IE 577: Final Exam

*Explain the basic principles of Human Factors, what they are and what they mean?

1) "Know thy user" - need to understand who is interacting with your system. Ex. an individual in manufacturing is going to interact differently with their system compared to someone in the military and their system 2) "Recognition of individual differences" - even though some individuals interact with the same system, they each will have unique challenges and constraints. Human factors must design the system not only for that particular industry but must account for the differences among the individuals in that industry

What is the human information processing model?

1) Attention Resource 2) Long term memory 3) working memory/ cognition 4) Sensory processing STTS 5) Perception 6) Response selection 7) Response execution 8) System environment feedback

*Define and contrast cross-modal and multimodal cognition?

1) Cross-modal cognition is when the sensory system subconsciously influences another sensory system. Ex. smell and taste 2) Multimodal cognition is when you need multiple sensory systems in order to remember/ learn something. Ex. using auditory, verbal and tactile sensory systems to aid in studying. These two differ because cross modal is subconscious where as multimodal is purposeful in its use

*What are the 8 stages of the System Development Cycle?

1) Front end analysis 2) conceptual design 3) interactive design and testing 4) design of supportive materials 5) system production 6) implementation and evaluation 7) systems operation and maintenance 8) system disposal

*What are 3 well known human heuristics/biases

1) Gamblers fallacy: knowing that at least 50% of the time a certain outcome will happen so you choose the opposite of what was just shown 2) Representativeness: people tend to overgeneralize the representativeness of information. This means thats people judge hypothesis as likely if information is similar to a typical case 3) Availability: people rely on things that are easy to call to mind, or are more available. An example is that people think more individuals die in airplane crashes than in cars

*What are the 4 general principles related to display design?

1) Give good feedback 2) use good mappings 3) provide a conceptual model 4) make things visible

*Define in detail the three critical factors in the transfer of training model?

1) Motivation to transfer: which is the operators ability to move the information they just gained from training into their long term memory. This critical factor shows who is genuinely interested in the material and is a good indicator of intellectual capabilities 2) transfer climate: the sense of imperative that is generated from a subjects perception of the work environment. Also has 2 workplace cues. They are: consequence cues and situation cues which are feedback and reminding trainees about the opportunity to use kills respectively 3) Transfer of design: the impact of the actual training methods and tools. In this you have the identical elements theory which talks about how transfer success is dictated by correspondence among the setting stimuli. This results in task characteristics that are exceedingly different, somewhat different or response to identical stimuli are different.

*What are 3 conditions that can lead to sound masking?

1) a temporary threshold shift 2) both sounds being the same frequency 3) one sound having a lesser dB than the other

*What are the 5 factors at affect reaction times?

1) age 2) intoxication 3) time of day 4) fatigue 5) practice

*List 4 design implications for attention as discussed in class?

1) cannot just assume that presented information will be attended to and processed 2) explicit cues 3) encourage development of automaticity and exploit it 4) utilize modalities, processing cues, output responses and stages of processing

*What are the 3 principles of response selection?

1) decision complexity 2) response expectancy 3) compatibility

*What are declarative and procedural semantic long term memory?

1) declarative is telling someone a fact or making a statement about something 2) procedural is telling someone how to do something The difference is that procedural helps people remember things for a longer period of time as compared to declarative. However, declarative is faster/takes up less time than procedural

*What are the 5 steps in conducting an experiment?

1) define the problem and hypotheses 2) specify the experimental plan 3) conduct the experiment 4) analyze the results 5) draw the conclusions

What is the difference between internal and external memory aids?

1) internal memory aids: are different techniques the brain uses to help solidify information. Some examples are repetition/rehearsing information and creating acronyms or rhymes to help memory. This is all done by the individual. 2) external memory aids:are cues in the outside environment that stimulate memory. Some examples of external memory aids are taking notes in class or associating certain places with certain topics or information

List and describe at least two known types of gestalt grouping phenomenon?

1) law of proximity: people group things together that are close to each other 2) law of similarity: people group things together that look similar/ that share similar characteristics

*What are the two sub principles of compatibility?

1) location compatibility 2) movement compatibility

*What are the 5 perceptual principles of display designs?

1) make displays legible 2) avoid absolute judgement 3) top-down processing 4) redundancy gain 5) discriminability

*What are 3 design principles that bridge the gulfs?

1) make things visual 2) create good concept charts/maps 3) invite feedback

*What are the 3 attention based principles of Display design?

1) minimizing information access cost 2) proximity compatibility principle 3) principle of multiple resources

What is.. 1) a bat that is cracked and identified as acceptable 2) a bat is solid and identified as acceptable 3) a bat is cracked and identified as cracked 4) a bat is solid and identified as cracked

1) miss 2) correct rejection 3) hit 4) false alarm

What are the 2 things that affect movement time in regards to positioning control?

1) movement of the hand or fingers to the control device 2) movement of the control device in some direction

*What are the 3 discrete control activations?

1) physical feel 2) size 3) well labeled controls

*Define and explain the 2 phases of visual processing?

1) preattentive phase: this organizes the images by the gestalt principles of proximity, similarity ect. 2) Selective attention phase: where the body decides to pay attention to certain objects once they have been organized These two phases are associated with short-term sensory store and perception in the HIP model.

*What are the two mental model principles of display design?

1) principle of pictorial realism 2) principle of the moving part

*What are the 3 memory principles of Display Design?

1) principle of putting knowledge in the world 2) principle of predictive aiding 3) principles of consistency

*Describe and compare relative judgement and absolute judgement?

1) relative judgement: an individual basing expected outcomes or actions on their knowledge of the world. 2) absolute judgement: an individual basing expected outcomes or actions on their own experiences, not just off of information they had heard about

*The selection of channels to attend is usually driven by 4 factors. List and define them?

1) salience: quality of stimulus 2) Effort: required effort needed to sense a stimulus 3) Expectancy: associated with top down processing 4) Value: act of projecting on and assessing a stimuli based on stored knowledge

Name at least 4 human senses that respond to mechanical stimuli?

1) tactile 2) pain 3) kinesthetic 4) auditory

What are two reasons that humans forget information that they had stored in long term memory?

1) they don't use that information frequently enough to reinforce it 2) they develop biases which alter what was previously in long term memory to be aligned with their new biases

*What are the 7 Stages of Normans affordances

1) world 2) perceive the world 3) interpret perception 4) evaluate 5) goals 6) Decide to act 7) sequence of actions 8) execute actions

*What are 2 examples of how to design for the cognitive process of learning?

1) write things down, don't assume people will remember future steps like standard work. This provides people a guide while they learn their specific jobs 2) provide ample amounts of training. When you make sure new employees have enough training this will help solidify the things they learned

What is chunking? How is it helpful?

Chunking is the process of grouping words or letters together in order to remember more units than you would if they were individual. Chunking can aid in working memory which can then be transferred into long term memory. An example of chunking is how someone remembers their ISU ID. group the numbers together in groups of 2 so that you only have 5 sets of numbers to remember compared to 9

What kind of experimental design is the figure below an example of?

Driving conditions (light traffic, heavy traffic) vs. (no car phone, car phone) = factorial design

*What are human heuristics and how they relate to biases?

Human heuristics are mental "short cuts" that individuals have when perceiving a situation that influences how that person responds to a situation. This is based on their past experiences or already held knowledge. Heuristics can often lead to the development of biases. This is because as mental "short cuts" get used more and more it solidifies the individuals beliefs in that information.

*What is size in regards to a discrete control activation?

Smaller keys are difficult for humans. In relationship to the size of large hands, it is easier to make mistakes by pressing the wrong key or two keys at once.

*What is the speed-accuracy trade off?

Sometimes positively correlated, sometimes negatively correlated. The first three principles GENERALY result in a positive correlation (Decision Complexity, Response Expectancy, Compatibility). Whatever makes the response selection faster makes it less prone to error. In a few cases, control devices differ in the speed-accuracy tradeoff because one induces faster, but less precise behavior or more careful but slower behavior (2nd order).

*What is the rule of thumb for design?

The most efficient way to deliver a given amount of information is by a smaller number of complex decisions rather than a large number of simple decisions. Ex. typing vs trying to decode Morris code

*Define the processing code portion and the reason it has an impact on design?

The processing code are the spatial and verbal aspects that individuals have. Verbal processing is assigning meaning to symbols to convey information. Spatial processing is assessing ones surroundings and assigning meaning to the information that has been absorbed. Both have a large impact on design because they determine how well someone is able to understand the world around them and if they develop confusion in the future

What is the principle of pictorial realism?

a display should look like the variable that it represents. Ex. having a deer on a deer crossing sign

*What is a normative model of decision making?

a normative model of decision making is a generalized model of the process of how people make decisions. It states that people will make decisions based on the outcome for the highest reward. The normative model can be wrong however, because it doesn't put as much emphasis on the fact that people also make decisions based on the risk they have for less

*What is a psychophysical model?

a psychophysical model is a model that represents both the mental and physical aspects of an individual and how they might respond to stimulus and the world around them

*What are the conditions that can lead to a temporary threshold shift?

a temporary threshold shift can occur through prolonged exposure to high dB or frequency sound. Once removed from that sound there will be a certain amount of time in which an individual won't have their full hearing capability

What are perceived properties that may or may not exist. That give suggestions or clues about how to use these properties?

affordances

What are alerting displays?

alarms/warnings. Auditory for critical warning and visual for advisory warnings

What is augmented reality and how does it differ from virtual reality?

augmented reality is right in the middle of real experience and virtual reality. Augmented reality uses more of the humans senses to create higher realism than virtual reality. AR can be used as a great training technique for operators because it can simulate different environment with more human interaction.

When a task can be processed with little to no attention to resources it is referred to as what?

automatic

What is autonomic memory?

autonomic memory is when you perceive a stimulus and it brings up deep feelings related to something that happened in the past

*What is bottom up processing?

bottom up processing is moving from small, detailed inputs outward to the larger more general system that it is apart of

*What is contrast sensitivity?

contrast sensitivity is how intense the light is that is bouncing off of various objects. Depending on the color of the object and the light in the surrounding area you may or may not have strong contrast sensitivity

*What is minimizing information access cost?

cost is measured in time and effort of the user. keep frequently accessed sources in such locations that the costs of traveling between them is small. Ex. Like the short cuts on a tool bar

*What is the principle of the moving part?

display variables move similarly to the way the actual part moves. Ex. on computers when files transfer and there is a picture of a file moving

*What is the principle of multiple resources?

dividing information display between modalities (hearing and seeing). Ex. the lights from a fire truck and the siren or icons that are accompanied by words

*How can you avoid absolute judgement?

do not require users to judge the level of a variable on the basis of a single sensor variable like color or size, which contains more than 5 to 7 possible levels

What is episodic memory?

episodic memory is memory of past experiences that was not learned over time but rather through a major lift event

*What is compatibility?

good stimulus response compatibility (display-control compatibility) aids in response selection.

How can you make displays legible?

have contrast, different size fonts, ect

*What is the principle of predictive aiding?

helps with making predictions in the future. Ex. highway exit mileage signs

How is feedback helpful?

instantaneous or nearly instantaneous feedback in helpful. If there is a lag of even 100 msec, an unskilled operator will have difficulty

What does an analog display support?

it supports the understanding of direction, rate and movement

*What are confusing/well labeled controls in regards to discrete control activation?

key press or control activation errors also occur if the identity of a key or control is not well marked for novice users

Sound intensity is psychologically correlated with what?

loudness

What is a shorthand version of the world, a container of assumptions and core beliefs, which represent the internal logic of our sensations, our perceptions and the interpretations we use to make meaning out of that information and of life events?

mental models

What is movement compatibility?

moving a control up and down moves the display up and down

What is a target?

moving the cursor to the destination

*What are the assumptions made by the user prior to analyzing results using Signal Detection theory?

noise is distributed randomly and is normal.

What is top-down processing?

people will perceive and interpret signals in accordance with what they expect to perceive on the basis of past experiences

What are tactile displays?

physical reminders. Ex. the bumps on the highway to tell you if you are drifting off the road

frequency is psychologically correlated to what?

pitch

*What does Fitts' Law do and what is the equation?

predicts movement time based on accuracy required. MT = a + bLog2(2A/W) MT - movement time A - the distance (or amplitude) of movement from start to target center W - the width of the target, which corresponds to accuracy (2A/W) - the index of difficulty (ID) a - start/stop time for a given device or movement time b - speed of the device or change in MT associated with a one unit change in ID a and b are constants MT is proportional to the index of difficulty

Define and pursuit and saccadic eye movement?

pursuit: is slow, methodical eye movement saccadic: random, quick eye movement

*What does resource demand refer to and how can it be measured?

resource demand is how much attention is required to complete a given task. This can be measured through observing how long the task takes to complete.

What is a decision making strategy where the user gives up the idea of obtaining the "best" solution and selects on what they believe fits their needs?

satissficing

*What is the Hick-Hyman Law of reaction time?

shows a logarithmic increase in reaction time (RT) as the number of possible stimulus response alternatives (N) increases. Humans process information at a constant rate. RT = a + bLog2N - a = simple reaction time (just to respond) - b = additional time for every 1 bit increase in information

*What is discriminability?

since similarity causes confusion, try to make different displays unique to reduce this confusion

What are olfactory displays?

smells. Ex. when they add an odor to natural gas so you can detect a leak

*What is the proximity comparability principle?

sometimes two or more sources of information must be mentally integrated to complete the task. Parts of the information should be close together, but not too close. This is often a factor is object or configurable displays

*What is the principle of consistency?

standardization. Ex. all handicap wheelchair signs look the same everywhere

*What measure relies on human experience, judgement, perception or cognition?

subjective measure

What does a digital display support?

supports precise readings

What is the useful field of view (UFOV), what is its general effective range and how does that effective range compare to the Fovea effective range?

the UFOV is a persons ability to see objects and gather meaning from them. The UFOV has a larger effective range than the Fovea effective range. the UFOV has 6 - 7 degrees.

*What is human performance augmentation?

the ability to change the way a person performs a certain task through training, learning, or another stimuli.

*What are controls?

the action after a decision is made that involves the selection and execution of responses which includes the feedback loop

What is the Gulf of Execution?

the gulf of execution is when you know what you are supposed to do but you don't know how to do it or if the system can even support the action that is required

Define and explain the Modes of attention?

the modes of attention are selective, focused and divided attention. 1) Selective attention is choosing to focus on a certain stimulus even when there are other stimuli present. Ex. studying with the Tv on 2) Focused attention is when you focus on the one main stimuli present. 3) Divided attention is when you focus on multiple stimuli at the same time. Ex. taking to your friend while driving the car

*What is a cursor?

the positioning or pointing task defined as movement of a controlled entity

*What is decision complexity?

the speed with which an action can be selected is strongly influenced by the number of possible alternative actions that could be selected

What are some problems with heads up displays?

there can be too much clutter, and visibility on unpredictable visual field

*What is physical feel in regards to discrete control activation?

there should be some feedback as to the state change: a click or beep ect. The feedback lights should be redundant with another signal and should be immediate. Ex A toggle switch provides visual feedback, an auditory click, and a tactile snap with the sudden loss of resistance.

*What are metacognitive skills?

they are responsible for setting learning goals, determining learning strategies, monitoring progress and making adjustments as needed

*What are information displays?

they are windows to the task or system which can limit or change the view

*What are heads up displays?

they superimpose the display on the visual field so the eyes are directed outward

*What is the principle of knowledge in the world?

visible reminders or statements of what is to be done. Ex. To do lists or labels

What are the most common forms of displays?

visual and auditory. Occasionally, touch and smell are used to alert us.

What is driver expectancy?

we expect specific colors, work zones, lane sizes. This reduces the load on the driver and simplifies the task of driving.

*What is response expectancy?

we perceive rapidly and accurately that information that we expect. Ex. we use the yellow light to help us expect the red light

*What is redundancy gain?

when the same message is expressed more than once, particularly if the presentation is in alternative physical forms

What is location compatibility?

where the controls correspond to the same location as the display

What are object or configural displays?

where the relevant feature emerges from a combination of graphical features. Ex. bar graphs, area displays, start displays

What is the speed accuracy trade off?

you are more accurate but you are also slower