type of Experiment Quasi Experiment Participants North and South American males Procedure 1) Participants told the experiment was about judgement 2)Saliva samples to measure testosterone levels 3) Fill a questionnaire and return it to a table at the end of a hall 4) Confederate bumps and says "a**hole" 5) Saliva samples taken again Results South -> 12% increase North -> 4% increase Conclusion Cultural Value Motivation Increased testosterone Increased amygdala activation More chances of aggressive behaviour Culture of Honor Cultural value held by most South American males in which they are obliged to protect themselves and their reputation using violence in the face of a social threat.

Outline what it means to assimilate and how this may influence behavior.

Assimilation: when an individual loses a sense of belonging to his or her heritage culture and completely adopts and adapts to the norms and values of their new culture. Key Study #1: Correlational study of Latino-Americans, integration and discrimination (Torres et al., 2012) This study surveyed 669 Latinos from a range of countries (50% born outside of the US) who were living in the Midwest of America. They completed questionnaires to measure their acculturative stress, mental health and experiences of perceived discrimination (e.g. in school). The results showed a positive correlation between discrimination and acculturative stress, but they also found that participants who had a "higher Anglo behavioural orientation" (i.e. were more integrated) had lower levels of acculturative stress. This is one example of how the acculturation strategy used by people adapting to a new culture can affect behaviour - in this case, integrating could moderate (e.g. reduce) the effects of discrimination on mental health.

Discuss one etiology of abnormal psychology.

BIOLOGICAL FACTORS Kendler (1991) Twin research to study genetic vulnerability in bulimia nervosa AIM- to investigate risk factors and genetic inheritance in bulimia nervosa PROCEDURE: 2,163 female twins. one of the twins in each pair had developed bulimia. longitudinal study. conducted interviews with the twins to see if the other would develop bulimia if rates were higher in MZ or DZ twins RESULTS: overall 23% for MZ and 9% in DZ twins, 55% heritability COGNITIVE FACTORS: Bruch (1962)- claimed that many patients with eating disorders suffer from the cognitive delusion that they are fat. It may be that when patients evaluate their own body size, they are influenced by emotional appraisal rather than their perceptual experience SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS: Perceptions of the perfect body are influenced by cultural ideals. In the West, images of the ideal body shape for women have changed over the years from an hourglass shape to a slimmer shape LEVINE (1994) investigated the relationship between sociocultural factors and eating attitudes and behaviors - USA, 385 middle school girls (10-14 years) answered questions about eating behavior, body satisfaction, concern with being slender, parents' and peers' attitudes, and magazines with regard to weight management techniques and the importance of being thin - two factors, 1. reading magazines containing info about thin body shapes and weight management. 2. weight related or shape related teasing or criticism by family -results indicate that body dissatisfaction and weight concerns reflect sociocultural ideals of a female role and raises the possibility that some adolescent live in a subculture pressure to be thing and develop bulimia nervosa

Evaluate one biological treatment for one disorder.

BIOMEDICAL TREATMENT OF DEPRESSION The biomedical approach to treatment is based on the assumption that is a mental problem is caused by biological malfunctioning, the cure is to restore the biological system with drugs. For example, the serotonin hypothesis of depression suggests that depression is linked to low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin. Anti-depressant treatment should therefore aim to regulate serotonin levels. Anti-depressants are often used in the treatment of bulimia nervosa because some patients also suffer other disorders such as depression. Anti-depressants are also used to treat minor depressive symptoms but the American Food and Drug Administration warned that the use of anti-depressants for children and adolescents could perhaps lead to an increased risk of suicide.

Outline social cognitive theory. With reference to one study, explain social cognitive theory.

Bobo Doll Experiment By Saul McLeod, updated 2014 During the 1960s, Albert Bandura conducted a series of experiments on observational learning, collectively known as the Bobo doll experiments. Two of the experiments are described below: Aim Bandura (1961) conducted a study to investigate if social behaviors (i.e., aggression) can be acquired by observation and imitation. Sample Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1961) tested 36 boys and 36 girls from the Stanford University Nursery School aged between 3 to 6 years old. The researchers pre-tested the children for how aggressive they were by observing the children in the nursery and judged their aggressive behavior on four 5-point rating scales. It was then possible to match the children in each group so that they had similar levels of aggression in their everyday behavior. The experiment is, therefore, an example of a matched pairs design. To test the inter-rater reliability of the observers, 51 of the children were rated by two observers independently and their ratings compared. These ratings showed a very high reliability correlation (r = 0.89), which suggested that the observers had a good agreement about the behavior of the children. Method A lab experiment was used, in which the independent variable (the type of model) was manipulated in three conditions: Aggressive model is shown to 24 children Non-aggressive model is shown to 24 children No model shown (control condition) - 24 children bobo doll study sample Stage 1: Modeling In the experimental conditions children were individually shown into a room containing toys and played with some potato prints and pictures in a corner for 10 minutes while either: 24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) watched a male or female model behaving aggressively towards a toy called a 'Bobo doll'. The adults attacked the Bobo doll in a distinctive manner - they used a hammer in some cases, and in others threw the doll in the air and shouted "Pow, Boom." Another 24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) were exposed to a non-aggressive model who played in a quiet and subdued manner for 10 minutes (playing with a tinker toy set and ignoring the bobo-doll). The final 24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) were used as a control group and not exposed to any model at all. Animation created by Wes Venables Stage 2: Aggression Arousal All the children (including the control group) were subjected to 'mild aggression arousal.' Each child was (separately) taken to a room with relatively attractive toys. As soon as the child started to play with the toys, the experimenter told the child that these were the experimenter's very best toys and she had decided to reserve them for the other children. Animation created by Wes Venables Stage 3: Test for Delayed Imitation • The next room contained some aggressive toys and some non-aggressive toys. The non-aggressive toys included a tea set, crayons, three bears and plastic farm animals. The aggressive toys included a mallet and peg board, dart guns, and a 3 foot Bobo doll. • The child was in the room for 20 minutes, and their behavior was observed and rated though a one-way mirror. Observations were made at 5-second intervals, therefore, giving 240 response units for each child. • Other behaviors that didn't imitate that of the model were also recorded e.g., punching the Bobo doll on the nose. Animation created by Wes Venables Results • Children who observed the aggressive model made far more imitative aggressive responses than those who were in the non-aggressive or control groups. • There was more partial and non-imitative aggression among those children who had observed aggressive behavior, although the difference for non-imitative aggression was small. • The girls in the aggressive model condition also showed more physical aggressive responses if the model was male, but more verbal aggressive responses if the model was female. However, the exception to this general pattern was the observation of how often they punched Bobo, and in this case the effects of gender were reversed. • Boys were more likely to imitate same-sex models than girls. The evidence for girls imitating same-sex models is not strong. • Boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls. There was little difference in the verbal aggression between boys and girls. bobo doll experiment Conclusion The findings support Bandura's (1977) Social Learning Theory. That is, children learn social behavior such as aggression through the process of observation learning - through watching the behavior of another person. This study has important implications for the effects of media violence on children. Evaluation There are three main advantages of the experimental method. 1. Experiments are the only means by which cause and effect can be established. Thus, it could be demonstrated that the model did have an effect on the child's subsequent behavior because all variables other than the independent variable are controlled. 2. It allows for precise control of variables. Many variables were controlled, such as the gender of the model, the time the children observed the model, the behavior of the model and so on. 3. Experiments can be replicated. Standardized procedures and instructions were used, allowing for replicability. In fact, the study has been replicated with slight changes, such as using video and similar results were found (Bandura, 1963). Limitations of the procedure include: Many psychologists are very critical of laboratory studies of imitation - in particular because they tend to have low ecological validity. The situation involves the child and an adult model, which is a very limited social situation and there is no interaction between the child and the model at any point; certainly the child has no chance to influence the model in any way. Also, the model and the child are strangers. This, of course, is quite unlike 'normal' modeling, which often takes place within the family. Cumberbatch (1990) found that children who had not played with a Bobo Doll before were five times as likely to imitate the aggressive behavior than those who were familiar with it; he claims that the novelty value of the doll makes it more likely that children will imitate the behavior. A further criticism of the study is that the demonstrations are measured almost immediately. With such snap shot studies, we cannot discover if such a single exposure can have long-term effects. It is possible to argue that the experiment was unethical. For example, there is the problem of whether or not the children suffered any long-term consequences as a result of the study. Although it is unlikely, we can never be certain. Vicarious Reinforcement Bobo Doll Study An observer's behavior can also be affected by the positive or negative consequences of a model's behavior. So we not only watch what people do, but we watch what happens when they do things. This is known as vicarious reinforcement. We are more likely to imitate behavior that is rewarded and refrain from behavior that is punished. Bandura (1965) used a similar experimental set up to the one outlined above to test vicarious reinforcement. The experiment had different consequences for the model's aggression to the three groups of children. One group saw the model's aggression being rewarded (being given sweets and a drink for a "championship performance," another group saw the model being punished for the aggression (scolded), and the third group saw no specific consequences (control condition). When allowed to enter the playroom, children in the reward and control conditions imitated more of aggressive actions of the model than did the children in the punishment condition. The children in the model punished group had learned the aggression by observational learning, but did not imitate it because they expected negative consequences. Reinforcement gained by watching another person is known as vicarious reinforcement.

Explain the role of one cultural dimension in human behavior. Explain one effect of enculturation on human behavior.

Bond and Smith Aim To investigate replications of the Asch paradigm cross-culturally. Procedure onducted a meta-analysis of 133 replications of the Asch paradigm, from 17 countries. They compared many variables including: - comparisons between cultures, and within cultures at different time periods - the role of individualism and collectivism on rates of conformity - the size of the majority - the participants' relationship to the group - the gender of the participants - the stimulus materials used anonymity, so individualism/collectivism was but one focus of their research. Results Rate of conformity in the Us dropped since the 1950's and instead became more individualistic. also that collectivist cultures generally showed higher rates of conformity than individualistic cultures. Conclusion Conformity research should always include a discussion of the impacts of culture, and the influence of individualism/collectivism particularly. Culture seems to be a major factor in conformity. Limitation Meta-analysis cannot prevent biases from included research having an effect. Strengths Limits ethnocentrism and

Explain the influence of emotion on one cognitive process

Brown and Kulik (1977) Research on Flashbulb Memory Aim: To investigate whether shocking events are recalled more vividly and accurately than other events. Procedure: Questionnaires asked 80 participants to recall circumstances where they had learned of shocking events Results: The participants had vivid memories of where they were, what they did, and what they felt when they first heard about a shocking public event such as the assassination of John F. Kennedy. The participants also said they had flashbulb memories of shocking personal events such as the sudden death of a relative. The results indicated that FM is more likely for unexpected and personally relevant events. The researchers suggested 'the photographic model of flashbulb memory'. Brown and Kulik suggest that FM is caused by the physiological emotional arousal (e.g. activity in the amygdala). Evaluation: The reliance on retrospective data questions the reliability of this study. People tend to interpret an event from their current perspective. Research indicates that although an FM is emotionally vivid it is not necessarily accurate in regard to details. The photographic model of FM has been challenged.

Discuss the prevalence rates of one or more disorders.

CULTURAL VARIATION IN PREVALENCE OF DEPRESSION Weisman(1996)- cross cultural variation in data from 10 countries. the study found that the lifetime prevalence of depression ranged from 19% (Lebanon) to 1.55 (Taiwan). Korea had rates of depression twice as high as those in Taiwan (2.9%). Paris had a rate of (16.4%) close to that of Lebanon but they experienced 15 years of war. Women had higher rate than men in all countries. The researchers argue that the different risk factors, social stigma, cultural reluctance to endorse mental symptoms as well as methodological limitations of the study may account for some of the differences GENDER VARIATION IN PREVALENCE OF DEPRESSION According to Nolan-Hoeksema (2001) women are about twice as likely as men to develop depression. She argues that in spite of three decades of research on gender difference in depression, it has not been possible to find a variable that single-handedly can account for the gender difference in depression CULURAL VARIATION IN PREVALENCE OF BULIMIA: Cultural beliefs and attitudes have been identified as factors leading to the development of eating disorders. Makino (2004)- compared prevalence of eating disorders in Western and non-western countries based on a review of published medical articles. They found that prevalence rates in Western countries for bulimia nervosa ranged from 0.3% to 7.3% in females and from 0% to 2.1% in males. Prevalence rates fro bulimia in non-western countries ranged from 0.46% to 3.2% in females. The study concluded that prevalence of eating disorders appears to be increasing in non-western countries but it is still lower than in western countries GENDER VARIATION IN PREVALENCE OF BULIMIA Makino (2004) reviewed eating disorders from 11 western countries, women > men Males- Men are generally less likely to develop eating disorders, perhaps due to less pressure on men to conform to an ideal body weight or shape (Rolss 1991) Men who develop eating disorders tend to resemble females in terms of dissatisfaction with their body (Olivardia 1995) Females- There has been a steady increase in diagnosis of bulimia nervosa in UK from 1988 to 2000(Currin 2005) but since 1996 there has been a decline. This meta analysis used data from general practitioners in the UK. the study found that incidence of bulimia nervosa per 100 was 94 cases for females and five cases for males. Overall females are more likely to be diagnosed with bulimia than males

. Outline one study related to the study of genes and behavior.

Caspi et al. (2003) Longitudinal study on the possible role of the 5-HTT gene in depression after experiences of stressful events The 5-HTT gene influences the level of serotonin, which is known to play a role in controlling mood. The researchers compared participants with a normal 5-HTT gene and a mutation of the 5-HTT gene with shorter alleles. Both types are quite frequent in humans but the long allele is slightly more frequent (57%). The researchers found that participants who carried a mutation of the 5-HTT gene and who had experienced many stressful events were more likely to become depressed after stressful events than those participants who carried the normal 5-HTT gene. The 5-HTT gene could indicate a vulnerability to depression after stress and the researchers speculated whether the gene could moderate individual responses to environmental factors. Evaluation: Since a large proportion of the population carries the mutation of the 5-HTT gene that makes them susceptible to depression after traumatic events, it can be difficult to conclude that the gene is a major contribution to depression. People who did not carry the mutation also became depressed. The study showed a correlation between the presence of a 5-HTT short allele and depression but it is not possible to establish a cause-effect relationship. Genes contribute to some extent to behavioral traits and disorders but it is not clear how environmental factors influence genes. Environmental factors were included in the study (stressful events) but there is no evidence against the idea that it could be the stressful events (environmental factors) that made people depressed. Much more research is needed before a clear relationship between a gene and a behavioral trait can be established.

Techniques to study the brain in relation to behavior

Recording and Imaging modern technology that provides ways of studying the structure and function of the brain without the need of invasive techniques EEG (electroencephlograph) is an instrument that records electrical activity in the brain CT scan computed tomography scan is an imaging technigue in which a computer measures the reflection of a narrow xray beam from various angles as it passes through the brain and other various bodily structures. PET scan position emission tomography provides a computerized image of the brain or other body parts MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) provided a detailed image of soft matter of the brain and other body parts Functional MRI allows for study of the brain in action, assessing

Explain one ethical consideration relevant to studies on cultural origins of behavior.

Define the sociocultural level of analysis The sociocultural level of analysis (SCLA) is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings and thus behaviours are influenced by actual, implied or imagined presence of others and the environment around them. Describe ethical considerations In psychology, ethics must be considered to ensure participants (humans and animals) are not harmed and that research conducted is ethically valid. Ethics can be defined as moral principles and rules of conduct that guide and govern an individual or group"s behaviour. Researchers should always conduct research in an ethical manner and studies should always be critically evaluated for ethical issues. Ethical standards made by the American Psychology Association (APA) that all research done in psychology must abide by. These ethics are Protection of participants Participants should be protected from physical and mental harm and distress This includes humiliation, stress, injury, etc. Participants should not be forced to reveal personal information. Consent Participants must be informed of the true aims and nature of research before giving consent Sometimes it is not possible to give full information about research. Participant bias: knowing the true aims of a study may affect participants' behaviour and thus the results of a study It is considered acceptable not to give full informed consent if no harm is expected A guardian or family member should also give consent to the study if the participants are Children under 18 years of age Adults incompetent of understanding the true nature and aims of the study Right to withdraw Participants should be informed of their right to withdraw their participation and data at any time in the study (even at the end) without penalty. Confidentiality Data collected in a study should remain confidential and anonymous to protect participants from possible consequences that may result from their data Deception Deception should be avoided But slight deception is considered acceptable if: Participant bias would result from participants knowing the true aims of the study The research has potential significant contribution It is unavoidable The deception does not cause any distress to the participant, including upon being informed of the deception If deception is involved, informed consent is not obtained Any deception must be revealed at the earliest opportunity Debriefing Participants should leave the study without undue stress Findings of the research should be made available to participants as soon as possible Any deception must be revealed and justified Study 3: Asch (1955) Method: A naive participant was put in a room with seven confederates, who they believed were also real participants In the line judgement task, each person had to say aloud which comparison line (A, B or C) was most like the target line. The answer was always obvious. Confederates gave the wrong answer in 12/18 trials. Asch was interested to see if the participant would conform to the majority view. Ethical issues of this study There were a set of ethical issues in this study, which include: Consent Participants were not informed of the true nature and aims of the study before giving consent. They did not know that the study aimed to investigate conformity But being fully informed of the true nature and aims of the study may result in participant bias Deception Participants were deceived about the aims and nature of the study Participants were told it was a 'visual perception study' But it was actually investigating conformity Participants were deceived about the confederates They were lead to believe that the confederates were fellow participants Debriefing After the experiment, participants were debriefed When asked to explain their conformity most said, they had conformed in order to avoid criticism and social disapproval. they did not really believe their conforming answers, but had gone along with the group for fear of being ridiculed or thought "peculiar". Participant Protection Participants may have experienced stress from pressure to conform Participants may have felt embarrassed or lost self-esteem, upon finding out the true nature of the study Conclusion Ethical considerations in all research in psychology includes, Protection of participants from harm Consent Withdrawal Confidentiality Deception Debriefing But there are slight exceptions for consent and deception Animal research has slightly different ethical considerations Differences regard harming participants and ethical euthanasia

Describe one evolutionary explanation of behavior.

Fessler 2005 Aim: To investigate if disgust sensitivity in the first trimester of pregnancy was elevated as predicted. <to investigate whether disgust has evolved to compensate for the mother and the baby's vulnerability to disease during the first few months of pregnancy> participants/procedure-Fessler et al 2005 Participants/Procedure: -Web-based survey completed by 691 women, recruited through pregnancy-related web sites. The mean age was 28.1 years. -No compensation was offered. The questionnaire asked participants to indicate current level of nausea on 16-point scale. They answered questions to test their disgust sensitivity in eight different areas: e.g. food, contact with animals, body products, contact with dead animals, hygiene contact with toilets. Results- Fessler et al 2005 Results: Overall, disgust sensitivity related to food and body products in women in the first trimester was higher than those in the second and third trimesters. It was elevated particularly in the case of food, which was what the researchers predicted Food borne diseases are particularly dangerous to women in the first trimester; therefore it was predicted that food disgust sensitivity would be higher during the first trimester, and it was. The results may indicate that nausea and vomiting are evolved behavior because they limit the likelihood that pregnant women will eat dangerous food evaluation- Fessler et al 2005 Evaluation: The self-reports (questionnaires) may not be reliable; it is not an effective way of measuring disgust. Would have been more effective to confront participants with real disgusting objects. Effect sizes were not big, but they were statistically significant Findings supported by several other studies. Example: Curtiss et al. 2004 which showed that images that threatened the immune system are judged as more disgusting

Outline one study related to one model of memory.

Glanzer and Cunitz showed that when participants are presented with a list of words, they tend to remember the first few and last few words and are more likely to forget those in the middle of the list, i.e. the serial position effect. This supports the existence of separate LTM and STM stores because they observed a primacy and recency effect. Words early on in the list were put into long term memory (primacy effect) because the person has time to rehearse the word, and words from the end went into short term memory (recency effect). Other compelling evidence to support this distinction between STM and LTM is the case of KF (Shallice & Warrington, 1977) who had been in a motorcycle crash where he had sustained brain damage. His LTM seemed to be unaffected but he was only able to recall the last bit of information he had heard in his STM. Strengths One strength of the multistore model is that is gives us a good understanding of the structure and process of the STM. This is good because this allows researchers to expand on this model. This means researchers can do experiments to improve on this model and make it more valid and they can prove what the stores actually do. Therefore, the model is influential as it has generated a lot of research into memory. Many memory studies provide evidence to support the distinction between STM and LTM (in terms of encoding, duration and capacity). The model can account for primacy & recency effects. The model is supported by studies of amnesiacs: For example the HM case study. HM is still alive but has marked problems in long-term memory after brain surgery. He has remembered little of personal (death of mother and father) or public events (Watergate, Vietnam War) that have occurred over the last 45 years. However his short-term memory remains intact. Weaknesses The model is oversimplified, in particular when it suggests that both short-term and long-term memory each operate in a single, uniform fashion. We now know is this not the case. It has now become apparent that both short-term and long-term memory are more complicated that previously thought. For example, the Working Model of Memory proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) showed that short term memory is more than just one simple unitary store and comprises different components (e.g. central executive, Visuospatial etc.). In the case of long-term memory, it is unlikely that different kinds of knowledge, such as remembering how to play a computer game, the rules of subtraction and remembering what we did yesterday are all stored within a single, long-term memory store. Indeed different types of long-term memory have been identified, namely episodic (memories of events), procedural (knowledge of how to do things) and semantic (general knowledge). Rehearsal is considered a too simple explanation to account for the transfer of information from STM to LTM. For instance, the model ignores factors such as motivation, effect and strategy (e.g. mnemonics) which underpin learning. Also, rehearsal is not essential to transfer information into LTM. For example, why are we able to recall information which we did not rehearse (e.g. swimming) yet unable to recall information which we have rehearsed (e.g. reading your notes while revising). Therefore, the role of rehearsal as a means of transferring from STM to LTM is much less important than Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) claimed in their model. The models main emphasis was on structure and tends to neglect the process elements of memory (e.g. it only focuses on attention and maintenance rehearsal). For example, elaboration rehearsal leads to recall of information than just maintenance rehearsal. Elaboration rehearsal involves a more meaningful analysis (e.g. images, thinking, associations etc.) of information and leads to better recall. For example, giving words a meaning or linking them with previous knowledge. These limitations are dealt with by the levels of processing model (Craik, & Lockhart, 1972).

Outline one way cultural norms may influence human behavior.

Hofstede's cultural dimensions Individualist/Collectivists Uncertainity avoidance Power distance Masculinity/Femininity Long term/Short term orientation What year? 1984, then 2001 Aim Wanted to determine values of which countries vary Method Gathered data from 100,000 IBM employees, surveyed workers from 50 countries and 3 regions Conclusion That there are five dimensions used to differentiate and rate cultures Individualist Individual is the most important, Independence over dependence, reward individual achievement, Value uniqueness of individual Collectivist Views, needs, and goals of the group are the most important, Obligation to group is norm, Self is defined in relation to the group, Focus on cooperation, not competition High uncertainty avoidance Avoid ambiguity, strict code of behaviour, belief in absolute truths Low uncertainty avoidance Accept ambiguity and lack of structure, more inclined to take risks and think outside the box, rules are rejected or ignored Individualist / Collectivist How people define themselves and there relationships with others Uncertainty avoidance People within a culture are made nervous by situations which they perceive as unstructured, unclear, or unpredictable Power distance Extent to which people promote and legitimise power and status differences between individuals High power distance Power is a scarce resource, Natural and inevitable, Centralisation of power Low power distance Minimal power differences, power can be achieved through work, superiority not rigid Masculinity/Femininity Relationship between gender and sex appropriate behaviour Masculinity Distinct roles, men are assertive,ambitious, competitive, women are supportive and nurturing Femininity Fewer rigid gender roles, men and women are more equal, interpersonal relationships, Long term / Short term orientation Extent to which a culture has a future orientated mentality Long term orientation Savings, do anything to achieve a goal, eye on the prize Short term orientation Immediate gratification, make money, spend money, less willing to sacrifice

Explain how one hormone affects human behavior.

Hormones can affect human behaviour. Hormones are chemicals released by glands in the endocrine system which circulate in the bloodstream and act as messengers affecting particular cells and organs. Define endocrine system The endocrine system is a system comprised of glands, which secrete hormones into the bloodstream to affect behaviour. From there, the hormones are sent to target cells by impulses which initiate specific responses. Give examples of hormones The human body contains various hormones which relate to specific emotions and carry out different responses and actions in the body. Some hormones produced by the body are adrenaline and cortisol from the adrenals; melatonin, from the pineal gland; oxytocin from the pituitary gland and hypothalamus and testosterone and oestrogen from the gonads (testes/ovaries). Outline hormones Hormones have widespread effects on both physiology and psychology in humans and thus behaviour. Hormones enter directly into the bloodstream so thus they take longer to produce changes in behaviour that neurotransmitters State which two hormones will be explained in the following essay The two hormones which will be explained in the following essay and supported by psychological research are adrenaline and testosterone. Body Hormone 1: Adrenaline Outline adrenaline The first hormone which will be explained is adrenaline. Secreted in the Adrenal glands, located above both kidneys. Explain the functions of adrenaline This hormone is known for the "flight or fight" reaction and arousal. Thus adrenaline is a hormone that helps an organism deal with an external threat (in the environment) in preparing the body to fight it or run away. Adrenaline can increase flow of oxygen and blood to the brain (increasing activity in the heart and dilating blood vessels). Some symptoms which adrenaline causes the body to do are: Increase in heart rate and blood pressure. Dilation of pupils in eyes. Transfers key resources (such as oxygen and glucose) away from internal organs to the extremities of the body Functions like digestion are less important thus slowed down being focused in helping an organism fight or run away from danger Increases alertness It has been suggested that adrenaline may be responsible for the creation of emotion

Evaluate one psychological treatment for one disorder.

INDIVIDUAL TREATMENT CBT- cognitive behavioral therapy, linked to Beck's explanation of depression where automatic negative thinking is assumed to cause depression. CBT aims to change negative thinking patterns. 12-20 week sessions with a focus on helping people with major depression to identify automatic negative thinking patterns and change them. STEP 1- Identify and correct faulty cognitions and unhealthy behavior (the therapist encourages the client to identify thinking patterns associated with depressive feelings. These false beliefs are challenged to give the client the possibility to correct them STEP 2- Increase activity and learn alternative problem solving strategies (The therapist encourages the client to gradually increase activities that could be rewarding such as sport, going to concerts, or meeting other people GROUP TREATMENT MINDFULNESS BASED COGNITIVE THERAPY TO TREAT DEPRESSION MCT is based on Kabat-Zinn's mindfulness based stress reduction program. The MBCT is developed by Segal, Williams, and Teasdale (2001). The aim of this psychosocial group based therapy is to prevent people becoming depressed again after successful treatment for major depression. MBCT is based on Buddhist meditation and relaxation techniques. These help people to direct their focus and concentrate so they are able to observe intrusive thoughts and gradually become more able to prevent the escalation of negative thoughts. The goal of MBCT is to teach people to recognize the signs of depression and adopt a "decentred" perspective where people see their thoughts as "mental events" rather than something central to their self concept or as accurate reflections of reality

Contrast two models of memory.

INTRO/THESIS Thesis - While the Multi-Store and Working Memory models both describe memory as interconnected information stores that interact and transfer data through various processes, the two are very different when it comes to the functioning of short term memory. Define: Memory Model A memory model is an approximation of the cognitive process of memory for the purposes of comprehension and prediction The two models: Multi-Store Memory Model (Atkinson and Shiffrin) Working Memory Model (Baddeley and Hitch) LOP(levels of Processing) MULTI-STORE Multi-Store Model: information processing through the senses. 1. Three types of memory stores: sensory stores, short term stores, and long term stores. They differ in duration, capacity, and coding. 2. Sensory information decays rapidly Short term memory lasts for six to twelve seconds. When memories in the short-term are rehearsed, they enter the long-term memory store through a repeated rehearsal 3. Differentiates between sensory stores Iconic Memory - instantaneously encodes all visual stimuli for a short period Echoic Memory - instantaneously encodes all sound stimuli for a short period Working Memory Model Also concerned with the short term memory 2. Sensory information decays rapidly 3. Differentiates between sensory stores Phonological store and visual cache CONTRAST Multi-Store Model 1. Describes STM as unitary - only one memory store Stores 7 +/- 2 units of information(chunking) Connects to long-term memory via rehearsal and retrieval 2. Separates sensory store from STM Working Memory Model: Challenged the ideas of Atkinson; they claimed that short-term memory has more than one component to it rather than just a single store. 1. Describes STM as made up of multiple "slave systems" (Working Memory) Phonological loop - stores and rehearses auditory data Visuospatial sketchpad - stores and rehearses visual data Episodic Buffer - links information into visual, spatial, and auditory groups/units based on chronology Dual-Task Technique supports the claim of separate slave systems by showing that two tasks using the same perceptual domain is more difficult than only one task or two using different perceptual domains 2. Sensory store is part of STM Phonological loop contains the "phonological store" Visuospatial Sketchpad contains the "visual cache" or visual sensory store STUDIES: Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) Presented a list of 15 words that participants had to memorize. Half had to recall them immediately Half of them had to recall them after 30 seconds, during which rehearsal was prohibited by counting down in 3s from a three-digit number. Tested immediate free recall (IMF) and the Memory Store Model. People who had to recall the words immediately were much better at recalling the recent ones and the ones called in the middle. Recency and primacy effect. KF (Case study) Supports Working Memory Model KF suffered brain damage from a motorcycle accident that damaged his short-term memory. KF's impairment was for verbal information. Memory for visual information was largely unaffected. This shows that there are separate STM components for visual information and verbal information. Working memory is supported by dual task studies Does not over-emphasize the importance of rehearsal for STM retention, in contrast to the multi-store model. CONCLUSION Both models have made helpful contributions to psychology, but the Working Memory Model is an improvement upon the original MSM, and they are different in fundamental structure. The Working Memory Model challenged the MSM by saying that short-term memory is more complex than just one single store. Latter studies that used this model found it to be true.

Outline one ethical consideration related to studies on cognitive processes.

In psychology, there are ethical considerations because psychologists needs to make sure that humans and/or animals in the experiment are not being harmed and that the research is ethically valid. 'Genie' Curtiss (The Feral Child) 1981 The story of Genie may or may not have hidden information, but it can never be proven since researchers were personally attached to her, which can lead to false information, bias, or hidden information. Researchers are not supposed to have personal attachments towards their participants since it can cause them to pity or to look at the participant in a different way, in a more 'love'-ing way that they cannot tell the actual results since the researchers would have only seen the good affects and progress that Genie is perhaps, 'making'. By: Nancy Thongrat Another ethical issue that can be seen is how Genie was not able to withdraw from the study due to her limited use of language and mental state. And another major issue that is clearly shown is confidentiality. Even though her name was kept anonymous (Genie, is not her real name), her study was exposed to the entire world to read about her case. Procedure Researchers should always consider ethical manners and case studies should always point out the ethical issues that could/have occurred. Also, there are ethical standards stated by the American Psychology Association (APA) that must always be presented in an experiment. Genie was a girl who had been locked up in a small room, at an early age. She had a potty strapped onto her body, and was being abused by her own father if she ever made any noise. Genie was never exposed to language, and her parents and brother had refused to talk to her and left her alone in a dark room. When she was discovered at the age of 13, her body was as small as a 5 year old and she had no apparent language skills at all. Once Genie was found, and she was finally exposed to the world, the researchers had taken her in to study her language inability. The researchers that were taking care of Genie had tried to encourage her to verbalize and socialize. They had communicated with her, taught her sign language, and even put her in a friendly-environment where care was also being provided for Genie. For example, ethical considerations should include: the protection of participants, consents (participants under the age of 18 will need a parent/guardian consent), the right to withdraw, confidentiality, deception, and debriefing. Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the cognitive level of analysis Ethical Considerations Discussion Not only was it considered unethical because of confidentiality and her inability to withdraw and consent, researchers had personal attachments to Genie. This would be inappropriate for researchers; which leads to the next question of objectivity and the aims of the study. Aim The aim of Genie's case is to investigate the hypothesis that there is a sensitive learning period (before puberty) in which language should be acquired and exposed to the child in order for the child to develop the ability to communicate normally and effectively. Ethical Considerations There was quite a number of ethical issues to consider in this study. For instance, there was a problem with the 'consent', since Genie was not able to communicate effectively and give researchers to do the study on her because of her language restrictions and mental state. And due to Genie's mental state, she could not understand the aim of the study. Therefore, cannot give full consent to the study.

Explain how genetic similarities are used in studies on genes and behavior.

Kendler et al. (1991) Twin research to study genetic vulnerability in bulimia nervosa Aim: To investigate risk factors and genetic inheritance in bulimia nervosa Procedure: A sample of 2,163 female twins participated in the study. One of the twins in each pair had developed bulimia. The study was longitudinal and the researchers conducted interviews with the twins to see if the other twin would develop bulimia and if concordance rates were higher in monozygotic twins (MZ) than in dizygotic twins (DZ). Results: Overall the concordance rate for bulimia was 23 % in MZ twins compared to 9% in DZ twins. Evaluation: The results indicate a heritability of 55%, but this leaves 45% for other factors. Genetic vulnerability may predispose an individual but other factors trigger the disorder and it is important to investigate environmental factors that might interact with the genetic predisposition. The study was a "natural experiment" so the researchers did not manipulate variables and there was no control, so it is not possible to establish a cause-effect relationship. The participants were all women so the findings cannot be generalized to men. It is also questionable whether twins are representative of the population. The study does not take environmental factors into account. It could be that twins grow up in the same dysfunctional environment. It is very difficult to find out the relative importance of genetic inheritance and environmental factors.

Using one or more examples, explain localization of function.

Localisation of function in the brain refers to the idea that specific areas of the brain have different or unique functions. A study that supports this idea and provided insight into the role of specific regions in the brain is the case study of H.M. After sustaining a brain injury at a young age, H.M. began suffering from extreme epileptic seizures. In order to stop these seizures, he underwent experimental brain surgery during which the neurosurgeon removed tissues from the medial temporal lobe, including the hippocampus. After the procedure, H.M. suffered from anterograde amnesia thus could not create new episodic and semantic memories, however, he was able to learn some new procedural memories. Through this case, several conclusions could be drawn regarding localisation of function in the brain. For example, it is evident that the hippocampus and surrounding regions play a crucial role in moving short-term memories to long-term storage and that procedural memories are not associated nor stored in the hippocampus. Additionally, it supports the idea that the brain has several memory systems that are supported by distinct brain regions and that the hippocampus is not the only structure involved in the process.

Evaluate one or more studies on the reliability of one cognitive process/reconstructive memory.

Loftus and Palmer Psychologist Elizabeth Loftus has been particularly concerned with how subsequent information can affect an eyewitness's account of an event. Her main focus has been on the influence of (mis)leading information in terms of both visual imagery and wording of questions in relation to eyewitness testimony. Loftus' findings seem to indicate that memory for an event that has been witnessed is highly flexible. If someone is exposed to new information during the interval between witnessing the event and recalling it, this new information may have marked effects on what they recall. The original memory can be modified, changed or supplemented. The fact the eyewitness testimony can be unreliable and influenced by leading questions is illustrated by the classic psychology study by Loftus and Palmer (1974) Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction described below. Loftus and Palmer (1974) Study Aim: To test their hypothesis that the language used in eyewitness testimony can alter memory. Thus, they aimed to show that leading questions could distort eyewitness testimony accounts and so have a confabulating effect, as the account would become distorted by cues provided in the question. To test this Loftus and Palmer (1974) asked people to estimate the speed of motor vehicles using different forms of questions. Estimating vehicle speed is something people are generally poor at and so they may be more open to suggestion. Experiment One loftus and pamler 1974 cars Procedure: Forty-five American students formed an opportunity sample. This was a laboratory experiment with five conditions, only one of which was experienced by each participant (an independent measures experimental design). 7 films of traffic accidents, ranging in duration from 5 to 30 seconds, were presented in a random order to each group. After watching the film participants were asked to describe what had happened as if they were eyewitnesses. They were then asked specific questions, including the question "About how fast were the cars going when they (smashed / collided / bumped / hit / contacted) each other?" Thus, the IV was the wording of the question and the DV was the speed reported by the participants. loftus and pamler 1974 results Findings: The estimated speed was affected by the verb used. The verb implied information about the speed, which systematically affected the participants' memory of the accident. Participants who were asked the "smashed" question thought the cars were going faster than those who were asked the "hit" question. The participants in the "smashed" condition reported the highest speed estimate (40.8 mph), followed by "collided" (39.3 mph), "bumped" (38.1 mph), "hit" (34 mph), and "contacted" (31.8 mph) in descending order. Conclusion: The results show that the verb conveyed an impression of the speed the car was travelling and this altered the participants' perceptions. In other words, eyewitness testimony might be biased by the way questions are asked after a crime is committed. Loftus and Palmer offer two possible explanations for this result: Response-bias factors: The misleading information provided may have simply influenced the answer a person gave (a 'response-bias') but didn't actually lead to a false memory of the event. For example, the different speed estimates occur because because the critical word (e.g. 'smash' or 'hit') influences or biases a person's response. The memory representation is altered: The critical verb changes a person's perception of the accident - some critical words would lead someone to have a perception of the accident being more serious. This perception is then stored in a person's memory of the event. If the second explanation is true we would expect participants to remember other details that are not true. Loftus and Palmer tested this in their second experiment. Experiment Two Procedure: 150 students were shown a one minute film which featured a car driving through the countryside followed by four seconds of a multiple traffic accident. Afterwards the students were questioned about the film. The independent variable was the type of question asked. It was manipulated by asking 50 students 'how fast were the car going when they hit each other?', another 50 'how fast were the car going when they smashed each other?', and the remaining 50 participants were not asked a question at all (i.e. the control group). One week later the dependent variable was measured - without seeing the film again they answered ten questions, one of which was a critical one randomly placed in the list: "Did you see any broken glass? Yes or no?" There was no broken glass on the original film. Findings: Participants who were asked how fast the cars were going when they smashed were more likely to report seeing broken glass. loftus results of experiment two Conclusion: This research suggests that memory is easily distorted by questioning technique and information acquired after the event can merge with original memory causing inaccurate recall or reconstructive memory. The results from experiment two suggest that this effect is not just due to a response-bias because leading questions actually altered the memory a participant had for the event. The addition of false details to a memory of an event is referred to as confabulation. This has important implications for the questions used in police interviews of eyewitnesses. Critical Evaluation One limitation of the research is that it lacked mundane realism / ecological validity. Participants viewed video clips rather than being present at a real life accident. As the video clip does not have the same emotional impact as witnessing a real-life accident the participants would be less likely to pay attention and less motivated to be accurate in their judgements. A study conducted by Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conflicts the findings of this study. They found that misleading information did not alter the memory of people who had witnessed a real armed robbery. This implies that misleading information may have a greater influence in the lab rather and that Loftus and Palmer's study may have lacked ecological validity. A further problem with the study was the use of students as participants. Students are not representative of the general population in a number of ways. Importantly they may be less experienced drivers and therefore less confident in their ability to estimate speeds. This may have influenced them to be more swayed by the verb in the question. A strength of the study is it's easy to replicate (i.e. copy). This is because the method was a laboratory experiment which followed a standardised procedure.

Models of memory

MSM- Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) Aim: To investigate recency effect in free recall (i.e. in any order). Procedure: This was a laboratory experiment where participants first heard a list of items and then immediately had to recall them in any order. Results: Participants recalled words from the beginning of the list (primacy effect) and the end of the list (the recency effect) best. The results showed a U-shaped curve. If participants were given a filler task just after hearing the last words, the primacy effect disappeared but the recency effect remained. The recency effect could be due to the words still being active in STM (working memory). Rehearsal could be a factor in transfer of information into LTM. Evaluation: The study supports the idea of multiple stores (STM and LTM). This is a controlled laboratory study with highly controlled variables, but there is no random allocation of participants to experimental conditions so it is not a true experiment. There may be problems with ecological validity. WMM- When was the study conducted? 1996 What was the aim? To show the WMM in practice Who were the participants? 12 moderately good and very good chess players What was the procedure? The participants had to select chess moves from various positions while performing a second task simultaneously What was the IV? the nature of the second task What was the DV? The quality of the chess moves selected What was the experimental design? repeated measures design What were the conditions? central executive, phonological loop, visa-spatial sketchpad, none (control) What were the findings? The quality of the chess moves selected decreased as when the second task involved the central executive or the visuo-spatial sketchpad There was no significant change when the second task involved the phonological loop What was the conclusion? The central executive and the visa-spatial sketchpad are needed in order to make good chess moves The phonological loop is not required to make good chess moves Name strengths of the study clearly shows which components of the WMM are involved in playing chess Name weaknesses of the study Players with grand master status might not be affected by the second task It is unclear whether the chess moves were affected by the second task or vice versa The positions were already way into the game; the WMM might have worked differently if the participants had played from the beginning

Evaluate one or more theories or studies related to neuroplasticity.

Maguire Et Al Evaluation: Could this particular arrangement of hippocampal grey matter predispose individuals to professional dependence on navigational skills? This notion was tested directly, by examining a correlation between hippocampi volume and the amount of time spent as a taxi driver. Right posterior hippocampal volume positively correlated with the amount of time spent as a taxi driver and therefore suggests that changes in hippocampal volume are acquired. As such, the finding indicates the possibility of local plasticity in the structure of the healthy adult human brain, as a function of increased exposure to an environmental stimulus. The results suggest that a mental map of London is stored in the posterior hippocampus and is accommodated by an increase in tissue volume.

Explain how one study demonstrates neuroplasticity.

Maguire et al Conclusion: The results provide evidence for structural differences between the hippocampi of London taxi drivers and control participants, therefore suggesting that extensive practice with spatial navigation affects the hippocampus.

Explain one example of neuroplasticity.

Maguire et al Background information: According to Maguire, the role of the hippocampus is to facilitate spatial memory, in the form of navigation. From previous studies (pre-Maguire) it was impossible to know whether differences in brain anatomy are predetermined, or whether the brain is susceptible to plastic changes, in response to environmental stimulation - in this case driving a taxi. Taxi drivers undergo extensive training, known as 'The Knowledge' and therefore make an ideal group for the study of spatial navigation. Aim: To examine whether structural changes could be detected in the brain of people with extensive experience of spatial navigation. Method: Structural MRI scans were obtained. 16 right-handed male London taxi drivers participated; all had been driving for more than 1.5 years. Scans of 50 healthy right-handed males who did not drive taxis were included for comparison. The mean age did not differ between the two groups. Results: 1) Increased grey matter was found in the brains of taxi drivers compared with controls in two brain regions, the right and left hippocampi. The increased volume was found in the posterior (rear) hippocampus. 2) Changes with navigation experience - A correlation was found between the amount of time spent as a taxi driver and volume in the right posterior hippocampus.

Explain the effect of one neurotransmitter on behavior.

Martinez and Kesner (1991) ACh in memory formation Aim: To investigate the role of ACh in memory formation Procedure: Experimental study using rats. They were trained to run a maze. They were divided into three groups. Group 1: received injection with scopolamine (blocks Ach receptor sites, reducing available ACh). Group 2: received injection with physostigmine (blocks production of cholinesterase (enzyme) which cleans up Ach from the synapses) leading to more available ACh. Group 3: The control group. Results: Results: Group 1 had problems finding their way through the maze and made more mistakes. Group 2 ran quickly through the maze and made few mistakes. The group was quicker than the control group.

.Describe the use of one technique used to study the brain in relation to behavior.

Martinez and Kesner (1991) ACh in memory formation Aim: To investigate the role of ACh in memory formation Procedure: Experimental study using rats. They were trained to run a maze. They were divided into three groups. Group 1: received injection with scopolamine (blocks Ach receptor sites, reducing available ACh). Group 2: received injection with physostigmine (blocks production of cholinesterase (enzyme) which cleans up Ach from the synapses) leading to more available ACh. Group 3: The control group. Results: Results: Group 1 had problems finding their way through the maze and made more mistakes. Group 2 ran quickly through the maze and made few mistakes. The group was quicker than the control group. Antonova et al (2010) - AIM to determine how blocking the acetylcholine receptors in the brain affects spatial memory Antonova et al (2010) - PROCEDURE 20 male students were injected with either scopolamine or a placebo and then placed in an fMRI scan while playing the "Arena task." Once the students found the pole, the screen went black, and the game started over. Antonova et al (2010) - FINDINGS The scopolamine group took longer and made more mistakes the second time and had significant reduction in hippocampus use. Acetylcholine plays a key role in the encoding of spatial memories.

Describe how one example illustrates the effect of neurotransmitters on human behavior.

Martinez and Kesner (1991) The study shows that ACh is important in memory since the rats showed different memory capacity depending on ACh level. Since this was a controlled laboratory experiment, it can be concluded that the level of ACh is one factor that affects memory but the neurobiology of memory is very complex

Evaluate the use of one technique used to study the brain in relation to behavior.

Martinez and Kesner (1991) The study shows that ACh is important in memory since the rats showed different memory capacity depending on ACh level. Since this was a controlled laboratory experiment, it can be concluded that the level of ACh is one factor that affects memory but the neurobiology of memory is very complex

Discuss the use of one or more techniques used to study the brain in relation to behavior.

Martinez and Kesner (1991) The study shows that ACh is important in memory since the rats showed different memory capacity depending on ACh level. Since this was a controlled laboratory experiment, it can be concluded that the level of ACh is one factor that affects memory but the neurobiology of memory is very complex Antonova et al (2010) - FINDINGS The scopolamine group took longer and made more mistakes the second time and had significant reduction in hippocampus use. Acetylcholine plays a key role in the encoding of spatial memories.

Evaluate one explanation for one disorder.

Meta-analysis of MRI studies on patients with PTSD (Karl et al. 2006): This meta-analysis gathered data from 50 different studies that investigated correlations between PTSD and brain regions (23 hippocampal studies and 27 other, including 18 amygdala studies). All studies used MRI and the DSM IV to diagnose symptoms of PTSD. The results showed that the strongest correlation was between reduced hippocampal volume and PTSD (with an effect size of -0.28). There was also a correlation between reduced amygdala volume and PTSD symptoms, although the effect size was smaller. The meta-analysis also included studies on children that found a correlation between reduced frontal lobe volume and PTSD symptoms (but interestingly these studies didn't find a link between the hippocampus and PTSD).

Explain one example of localization of function in the brain.

Methods - In 1848, when he was just 25 years old, Gage sustained a terrible injury to his brain - A rod was propelled through Gage's skull, entering through his left cheekbone and exiting through the top of his head. It was later found some 30 yards away from Gage, "smeared with blood and brain" - Within minutes Gage was sitting up in a cart, conscious and recounting what had happened. He was taken back to his lodgings, where he was attended by Dr John Harlow. The doctor cleaned and dressed his wound, replacing fragments of the skull around the exit wound and making sure there were no fragments lodged in the brain by feeling inside Gage's head with his finger Results - Physically, Gage made a good recovery, but his injury may have had a permanent impact on his mental condition. - In 1868 Harlow wrote a report on the 'mental manifestations' of Gage's injuries. He described Gage as "fitful, irreverent, indulging at times in the grossest profanity...capricious and vacillating" and being "radically changed, so decidedly that his friends and acquaintances said he was 'no longer Gage'." - The damage to Gage's frontal cortex caused by the iron rod seems to have resulted in a loss of social inhibitions. - Later suggested that the damage to Gage's brain was more extensive and severe than had previously been estimated: up to 4 per cent of the cerebral cortex and about 11 per cent of the total white matter in the frontal lobe were destroyed Conclusions - Localised higher brain function to the frontal lobe - Indicates that the accident damaged the connections between the frontal cortex to the limbic system, which are involved in the regulation of emotions

To what extent does one neurotransmitter affect human behavior.

Neurons communicate with one another at junctions called synapses. At a synapse, one neuron sends a message to a target neuron—another cell. Most synapses are chemical; these synapses communicate using chemical messengers. Other synapses are electrical; in these synapses, ions flow directly between cells. At a chemical synapse, an action potential triggers the presynaptic neuron to release neurotransmitters. These molecules bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell and make it more or less likely to fire an action potential.

To what extent does one hormone affect human behavior.

Newcomer et al. (1999) Experiment on cortisol and memory Aim : To investigate how levels of cortisol interfere with verbal declarative memory. Procedure: A self-selected sample (recruited through advertisement) of 51 normal and healthy people aged 18-30 was used. It was a randomized, controlled, double-blind experiment running for four days. All participants gave informed consent. There were three experimental conditions: A high level of cortisol (tablet of 160 mg per day), equivalent to cortisol levels in the blood as a consequence of a major stressful event. A low level of cortisol (tablet of 40 mg per day), equivalent to cortisol levels in the blood as a consequence of a minor stressful event. A placebo (tablet of no active ingredient). Results The high-level group performed worse on the verbal declarative memory test than the low-level group. They performed below placebo levels after day 1. The low-level group (mild stress) showed no memory decrease. Evaluation This was a controlled randomized experiment so it was possible to establish a cause-effect relationship between levels of cortisol and scores on a verbal declarative memory test. Ethical issues were observed with informed consent. The negative effect of taking high dosages of cortisol was reversible so no harm was done.

Discuss the concepts of normality and abnormality

Normality is usually considered to be the common occurrence, whilst abnormality is usually defined as undesirable behaviour and psychological disorders. It is important to distinguish between them because of the purpose of diagnosing patients and dictating the treatment of disorder. A diagnostic manual (usually, DSM-V) is used in these instances, however there does not seem to be a clear definition between normality and abnormality as psychological disorder may vary between individuals, social or cultural groups. Sometimes abnormality is judged through subjective experiences of the patients' and their not feeling 'normal', however this may be a problem as some people with mental disorders may not know they have a problem, hence there are currently three criteria to judge abnormality, usually through statistical infrequency, violating social norms and being harmful to oneself or others. Statistical infrequency is a more objective way of defining abnormality. It bases its diagnosis on a distribution curve indicating where majority of the group scores. This effectively shows how often something occurs, so things that occur rarely are considered abnormal. This is most helpful when judging human characteristics such as intelligence, short term memory or anxiety, where a majority of the group scores is considered to be the average and is deemed the 'normal' behaviour or characteristic. Anything that strays away from this average would then be considered to be 'abnormal'. Regardless of the reliability of this approach, it presents a few limitations. For example a distribution graph showing IQ would range the 'normal' IQ to be between 70 and 130, for people who scored below 70 are considered 'abnormal' however for people who scored 130+ they are not considered abnormal, nor would they receive a diagnosis for a psychological problem. This shows how a distribution curve would not be suitable to diagnosis someone with retardation based on their IQ level relative to the majority. Therefore, statistical frequency alone is not sufficient enough to define behaviour as normal or abnormal. Another indication of abnormality is the possibility of dangerous or maladaptive behaviour. Maladaptive behaviour essentially refers to the reduction in chances of survival based on their behaviour, thinking and emotional state. Maladaptive can also refer to people whose behaviour, thinking or emotional state prevents them from living a happy life. Symptoms that arise with this diagnosis are the inability to maintain a long term job or healthy relationships with others. Maladaptiveness is often used in the detection of mental disorders such as schizophrenia, depression or anxiety disorder, as the daily life of the individual is usually disrupted due to their symptoms. Rosenhan and Seligman (1984) created six criteria to judge abnormality, including suffering, maladaptiveness, irrationality, vividness and unconventionality, observer discomfort, violation of moral or ideal standards. As the first four (suffering, maladaptiveness, irrationality and unconventionality) mentioned relates to the individual's personal life, it fails to acknowledge that people live their lives differently and so a different approach to live will be observed. Observer discomfort is when the patient behaves in such a way that makes people uncomfortable to watch. This criterion is not based on the individual, as it includes social judgement. What some people may consider offensive or embarrassing may not be to some others. The last criterion, violation of moral or ideal standards refers to frequent breaking of the accepted ethical and social norms. However this point may relate to the individual's cultural upbringing, where psychiatrists may ignore ethnic minorities and the patient's cultural norms. All this therefore signifies the difficulties and possible errors that come with diagnosing abnormalities in people. The difficulty in identifying mental abnormalities a patient is seen in Rosenhan's (1973) investigation included 8 'sane' participants being admitted into various hospitals by saying they were hearing voices. Once admitted they immediately stopped stimulating any symptoms and responded normally to all instructions (except they did not swallow any medication). All but one pseudo-patient were admitted into the hospital being diagnosed with schizophrenia. Upon their release, one was labelled 'schizophrenia in remission', thus supporting the view that their sanity was never detected. Such labelling can be detrimental to the life of the participant, as this label will follow them throughout life. Rosenhan's follow up study aimed to test the reliability of psychiatric diagnosis, where a teaching hospital was told to expect pseudo-patients over a three-month period, 41 genuine patients were suspected as fakes, with 19 of them being suspected by a psychiatrist. This clearly puts the reliability of determining mental disorders into question. It shows how difficult it is to judge abnormality as many people base their diagnosis on the implicit theories they have about what is normal and what is not. By wrongly diagnosing people, it may induce the self-fulfilling prophecy where the individual may actually develop the symptoms as they believe they have the disorder. A reliability problem with Rosenhan's study is that it was located in the US; taking cultural differences, some symptoms of mental disorders are culturally bound and the fact that different cultures express these symptoms and disorders differently to each other. Doctors and nurses in other countries may respond differently to U.S. hospitals, thus there may be a different result than to the one that Rosenhan obtained. The exposing of the flaws of how people are diagnosed is very helpful towards the medical community as it helps to demonstrate how the method of diagnosing someone as mentally ill can be improved and be more accurate. This could further help to avoid investigator bias and hopefully widen the distinction between normality and abnormality. Overall, we see the concept of normality change over the years, for example homosexuality used to be considered a mental disorder but not anymore as it is accepted in most places. An important point of diagnosing patients without inducing the self-fulfilling prophecy is raised, as this could easily influence and therefore alter the patient's behaviour and causing false diagnosis to be made. Labelling patients is also seen as an issue. Patients face discrimination and stigmatization by those who are considered 'normal'. This all reinforces the potency for more accurate identification of mental disorders and thus helping the people who really do suffer from a mental illness.

Discuss one or more classification systems.

Objective: To examine the implications of the association between personality and depression for the understanding, assessment, and treatment of major depression. Method: A broad range of peer-reviewed manuscripts relevant to personality and depression was reviewed. Particular emphasis was placed on etiology, stability, diagnosis, and treatment implications. Results: Personality features in depressed samples reliably differ from those of healthy samples. The associations between personality and depression are consistent with a variety of causal models; these models can best be compared through longitudinal research. Research demonstrates that attention to personality features can be useful in diagnosis and treatment. Indeed, personality information has been on the forefront of recent efforts to advance the current diagnostic classification system. Moreover, personality dimensions have shown recent promise in the prediction of differential treatment outcome. For example, neuroticism is associated with preferential response to pharmacotherapy rather than psychotherapy. Conclusions: Consideration of personality features is crucial to the understanding and management of major depression.

Explain how stereotypes may influence human behavior.

Our social world is very complex and thus presents us with too much information. Since our capacity to process information is limited, our social world needs to be simplified. One way to avoid this information overload is through social categorisation. The information is used in social categorisation is stereotypes. Define Stereotypes A "stereotype" is a mental representation and a form of social categorization made about specific individuals or a group and its members. Once a set of characteristics is used to describe a group of people, those characteristics are often attributed to all members of the group, thus affecting the behaviour of the people or individual who hold the stereotype, and those who are labelled by a stereotype. Gender, race, political stance, and personality contribute to the stereotypes we place on others, but they are generally based on race and gender. Give example, in terms of (+) & (-) stereotypes This generalization may either be positive or negative, based on certain group membership or physical attributes, however most stereotypes of today are negative, exaggerating the quality and cognitively-associating such trait to all individuals that are part of the group leading to discrimination and prejudice, thus increasing self-esteem about themselves and their in-group. For example, white people can"t dance; black people are stupid and uncivilized; Jewish people are greedy; women are organized, etc. However, some positive stereotypes may exist such as, Asians are intelligent; Christians are good people; women are bad drivers; old people have grey hair, etc. Stereotypes are similar to schemas Stereotypes are now also argued to be a schema process that conditions those who hold the stereotype and also those labelled after the stereotype, as they are organized internal representations of individuals and or groups, therefore guiding how people act towards them. Body Theories of stereotype formation --> leading to affected behaviour Introduce theories of stereotype formation There are several theories on the development of stereotypes, including social categorization grain of truth hypothesis, and illusory correlation. Old Theory - Social Categorization & Social Identity Theory Earlier on, Tajfel (1971) argued that stereotypes developed through a natural process of social categorization, which is when people categorize groups of people based on common traits or characteristics. However, this does not explain how it actually happens. Introduce stereotype threat, as a result of categorization Through categorization and by being part of thoughts resistant to change, stereotypes have a tremendous potential to affect a certain group"s behaviour negatively, which can be explained by stereotype threat. Stereotype threat occurs when one is in a situation where there is a threat of being judged or treated stereotypically, or a fear of doing something that would inadvertently confirm that stereotype. Steele (1997) claims that the stereotypes" of prejudice is the cause of spotlight anxiety, an emotional stress that inhibits a stereotype-targeted individual"s performance. Supporting Researcher 1: Steele (1997) Method: Addressed students who were affected by "emotional distress" and pressure that may undermine their school performance Findings: Those that were under the stereotype threat often under-performed, which can therefore naturally "limit their educational prospects." Conclusion: This shows how behaviour can be affected by stereotypes in that it manipulates how people think and therefore act. Connection of study to question: Stereotype threat can affect the members of any social or cultural group, if the members believe in the stereotype. Therefore believing in such stereotypes can harm the performance of these groups, cause them to underperform and fulfil the stereotype. Supporting Study 1: Aronson and Steele (1995)(Other study you could use for stereotype threat) Aim: To investigate the effect of stereotype threat on performance in a test. Method: Gave a 30 minute verbal test to African American and European-American participants. Tested two groups of the participants and told one group that it was an articulation test whilst the other group was told it was a laboratory task. Findings: African Americans scored lower than the European Americans when they were told it was an articulation test but when told it was a laboratory test the African Americans scored higher than the European Americans. Conclusion: Shows that stereotype threat can affect an individual"s performance in a task. Connection of study to question: (same as above) - Steele (1997) This can explain why some racial and social groups believe they are more or less intelligent than others. Grain of truth hypothesis Supporting Researcher 2: Campbell (1967) Campbell (1967) states that there are two keys to stereotypes and are formed through, personal experiences with the groups and people we stereotype gate keepers (parents, media, other members of our culture) This is what forms his grain of truth hypothesis, in which he argued that experiences are generalized and passed on to groups, as a result of an experience shared with an individual of the group or stereotype that are categorized to. However, this theory has been criticized, since errors in attribution are common. Illusory Correlation (Social Cognitive Theory) Hamilton and Gifford (1976) argued instead that stereotypes formed through a type of cognitive bias, "a person"s tendency to make errors in judgement based on cognitive factors," which is known as illusory correlation. Cognitive bias may be relevant to stereotypes After illusory correlations are formed, people actively seek to confirm and support their beliefs by looking for evidence in a "biased" way, which is known as confirmation bias. Illusory correlation comes in many forms such as culturally based prejudice about social groups. Cognitive bias may cause us to reinforce previously developed stereotypes Therefore making this bias, "stereotypical thinking resistant to change." Introduce key study A study done by Hamilton and Gifford (1976), argued that stereotypes are a result of an illusory correlation, because "people see a relationship between two variables even when there is none," e.g. "blonds" or "women," etc. That is, for example, that people can form "false associations between membership of a social group and specific behaviours." Key Study 1: Hamilton & Gifford (1976) Aim To investigate illusory correlation of group size and negative behaviour. Method Researchers asked participants to read descriptions about two made-up groups (Group A) and (Group B). Descriptions were based on a number of positive and negative behaviours. Group A (majority group) - twice as many members than B; performed 18 positive and 8 negative behaviours. Group B (minority) - performed 9 positive and 4 negative behaviours. Asked to attribute behaviours to group. Results: Although there was no correlation between group membership and the types of behaviours exhibited by the groups, in that the proportion of negative and positive was the same for both groups, the participants did seem to have an illusory correlation. More of the undesirable behaviours were attributed to the minority Group B, than the majority of Group A. Conclusion: The findings are based on the idea that distinctive information draws attention. Group B members and negative behaviours are both numerically fewer and therefore more distinct than Group A members and negative behaviour, therefore, stands out more than the combination of Group A members performing such behaviours causing illusory correlation. This study shows that... Evidence for illusory correlation, as the p"s had formed an illusionary correlation between the size of the group

Evaluate research related to localization of function.

Phineas Gage Gender- It was gender biased as the study was limited to a man and at the time they did not know that both men and woman's brains worked the same methodology= there was no real methodology as the accident was unexpected and so they could not plan the study, only study him after his frontal lobe was damaged ethics- there could be some bad ethics, as all of phones gage's accident and his behavior afterwards was published not protecting him or his identity cultyre- culture could affect it as he lived in a culture where he was able to get medicine and psychiatric help

Describe one example of rational (controlled) thinking. Outline one example of intuitive (automatic) thinking.

Research: Atler & Oppenheimer, 2007 Aim: Investigate how font affects thinking Procedure 40 Princeton students completed the Cognitive Reflections Test (CRT). This test is made up of 3 questions, and measures whether people use fast thinking to answer the question (and get it wrong) or use slow thinking (and get it right) ​ Half the students were given the CRT in an easy-to-read font, while the other half were given the CRT in a difficult-to-read font ​ Findings ​ Among students given the CRT in easy font, only 10% of participants answered all three questions correctly, while among the students given the CRT in difficult font, 65% of participants were fully correct ​ Conclusion When a question is written in a difficult-to-read font, this causes participants to slow down, and engage in more deliberate, effortful System 2 thinking, resulting in answering the question correctly ​ On the other hand, when the question is written in an easy-to-read font, participants use quick, unconscious and automatic System 1 thinking to come up with the obvious (but incorrect) answer ​ Evaluation This study provides strong evidence for dual processing theory, providing support for Kahneman's model of fast System 1 and slow System 2 thinking ​ The study only involved Princeton undergraduate students, which are clearly not representative of the general population. Therefore, the results may not generalize to other groups of participants ​ The CRT is made up of "trick" questions, which rarely come up in everyday life. Therefore, the ecological validity of this study is low, as the real-world significance of these findings is unclear

Discuss the role of clinical bias in diagnosis.

Rosenhan

Discuss the validity and reliability of diagnosis.

Rosenhan

Discuss one or more factors that might influence diagnosis.

Rosenhan Study Before we delve into the disorders, I want us to be very wary and scared of the power of labeling people with disorders. In 1978, David Rosenhan conducted the Rosenhan Study, where he sent a number of people to different mental hospitals all claiming to have been hearing voices. ALL of them were admitted into the mental institutions and diagnosed with schizophrenia (which you will learn about really soon). A couple of days later, they all said they stopped hearing the voices and were released from the institution with a diagnosis of schizophrenia in remission (hiding). When they were in the hospital every aspect of their behavior was seen as part of their illness (keep in mind that they were never really sick and faked ONLY that they heard voices). This study reminds us that we should be careful about labeling people because those labels tend to be permanent and the system has difficulty picking up people that are malingering (faking disorders).

Discuss the role of culture in the treatment of disorders. Assessing the effectiveness of treatment(s)

Rothbaum et al (2000) argued attachment theory and research not relevant to other cultures because it's so rooted in American culture. Looked at contrasts between Western and Japanese culture. (1) Sensitivity hypothesis (In Japan, promote dependence rather than autonomy) (2) Continuity hypothesis (in Japan, competence represented by inhibition of emotional expression and group-oriented. Competence in Western defined by individuation, ability to explore, regulating emotions and being independent) (3) Secure base hypothesis (Attachment relationships in Japan are dependence-oriented not promoting independenc

Outline one example of an excitatory or inhibitory neurotransmitter.·

SSRI, ability to reputable serotonin, Caspi Inhibitory: disallows Excitatory: boost

Evaluate one or more studies related to the treatment of disorders.

Schacter and Singer theory of emotion has 2 components physiological arousal - which is similar in all emotions - and then the cognitive label - which is different in every emotion - arousal without the label is often seen as nervousness miss-attribution of arousal - excitation can be transferred from one event to another e.g. schacter and singer (1962) adrenaline study - those who were injected with adrenaline and given no reason to feel this way thought they were feeling an emotion, Dutton and Aron (1974) wobbly bridge study - high versus low arousal, those in the high arousal condition were more likely to contact the researcher = likely to miss-attribute the arousal as attraction - sexual arousal can be ambiguous - can stimulate the brain/genitals (both or neither) - more common for sexual arousal to be misleading in men but research suggests only positive arousal will be miss-attributed as other positive arousal and vice versa (Marshall & Zimbardo, 1979) Almost everyone has dark thoughts when his or her mood is bad. With depression, though, the thoughts can be extremely negative. They can also take over and distort your view of reality. Cognitive therapy can be an effective way to defuse those thoughts. When used for depression, cognitive therapy provides a mental tool kit that can be used to challenge negative thoughts. Over the long term, cognitive therapy for depression can change the way a depressed person sees the world. Studies have shown that cognitive therapy works at least as well as antidepressants in helping people with mild to moderate depression. Treatment with medication and/or psychotherapy can shorten depression's course and can help reduce symptoms such as fatigue and poor self-esteem that accompany depression. Read on to see how cognitive therapy or talk therapy might help you start thinking and feeling better if you are depressed. Cognitive Therapy for Depression: A Thinking Problem Cognitive therapy was developed in the 1960s as an alternative way to treat depression, says Judith S. Beck, PhD. Beck is director of the Beck Institute for Cognitive Therapy and Research located outside Philadelphia. She tells WebMD that the principle underlying cognitive therapy is "thoughts influence moods." According to cognitive therapists, depression is maintained by constant negative thoughts. These thoughts are known as automatic thoughts. That means they occur without a conscious effort. For example, a depressed person might have automatic thoughts like these: "I always fail at everything." "I'm the world's worst mother." "I am doomed to be unhappy." Beck says automatic thoughts "may have a grain of truth. But," she adds, "the depressed person distorts or exaggerates the reality of the situation." This negative distortion helps fuel the depression. With cognitive therapy, a person learns to recognize and correct negative automatic thoughts. Over time, the depressed person will be able to discover and correct deeply held but false beliefs that contribute to the depression. "It's not the power of positive thinking," Beck says. "It's the power of realistic thinking. People find that when they think more realistically, they usually feel better." Cognitive triad: negative views on oneself, the world and the future

Schema theory, Describe how one study relates to schema theory.

Schemas are mental representations of cognitive structures that organise the information stored in our memory. They are knowledge structures that categorise general knowledge about the world. Bartlett (1932) "The War of the Ghosts" Aim: To investigate whether people's memory for a story is affected by previous knowledge (schemas) and the extent to which memory is reconstructive. Procedure: Bartlett asked British participants to hear a story and reproduce it after a short time and then repeatedly over a period of months or years (serial reproduction). The story was an unfamiliar Native American legend called "The War of the Ghosts". Results The participants remembered the main idea of the story (the gist) but they changed unfamiliar elements to make sense of the story by using terms more familiar to their own cultural expectations. The story remained a coherent whole although it was changed. It became noticeably shorter for each reproduction. Bartlett concluded that remembering is an active process. Memories are not copies of experience but rather "reconstructions". Evaluation The results of the study confirm schema theory (and reconstructive memory), but it was performed in a laboratory and can be criticized for lack of ecological validity. Participants did not receive standardized instructions and some of the memory distortions may be due to participants' guessing (demand characteristics). In spite of these methodological limitations, the study is one of the most important in the study of memory.

Discuss one or more effects of one neurotransmitter on human behavior.

Significance of neurotransmitters in BLOA Neurotransmitters have an effect on behaviour like mood, memory, sexual arousal and mental illness. Examples of Neurotransmitters Serotonin, dopamine, acetylcholine and noradrenaline Neuro Transmitter 1: Serotonin Serotonin controls bodily processes such as sleep, libido and body temperature. It protects us from negative emotions such as anxiety and depression. It stimulates neurotransmission in the post-synaptic neuron, increasing arousal, emotion and depression. Secreted into the human body by the pineal glands. Low serotonin leads to low levels of arousal and lack of positive emotion, symptoms of depression Study 1: Kasamatsu and Hirai (1999) Aim: To see how the serotonin affects behaviour Methods: group of Buddhist monks went on a 72-hour pilgrimage to a holy mountain in Japan. Monks did not consume water or food; did not speak and were also exposed to cold weather. Researchers took a blood sample before and after pilgrimage. Returned having hallucinations Results: After about 48 hours, monks began to have hallucinations, saw ancient ancestors or feeling their presence. They found that serotonin levels had increased in the monks. higher levels of serotonin resulting in the hallucinations. Conclusion: sensory deprivation triggered the release of serotonin, which changed the behaviour of the monks and caused hallucinations. Connection of study to question This study shows that the neurotransmitter serotonin affects the human behaviour of increased arousal causing hallucinations (as demonstrated by monks after an increase in serotonin), therefore affecting human behaviour in terms of arousal and emotion. Neurotransmitter 2: acetylcholine involved in learning and memory. Present in the PNS and acetylcholine receptors are found widely throughout the body and brain. Effects of acetylcholine: deliverer sodium ions stimulates muscle contractions; excites nerves An increase in acetylcholine causes decreased heart rate Increased production of saliva Study 2: Martinez & Kesner (1991) Aim: To determine role of neurotransmitter acetylcholine on memory, specifically memory formation. Methods: Rats were trained to go through maze and get to the end where they received food. After rats were able to do this, he injected: 1st group -scopolamine, which blocks acetylcholine receptor sites. 2nd group - physostigmine, blocks production of cholinesterase (does 'clean-up' of - acetylcholine from synapse and returns neuron to its 'resting state'). 3rd group - control (no injections). Results: Results showed that: Scopolamine - slower at finding way round maze and made more errors than control/physostigmine group. Physostigmine - ran faster compared to both groups and made fewer wrong turns. Conclusion: Acetylcholine played an important role in creating a memory of the maze. Connection of study to question: this study shows that the neurotransmitter acetylcholine affects the human behaviour of memory. Low acetylcholine means less memory function, high levels means more memory functionq Conclusion Neurotransmission is an effective way to send messages through the brain. neurotransmitters such as Serotonin & Acetylcholine affect specific human behaviours such as mood and memory. Overall, it can be seen that neurotransmitters do affect human behaviour in different ways.

Describe social identity theory. Explain how one study supports social identity theory.

Social Identity Theory Saul McLeod, published 2008 Henri Tajfel's greatest contribution to psychology was social identity theory. Social identity is a person's sense of who they are based on their group membership(s). Tajfel (1979) proposed that the groups (e.g. social class, family, football team etc.) which people belonged to were an important source of pride and self-esteem. Groups give us a sense of social identity: a sense of belonging to the social world. In order to increase our self-image we enhance the status of the group to which we belong. For example, England is the best country in the world! We can also increase our self-image by discriminating and holding prejudice views against the out group (the group we don't belong to). For example, the Americans, French etc. are a bunch of losers! Therefore, we divided the world into "them" and "us" based through a process of social categorization (i.e. we put people into social groups). This is known as in-group (us) and out-group (them). Social identity theory states that the in-group will discriminate against the out-group to enhance their self-image. The central hypothesis of social identity theory is that group members of an in-group will seek to find negative aspects of an out-group, thus enhancing their self-image. Prejudiced views between cultures may result in racism; in its extreme forms, racism may result in genocide, such as occurred in Germany with the Jews, in Rwanda between the Hutus and Tutsis and, more recently, in the former Yugoslavia between the Bosnians and Serbs. Henri Tajfel proposed that stereotyping (i.e. putting people into groups and categories) is based on a normal cognitive process: the tendency to group things together. In doing so we tend to exaggerate: 1. the differences between groups 2. the similarities of things in the same group. We categorize people in the same way. We see the group to which we belong (the in-group) as being different from the others (the out-group), and members of the same group as being more similar than they are. Social categorization is one explanation for prejudice attitudes (i.e. "them" and "us" mentality) which leads to in-groups and out-groups. Examples of In-groups - Out-groups o Northern Ireland: Catholics - Protestants o Rwanda: Hutus and Tutsis o Yugoslavia: the Bosnians and Serbs o Germany: Jews and the Nazis o Politics: Labor and the Conservatives o Football: Liverpool and Man Utd o Gender: Males and Females o Social Class: Middle and Working Classes Social Identity Theory Outline Tajfel and Turner (1979) proposed that there are three mental processes involved in evaluating others as "us" or "them" (i.e. "in-group" and "out-group". These take place in a particular order. Social identity theory The first is categorization. We categorize objects in order to understand them and identify them. In a very similar way we categorize people (including ourselves) in order to understand the social environment. We use social categories like black, white, Australian, Christian, Muslim, student, and bus driver because they are useful. If we can assign people to a category then that tells us things about those people, and as we saw with the bus driver example, we couldn't function in a normal manner without using these categories; i.e. in the context of the bus. Similarly, we find out things about ourselves by knowing what categories we belong to. We define appropriate behavior by reference to the norms of groups we belong to, but you can only do this if you can tell who belongs to your group. An individual can belong to many different groups. In the second stage, social identification, we adopt the identity of the group we have categorized ourselves as belonging to. If for example you have categorized yourself as a student, the chances are you will adopt the identity of a student and begin to act in the ways you believe students act (and conform to the norms of the group). There will be an emotional significance to your identification with a group, and your self-esteem will become bound up with group membership. The final stage is social comparison. Once we have categorized ourselves as part of a group and have identified with that group we then tend to compare that group with other groups. If our self-esteem is to be maintained our group needs to compare favorably with other groups. This is critical to understanding prejudice, because once two groups identify themselves as rivals, they are forced to compete in order for the members to maintain their self-esteem. Competition and hostility between groups is thus not only a matter of competing for resources (like in Sherif's Robbers Cave) like jobs but also the result of competing identities. Conclusion Just to reiterate, in social identity theory the group membership is not something foreign or artificial which is attached onto the person, it is a real, true and vital part of the person. Again, it is crucial to remember in-groups are groups you identify with, and out-groups are ones that we don't identify with, and may discriminate against.

Discuss localization of function in the brain.

The cerebral cortex is divided into many different areas, each of which is closely associated with specific mental and behavioral functions. This division of the cortex is based on differences in detailed microscopic structure, anatomical connections, and functional properties (what it does) among different areas. The idea that different parts of the brain do different things is called localization of function. As described above, this idea comes from phrenology, but the cerebral cortex is now subdivided in a very different way. According to many data, the cerebral cortex is divided into a hierarchy of three kinds of areas: primary sensory areas at the bottom, sensory association areas, and higher order association areas at the top. Information from each sense (eyes, ears, etc.) reaches the cerebral cortex first and most directly at its own specialized areas called its primary sensory cortex (or area). As Figure 3-2d above shows, each sense has its own area. The visual pathway from the eyes projects (makes connections) most directly to the primary visual cortex on the occipital lobe at the back of the brain. The auditory pathway from the ear projects most directly to the primary auditory cortex on the top edge of the temporal lobe, located under the temple pieces of a pair of glasses. The somatosensory (soma = body) or touch pathways project most directly to the primary somatosensory cortex on the front edge of the parietal lobe. The most direct pathways from the cortex to motor neurons in spinal cord arise from the primary motor cortex.

Outline one research method used to study cognitive processes.

The cognitive level of analysis (CLA) is based on mental processes such as perception, attention, language, memory, and thinking, which are carried out by the brain and guide our behaviour. The CLA is involved in finding out how the human mind comes to know things about the world and how it uses this knowledge. Outline what is a research method? / What is the purpose of research methods in Psychology? Researchers need to have a method for collecting and analysing data. There are many different/various methods researchers and psychologists use to conduct their studies. Research methods are ways that researchers use and manipulate to conduct their studies. State the main research methods used in psychological research There are 6 main research methods used in psychology, which consists of the following: Experiments Case Studies Observational Studies Interviews Surveys/Questionnaires Correlational Studies Introduce the concept of triangulation Sometimes in research, researchers incorporate the use of 2 or more research methods of investigation to explore the same aspect, as using 2 or more may be more suitable and effective in finding out the necessary aims of the researcher. It also increases credibility. There are 4 main types of triangulation: Data Researcher Theoretical Methodological State, make the examiner aware of the biases involved in psychological research In psychological research, certain biases are present, which may affect or influence the findings of the experiment, sometimes in a positive way, but mostly in a negative light/nature. There are two major types of biases, which are: Researcher bias: The researcher/s sees what they are looking for, in which the expectations of the researcher consciously or unconsciously affect the findings of the study. Observer bias The participant/s act differently or accordingly due to the consciousness of being observed by people (researchers), which may influence the nature of the study. State (introduce) the research methods used at the CLA In cognitive psychology, testable theories are developed about cognitive structures and processes which cannot be directly observed. These theories are tested using research methods such as experiments and case studies. At the CLA, the methods of investigation undertaken by cognitive psychologists range from laboratory experiments and case studies. They have in common the aim of obtaining relevant information on mental processes used to acquire, store, retrieve and apply knowledge about the world. State what you are doing in the essay These will be further analysed in the body of the essay, looking at studies and how and why these research methods are used. Body EXPERIMENTS Define what an experiment is? What is the purpose of an experiment? Experiments are used to determine the cause and effect relationship between two variables (independent (IV) and dependent (DV) variables). Outline how experiments are used Researchers manipulate the independent variable (IV) and measure the dependent variable (DV) Attempt to control as many extraneous variables as possible to provide controlled conditions (laboratory experiments) Experiments are considered a quantitative research method, however qualitative data may be collected as well Types of experimental settings There are three different types of experiments, which include a laboratory experiment, a natural (QUASI) experiment and a field experiment. Outline why experiments are used It is considered/perceived to be the most scientific research method Determines cause-effect relationship between two variables (IV & DV) Outline experiments used in the CLA Loftus & Palmer (1974) Craik & Tulving (1975) French & Richards (1993) Evidence Study 1: Loftus & Palmer (1974) How does it reflect an experiment? IV: Verb in the leading question DV: Average speed estimates (smash, collide, bump, hit, contacted) Experimental Type: Laboratory Experiment because the study was conducted in a laboratory setting and the IV was manipulated Why was an experiment used? Allowed a cause and effect relationship to be developed and recognised Cause: The verbs in the leading questions - The wording of the question in eyewitness testimony/testimonials Effect: Their schema a particular factor or experience in their life can be influenced, as their study shows that people are affect by the wording of a question. The cause and effect relationship would not have been able to be found usingther research methods (e.g. observational or interviews, etc.) This would not be able to be able to be found as effectively with other research methods such as observation or case study, as experiments was the most suitable type to use for this particular study.

Explain one theory or study related to thinking and decision-making. (Wasson)

Thinking The process of using knowledge and information to make plans, interpret the world and make predictions about the world in general Decision Making The process of identifying and choosing alternative based on the values and preferences of a decision-maker Problem solving Thinking that is directed toward solving specific problems by means of a set of mental strategies Second Paragraph Introduce Theory One theory on thinking and decision making the dual process model which shows there are two ways of thinking Dual Process Model second paragraph here are two system of thinking referred to as "system 1" and "system 2". System one second paragraph an automatic, intuitive, and effortless way of thinking -Allows for efficient processing -Prone to errors -More certainly System two second paragraph A slow, conscious, and rational mode of thinking -Requires more effort -Carefully think about the possible ways we could -interpret situations -Less certainly Aim of Wasson To investigate the effect of thinking on decision making Procedure of wasson Participants were shown a 4 cards (3, 8, Red, Brown) and asked which card must be turned over to test the idea if a card shows a even number on one side then the opposite side is red. Most people would use system 1 thinking and choose number 8 and a red card. System two thinking should be used to understand that other colors don't violate the rule Results of Wasson This shows that we tend to overly influenced by the contexts or wording of the question how Wasson connects to prompt System 1 of dual processing is used and created errors because of its speed rather than system 2 and thinking slower about the question because of the key words

Outline one study related to pheromones and behavior.

Wedekind (1995) The sweaty T-shirt experiment - or investigating mate preference based on genetic makeup in relation to immune system functioning The experiment studied whether females would be able to identify males who had a genetic make-up which, in combination with her own, would boost the immune system of potential children. The study focused on a particular complex of genes (MHC genes) in the immune system known for the ability to protect against pathogens. A group of 94 students (half male and half female) participated in the experiment. The men were asked to sleep with a T-Shirt for two nights and keep it in a plastic bag. After two days the women were asked to rate how agreeable they found the smell of the T-shirts. The women had to smell seven different T-shirts. One was a control. Three of them contained T-shirts from men with an immune system similar to their own. Three contained T-shirts from men with an immune system that was dissimilar to the women's own - this should be the best match in terms of genes. Results showed that women preferred the odors of men with an immune system dissimilar to their own. This lends support to the evolutionary explanations of mate selection in humans. The experiment demonstrated that attraction was influenced by biological factors. The women preferred men with a genetic make-up that could increase the health of potential babies

Working memory model, Explain how one study supports the working memory model.

Working Memory Atkinson's and Shiffrin's (1968) multi-store model was extremely successful in terms of the amount of research it generated. However, as a result of this research, it became apparent that there were a number of problems with their ideas concerning the characteristics of short-term memory. Baddeley and Hitch (1974) argue that the picture of short-term memory (STM) provided by the Multi-Store Model is far too simple. According to the Multi-Store Model, STM holds limited amounts of information for short periods of time with relatively little processing. It is a unitary system. This means it is a single system (or store) without any subsystems. Working Memory is not a unitary store. Working Memory Fig 1. The Working Memory Model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974) Working memory is short-term memory. However, instead of all information going into one single store, there are different systems for different types of information. Central Executive Drives the whole system (e.g., the boss of working memory) and allocates data to the subsystems: the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad. It also deals with cognitive tasks such as mental arithmetic and problem-solving. Visuospatial Sketchpad (inner eye) Stores and processes information in a visual or spatial form. The VSS is used for navigation. Phonological Loop Part of working memory that deals with spoken and written material. It can be used to remember a phone number. It consists of two parts Phonological Store (inner ear) - Linked to speech perception. Holds information in a speech-based form (i.e., spoken words) for 1-2 seconds. Articulatory control process (inner voice) - Linked to speech production. Used to rehearse and store verbal information from the phonological store. working memory diagram Fig 2. The Working Memory Model Components (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974) The labels given to the components (see fig 2) of the working memory reflect their function and the type of information they process and manipulate. The phonological loop is assumed to be responsible for the manipulation of speech based information, whereas the visuospatial sketchpad is assumed to be responsible for manipulating visual images. The model proposes that every component of working memory has a limited capacity, and also that the components are relatively independent of each other. The Central Executive The central executive is the most important component of the model, although little is known about how it functions. It is responsible for monitoring and coordinating the operation of the slave systems (i.e., visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop) and relates them to long term memory (LTM). The central executive decides which information is attended to and which parts of the working memory to send that information to be dealt with. For example, two activities sometimes come into conflict, such as driving a car and talking. Rather than hitting a cyclist who is wobbling all over the road, it is preferable to stop talking and concentrate on driving. The central executive directs attention and gives priority to particular activities. The central executive is the most versatile and important component of the working memory system. However, despite its importance in the working-memory model, we know considerably less about this component than the two subsystems it controls. Baddeley suggests that the central executive acts more like a system which controls attentional processes rather than as a memory store. This is unlike the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad, which are specialized storage systems. The central executive enables the working memory system to selectively attend to some stimuli and ignore others. Baddeley (1986) uses the metaphor of a company boss to describe the way in which the central executive operates. The company boss makes decisions about which issues deserve attention and which should be ignored. They also select strategies for dealing with problems, but like any person in the company, the boss can only do a limited number of things at the same time. The boss of a company will collect information from a number of different sources. If we continue applying this metaphor, then we can see the central executive in working memory integrating (i.e., combining) information from two assistants (the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad) and also drawing on information held in a large database (long-term memory). The Phonological Loop The phonological loop is the part of working memory that deals with spoken and written material. It consists of two parts (see Figure 3). The phonological store (linked to speech perception) acts as an inner ear and holds information in a speech-based form (i.e., spoken words) for 1-2 seconds. Spoken words enter the store directly. Written words must first be converted into an articulatory (spoken) code before they can enter the phonological store. phonological loop Fig 3. The phonological loop The articulatory control process (linked to speech production) acts like an inner voice rehearsing information from the phonological store. It circulates information round and round like a tape loop. This is how we remember a telephone number we have just heard. As long as we keep repeating it, we can retain the information in working memory. The articulatory control process also converts written material into an articulatory code and transfers it to the phonological store. The Visuospatial Sketchpad the visuospatial sketchpad (inner eye) deals with visual and spatial information. Visual information refers to what things look like. It is likely that the visuospatial sketchpad plays an important role in helping us keep track of where we are in relation to other objects as we move through our environment (Baddeley, 1997). As we move around, our position in relation to objects is constantly changing and it is important that we can update this information. For example, being aware of where we are in relation to desks, chairs and tables when we are walking around a classroom means that we don't bump into things too often! The sketchpad also displays and manipulates visual and spatial information held in long-term memory. For example, the spatial layout of your house is held in LTM. Try answering this question: How many windows are there in the front of your house? You probably find yourself picturing the front of your house and counting the windows. An image has been retrieved from LTM and pictured on the sketchpad. Evidence suggests that working memory uses two different systems for dealing with visual and verbal information. A visual processing task and a verbal processing task can be performed at the same time. It is more difficult to perform two visual tasks at the same time because they interfere with each other and performance is reduced. The same applies to performing two verbal tasks at the same time. This supports the view that the phonological loop and the sketchpad are separate systems within working memory. Empirical Evidence for WM What evidence is there that working memory exists, that it is made up of a number of parts, that it performs a number of different tasks? The working memory model makes the following two predictions: 1. If two tasks make use of the same component (of working memory), they cannot be performed successfully together. 2. If two tasks make use of different components, it should be possible to perform them as well as together as separately. Key Study: Baddeley and Hitch (1976) Aim: To investigate if participants can use different parts of working memory at the same time. Method: Conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform two tasks at the same time (dual task technique) - a digit span task which required them to repeat a list of numbers, and a verbal reasoning task which required them to answer true or false to various questions (e.g., B is followed by A?). Results: As the number of digits increased in the digit span tasks, participants took longer to answer the reasoning questions, but not much longer - only fractions of a second. And, they didn't make any more errors in the verbal reasoning tasks as the number of digits increased. Conclusion: The verbal reasoning task made use of the central executive and the digit span task made use of the phonological loop. The Episodic Buffer The original model was updated by Baddeley (2000) after the model failed to explain the results of various experiments. An additional component was added called the episodic buffer. The episodic buffer acts as a 'backup' store which communicates with both long-term memory and the components of working memory. episodic buffer Fig 3.Updated Model to include the Episodic Buffer Critical Evaluation Strengths Researchers today generally agree that short-term memory is made up of a number of components or subsystems. The working memory model has replaced the idea of a unitary (one part) STM as suggested by the multistore model. The working memory model explains a lot more than the multistore model. It makes sense of a range of tasks - verbal reasoning, comprehension, reading, problem-solving and visual and spatial processing. And the model is supported by considerable experimental evidence. The working memory applies to real-life tasks: - reading (phonological loop) - problem solving (central executive) - navigation (visual and spatial processing) The KF Case Study supports the Working Memory Model. KF suffered brain damage from a motorcycle accident that damaged his short-term memory. KF's impairment was mainly for verbal information - his memory for visual information was largely unaffected. This shows that there are separate STM components for visual information (VSS) and verbal information (phonological loop). Working memory is supported by dual-task studies (Baddeley and Hitch, 1976). The working memory model does not over emphasize the importance of rehearsal for STM retention, in contrast to the multi-store model. Weaknesses Lieberman (1980) criticizes the working memory model as the visuospatial sketchpad (VSS) implies that all spatial information was first visual (they are linked). However, Lieberman points out that blind people have excellent spatial awareness, although they have never had any visual information. Lieberman argues that the VSS should be separated into two different components: one for visual information and one for spatial. There is little direct evidence for how the central executive works and what it does. The capacity of the central executive has never been measured. Working memory only involves STM, so it is not a comprehensive model of memory (as it does not include SM or LTM). The working memory model does not explain changes in processing ability that occur as the result of practice or time.

Explain one bias in thinking and decision making.

clinical bias, conformation bias, Rosenhan Study Rosenhan did an experiment to see how well psychologists were at determining sanity vs insanity. Fake patients were in hospitals and it was determined that psychologists cannot reliably determine sanity. Points out the negative power of diagnostic labels.

Describe the use of one research method used to study the individual and the group. Explain how and why one research method is used to study cultural origins of behavior and/or cognition.

conformity, stereotypes, ethical considerations, observe in natural environment, Asch paradigm, ethical validity are not representative of the whole because it was used for students, lab environment = not natural,