INR 2001 Final Exam Study Guide

Who are the greatest recipients of US aid?

Afghanistan, Israel, Egypt The single largest recipient of U.S. foreign aid in recent years has been Afghanistan. For the past few decades, the top recipient was not a developing country at all, but rather Israel, a key ally in the Middle East. Following Israel, the second biggest U.S. aid recipient was Egypt, in return for its role in the Middle East peace process.

What percentage of the US budget goes to foreign trade?

Aid makes up about 1 percent of the U.S. budget.

Which groups have been responsible for most deaths from terrorism in the past decade?

Al-Qa'eda, IRA, ETA, ISIL/ISIS

Organizations responsible for most attacks

Al-Qa'eda, IRA, ETA, ISIL/ISIS •Al-Qa'eda was responsible for 31% of the deaths; almost exclusively as a result of a single day: September 11 attacks on the U.S. (2996 people) •Separatist groups such as Irish separatists (IRA) and Basque nationalists (ETA) killed over 2,450 people since 1970, accounting for 26 per cent of the total deaths from terrorism since 1970. -Irish separatist groups: 19% of deaths. -ETA: 7% of deaths. •ISIL/ISIS and ISIL/ISIS inspired attacks accounted for 4.7% of deaths. •Sikh extremists (downed Air India Flight 182 over Irish airspace in 1985 and killed 329 people), were responsible for 3.4% of deaths. •There were in total 3,345 deaths by all other groups

What is the BRI?

Belt and Road Initiative -Chinese infrastructure projects aimed to connect China to the rest of Asia, Europe, Africa, and Latin America through land and marine networks and therefore stretch Chinese influence around the globe -Seeks to improve regional integration, increase trade, and stimulate economic growth

What are some of the environment problems the global community faces?

-50,000 plant and animal species become extinct each year -Massive insect decline -Population loss in migratory birds -Plight of the Orangutan, due to habitat loss, largely a result of the Palm Oil industry -Ivory Trade and Financing of Militancy (Terrorism) -Pollution of air and water •Pollution in Delhi is so bad, on days it is the equivalent of smoking 44 cigarettes a day •A report from 2020 on the Effects of Coronavirus for air pollution in China: "Premature deaths from air pollution in China could fall by 50,000-100,000 if economic downturn lasts a year, study estimates."

What is group think?

-A group very quickly arrives at a single solution and closes off debate. In crucial situations, groups of decision makers are often under a great deal of pressure to reach a consensus on policy. This need for consensus can lead decision makers to agree quickly on the first option that seems optimal, rather than examining a wide range of options, as rational decision making requires. There are 2 reasons a group may dismiss certain options before they have been thoroughly assessed. First, in many groups, teamwork is highly valued, which often leads a dissenting group member to fall in with the preferences of the team. Because all the members are expected to support the group's decision, members hesitate to criticize an option that appears to be favored by the rest of the team. When one option begins to emerge as a favorite, there tends to be a rush to support it rather than to scrutinize it. A single individual is in charge of making the decisions and is also responsible for the career success of everyone else in the room.

Case Study/Discussion on drones

-Although drones can save lives, it has killed hundreds of civilians. -Now they can be autonomous, so who is the one in fault for this (affects international politics) -The actors using the drones won't take the same care of planning as they might if they had skin in the game. -Cheap drones are creating global conflicts, more states are having access to them. (China, Turkey, Israel) Created an equalizing effect in warfare; could last longer; less expensive; greater civilian deaths -Drones are proving their effectiveness against some of the world's most advanced militaries. Ex: Ukraine used Turkish drones against Russia, Russia getting drones from Iran -Terrorists have access to them -Can be used without human intervention. (fully autonomous drone) -They are precise, but their intelligence can be faulty. Many civilians can still be killed, used as a recruitment tool. -Drones lead countries to do more riskier decisions. -More autonomy will increase the speed of wars.

What are International Regimes?

-An international regime is a treaty or law that applies to one specific issue area. Complex set of rules and institutions that regulate international relations •"sets of implicit, or explicit principles, norms, rules and decision-making procedures around which actors' expectations converge in a given area of international relations."

What are the health and financial implications of Climate change?

-Between 2030 and 2050, climate change is expected to cause approximately 250,000 additional deaths per year, from malnutrition, malaria, diarrhea and heat stress. -The direct damage costs to health (i.e. excluding costs in health-determining sectors such as agriculture and water and sanitation), is estimated to be between US$ 2-4 billion/year by 2030.

BRICS & BRI in Latin America (the debate over "debt-trap" vs more accessible, needed source of investment)

-China is South America's largest trading partner. China and South America have a deep history of like-minded authoritarianism, these conditions make the continent an ideal space for investment. When China makes deals it likes to settle on long-term contracts preferably with government-owned businesses since those are deemed more reliable. -China considers existing government institutions when investing Capital. South America has institutions that are just strong enough to enforce contracts but not too ethical that they may uphold more idealistic values such as labor laws human rights violations and crackdown on predatory economic practices. -Chinese investors Caracas, Venezuela has taken 17 loans totaling an amount of 62 billion dollars much of the funding has been set aside for oil exploration and extraction but the sum is so extensive that critics say Venezuela is walking straight into a death trap. -In Ecuador, Beijing has provided over 18 billion dollars in loans to various infrastructure projects. This is a lot of money for Ecuador, the interest for the hydroelectric Dam alone is 125 million dollars a year; Ecuador is negotiating with China on a Free Trade Agreement. China is investing billions in many countries in South America, these countries see these as the best deal available to them. -Beijing has constructed a soft power machine for itself. Using that soft power China has coerced some local governments into unequal partnerships but China's interest in South America goes beyond geo-economics, Beijing is also working to secure the future of its military influence.

What is an international regime?

-Communication Regimes: i.e.; Postal services -Trade Regimes: WTO -Security Regimes: Arms control, NPT -Environmental: IWC (International Whaling Commission)

Social Media Bots

-Computer program set up to do a task so a human doesn't have to. -Disguise as humans to spread misinformation, hate speech, and propaganda. -Impacts how people view political events and elections.

What are the barriers to cooperation in resolving questions involving climate change and other environmental problems?

-Conflict with Free Trade Agreements International environmental protection often complicates the issue of free trade. -Competing Economic Priorities The goal of environment protection is a much greater priority for some countries than for others. For financially strapped governments with debts to pay, increasing exports to pay off those debts is likely to be a higher priority than protecting the environment, especially when they are under pressure from the World Bank or the IMF. Countries battling an economic downturn might hesitate to increase environmental regulation. Ex: US leaving Paris Agreement -Complexity Environmental problems overlap with many other policy concerns, such as development and free trade. -Equity From the perspective of developing countries, it seems that the developed countries, have gotten rich by exploiting natural resources and despoiling the environment, are not trying to close the door before the poorer countries can pursue the same strategies. -Economic Competitiveness Developing countries are worried about environmental agreements that would leave them underdeveloped, while advanced countries are worried about agreements that leave them at a competitive disadvantage with rising economic powers. -Scientific Uncertainty While there is scientific consensus on the science of global warming and climate change, there are also powerful actors who strive to deny the consensus to undermine it. -Domestic Politics National leaders must simultaneously negotiate with other nation-states and with domestic constituencies and can only agree to measures of which both sets of actors approve.

What is the stability-instability paradox when it comes to nuclear weapons?

-Creates stability from the realist lens; if everyone had nuclear weapons then no one would use them -Balances each other out, the balance of power mitigates conflict -The instability comes from that if a state feels so confident that no one is going to retaliate since you have nuclear weapons, that will make your actions more aggressive (be less fearful) •States that have nuclear power feel safe from large-scale attack and so also feel free to engage in low-scale provocations

Cyber Warfare

-Cyber weapons are available to the whole range of actors, including terrorist groups, criminal organizations, and other nonstate actors. Cyber warfare has some of the characteristics of terrorism and insurgency, in which states as well as firms offer large and visible targets. It can be extremely difficult to figure out who is behind a particular attack. The ability to disguise the source of an attack can make retaliation very difficult, which in turn makes deterrence very difficult. Cyber Warfare is digitally supported military operations against nation-states to political hacktivism promoting, raising awareness, or even taking down governments. Cyber Warfare has many forms: Hacking, hacktivism, espionage, misinformation, propaganda, political & social activism •Cyber Warfare: -Destroying command-control, information systems -1998, U.S. used against Serbia -U.S.-Israeli: Stuxnet Virus; Flame Virus -Iranian centrifuges -Iranian hackers attack Saudi oil company -Elections meddling -Theft of intellectual property -140 countries have cyber warfare development programs

How is climate change affecting the global community? What are some security implications of Climate change?

-Desertification Global demand for food is expected to double in the next fifty years -Plague of Locusts Swarming East Africa (2020) Bad for food "The last five years have been hotter than any other since the industrial revolution and since 2009. Studies have linked a hotter climate to more damaging locust swarms, leaving Africa disproportionately affected—20 of the fastest warming countries globally are in Africa. Wet weather also favours multiplication of locusts. Widespread, above average rain that pounded the Horn of Africa from October to December 2019 were up to 400 per cent above normal rainfall amount. These abnormal rains were caused by the Indian Ocean dipole, a phenomenon accentuated by climate change."

Information, Communication, Technology, Space Technology

-Guided weapons: Smart Bombs, Cruise Missiles -Drones •"War on Terror": Pakistan, Yemen, Libya •Also acquired by: Israel, Britain, China, Russia, India, Pakistan, Turkey, Italy, Germany, France, Iran, Saudi Arabia •Hezbollah... - Space satellites, GPS (information gathering, guiding weapons systems) -anti-satellite warfare (Iraq, 2003: jamming U.S. signals) -Google Earth pictures used in Mumbai terror attack -Advantages •Speed, power, accuracy, reducing distance, reducing casualties (military -for those that have them, and civilian ???)

Manufacturing Consent

-Media manufacture our consent They tell us what those in power need them to tell us so we can fall in line. -Corporations influence the output for profits. Advertisements give money to the corporations that spread media leading it to be manufactured.

What strategies have states used to develop their economies? What are the critiques of these approaches?

-Monetary Policy •Making your products more competitive -Fiscal Policy (Government Spending) •Taxes •Social Safety Nets •Health and Education Spending •Infrastructure Investment -Private Sector •Regulatory Environment •Encouraging Foreign Direct Investment

How engaged and knowledgeable overall is American society on International Relations issues?

-Only 20-30% of citizens in democracies are interested in foreign affairs -In 2002, only 4% of the U.S. public believed Iraq had anything to do with the terrorist attacks on September 11. By January 2003, 44% believed that most or some of the 9/11 terrorists were from Iraq. Most citizens know very little about foreign affairs. Survey show repeatedly that citizens, especially in the United States, know little about the geography, history, or current leadership of other countries. Sometimes what citizens think they know is manifestly wrong. A majority of U.S. citizens vastly overestimates the amount of foreign aid the United States gives to poor countries.

How can states respond to address terrorism? -Anti/Counter/Addressing Causes

-Possible Responses to Terrorism: •Anti-terrorism Strategies: Prevention -Limitation of Personal Freedoms •Address the Root Cause, Grievances -Are all grievances rational? Or does the target view the objectives of the perpetrators of terrorism to be distasteful, objectionable bizarre? -U.S. Response: War on Terror -"They hate us because of our freedom." -Implies a civilizational clash, not about grievances -What happens to terrorism when political grievances are addressed, as in Northern Ireland or South Africa? Counter-terrorism: Offensive Military Measures: Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria Drones: Pakistan, Yemen "degrade and destroy" Infiltrate Criminal/Police response (intelligence, due process) Guantanamo (no due process)

How do we measure poverty? Different approaches. Cont.

-Poverty level: The poverty level establishes an income standard below which a person is said to be in poverty and then counts the number of people below an established poverty line. -Basic human needs approaches: Some measurements have tried to get away from reliance on income figures and to focus on what actually matters- people's living conditions. Human Development (HDI) supplements calculations of per capita GDP (at purchasing power parity) with measures of life expectancy, literacy rates, and average years of schooling. -Inequality: They often use a statistic known as the Gini coefficient, which compares the incomes of the top and bottom fractions of society. The coefficient ranges from 0 to 1, with 1 representing a situation in which one person has all the income and everyone else has none, and 0 representing a situation in which everyone has an equal income. -Gender equality: The Gender Development Index, published by the United Nations Development Programme, measures the economic equality of men and women.

How do interest groups influence foreign policy?

-Votes (they get their supporters to vote) -Money to campaigns (to get candidates favorable to their views elected, and to keep them on their side) -Advertising (on television channels, newspapers) -Effective lobbying (they work to convince elected officials to vote or take positions favorable to the group) Book: 1)Interest groups that have a large number of members, for example, can seek to convince politicians that supporting the group's goals will be rewarded at the next election. 2)Another resource available to interest groups in varying amounts is money. Sometimes decision makers can simply be bribed. Money can obtain influence in at least 3 other ways: -1)Interest groups make significant contributions to political campaigns on the assumption that contributions do indeed create influence. -2)Money can also be influential when used indirectly. Interest groups can influence policies by shaping public opinion- by going directly to the people through advertising. Interest groups may also conduct research on a specific issue and share the results with politicians, bureaucrats, and the public. -3) Interest groups influence foreign policy by hiring lobbyists. Lobbyists are individuals who make a profession out of their connections with policy makers.

Overview on potential causes of terrorism

-Rational Choice Explanations When an actor believes that it cannot muster enough force to defeat an adversary on the battlefield, it can instead adopt a policy of retaliation: raising the cost of a particular policy in an effort to force the adversary to adopt a different policy. Rather, the actions were meant to attract global attention to the terrorists' cause. -Poverty Some see poverty as an underlying cause of terrorism. In this view, the poverty that is endemic in so much of the world creates a sense of desperation and alienation that makes people more likely to tolerate or even to participate in terrorism against the wealthy and powerful societies that control the world economy. However, more recently, those who commit terrorist acts such as mass shootings in advanced democracies are generally well off. More broadly, there is relatively little organized terrorism in many of the poorest countries of the world. If poverty leads directly to terrorism, terrorism should predominate in sub-Saharan Africa, where it is largely absent. -Religion The obvious religious agenda of much recent terrorism has led some to argue that religious extremism is itself the cause of terrorism. However, religion is widespread, but terrorism is rare. -Individual Level The best conclusion, then, is that terrorism results when powerfully felt agendas cannot be advanced through other means. -Group Dynamics and Terrorism The inability—so far—to identify a psychological profile of a suicide bomber has led some researchers to argue that the key factor is not the individual, but the organization. In this view, some organizations are both willing to promote the tactic and are able to motivate individuals of different psychological back-grounds to carry out the attacks.

According to international law when is war considered legal?

-Self Defense (but all states say that when they go to war; gets diluted) -Since you've been attacked you have the right to go to war -Security Council deems that it is legitimate to carry out military action against the state -War must be declared by legitimate authorities -The means used in war must not be inhumane -The means used in war must be proportional to the ends obtained

Securitization What does it comprise?

-Shaping something to convince general public of a threat •Ole Waever: Copenhagen School •Security is a "speech act": Security is what we make of it -A securitizing actor (a government, leader, authoritative voice) provides an argument that transforms -an issue from something "normal" to an "existential threat" that -demands emergency action, extraordinary measures (coercion, use of force, war) -The AUDIENCE (general public, media, legislature) accepts the threat and grants power to the Securitizing actor to act •The issue is made a priority •Democratic discussion could be curtailed •A Construction of "Us vs. Them" is made

Under what conditions is terrorism most likely to take place?

-States with conflict or have high levels of political terror: -Political terror involves extrajudicial killings, torture and imprisonment without trial. •Great majority of terrorism is used as a tactic within an armed conflict or against repressive political regimes. •Political crackdowns and counterterrorism actions can exacerbate existing grievances and the drivers of extremism and terrorism: This has been the case in Egypt, Turkey, etc.

Shared characteristics of the State Department and Homeland Security Definitions of terrorism

-Terrorism is a Tactic, not an Ideology -State Department: "A premeditated, politically motivated act of violence by subnational, clandestine groups against non-combatants, usually intended to influence an audience." -Homeland Security: "An intentional act or threat of violence aimed at attaining a political, economic or religious goal; a violent act intended to coerce, intimidate or convey a larger message; and an act that precepts laws about armed conflicts." •There is NO universally accepted definition of terrorism. -Not everyone designates the same groups as terrorist organizations •States? Some argue that States should also be included as perpetrators of terrorism •Military casualties? Sometimes military casualties are counted when considering terrorist strikes

Terrorism

-Terrorism is the use or threat of violence by nongovernmental actors in an effort to change government policies by creating fear of further violence. -Terrorism is almost always a means to achieve particular goals. -Terrorists are private actors who use violence for public goals. -The goal is to raise the costs of certain policies so that states will choose other policies. -Despite the fear it creates, terrorism is a weapon of the weak. Like insurgency, terrorism is adopted by actors who do not stand a chance of competing with a government in conventional terms. -Second, violence committed by a government is generally not labeled "terrorism," although there are important exceptions. -When a nonstate group uses bombs to kill people, this behavior is called terrorism. This difference makes clear that in deciding what terrorism is, it is important not only what is done and to whom, but by whom it is done. -Finally, the target of terrorism is usually not the immediate victims (those killed or maimed), but rather the broader society and the government. -No universally accepted definition of terrorism -Once a terrorist group/individual doesn't mean you'll always be considered as one -Most terrorist attacks were not religiously motivated.

Foreign Policy

-The articulation of the "national interest" and the means chosen to secure those interests, both material and ideational.

BRICS (US-China Relations)

-These are countries with emerging economies and becoming powerful. (influential in the global economy) -New actors are forming their own institutions for lending money. -Their rules/conditions are different than the US institutions like the IMF and World Bank -Through this they can form more allies -Also this reduces the US's power on sanctions since China might be trading outside the US $ and with the Chinese Yuan -Using other currencies to bypass the US, lessens the power of the US $ and creates a growing competition -This makes China more powerful

Social media and war/conflict

-Used social media as weapons to start a revolution to wage a war the power of. Ex: Arab Spring -Governments and regimes used it too. Ex: Syria, Israel vs Hamas

Private Military Contractors (PMCs)

-War Outsourced/Privatized Protection: •Privatized Military Companies (PMCs): -Ex: Iraq; Blackwater, Academi (Erik Prince), the Wagner Group -Columbian and other South American security forces used by Saudis, UAE, sent to Yemen, sent to Syria -Not always hired by a "state" -Somali Warlords have hired PMCs -Oversight??? Video -For the soldier with no flag, modern warfare is a lucrative trade. -But some of these companies have committed atrocities and other human rights abuses. -Russia uses them in the Middle East and Africa. -China is using them to protect its Belt and Road Initiative project. -And even radical Islamists have entered the PMC game with companies like Malhama Tactical offering training to jihadi groups. -When things get messy, countries can blame contractors or deny their involvement. - UN Mercenary Convention attempted to ban the use of mercenaries, but the definition they gave was so specific that it gave the roadmap for the creation of private military companies. -By the 1990s, governments had come to view PMCs as a key foreign policy tool, a way to bypass international laws to exert influence abroad. -Can operate with impunity since it's difficult to prosecute PMCs.

Why does Katzenstein consider the US to be a weak state in foreign policy?

-Weak in foreign policy making. Because in the US, Interest Groups have a stronger influence on decision-making. The study found that different states had different relationships with their societies, with some being tightly constrained and others being more autonomous. In the U.S., the state was seen as "weak" because it is heavily influenced by interest groups that are given a prominent role in developing policies.

What is meant by "tied" aid?

-When a country gives money to another country and expects that country to invest in them. A great deal of bilateral aid is tied aid, which must be spent on goods and services from the donor country, so that much of the economic benefit accrues to firms in the donor states. In particular, critics point out that much bilateral aid is in the forms of loans to buy military equipment from the donor states. Such purchases contribute nothing to the economy of the aid recipient and may make the region in question less secure.

Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (article 7) Genocide

1.A physical element, which includes the commission of "any of the following acts": 1.Murder; 2.Extermination; 3.Enslavement; 4.Deportation or forcible transfer of population; 5.Imprisonment; 6.Torture; 7.Grave forms of sexual violence; 8.Persecution; 9.Enforced disappearance of persons; 10.The crime of apartheid; 11.Other inhumane acts. 2.A contextual element: "when committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population"; and 3.A mental element: "with knowledge of the attack" -In contrast with genocide, crimes against humanity do not need to target a specific group.

De-securitizing

=Peace Gorbachev, the way he was talking about the US (changing rhetoric)

Asymmetric Warfare

A conflict between actors with very different strengths, vulnerabilities, and tactics. •Fourth Generation Warfare -Asymmetric Warfare: (disbalance of power) •State vs non-state actors -Tribal warlords, militias, Terrorist networks »Non-state loyalties/identities: •Ethnic, religious, sectarian -Can take place during the post-conventional insurgency phase of a war •Protracted conflict -Make war costly for the powerful •Involves: -guerrilla style conflict-sabotage, ambush •Insurgents have advantage of knowing terrain, cities -Low-Tech weapons: •Assault Rifles •Grenades launchers •Anti-aircraft missiles •Rockets •IED (improvised explosive devices) •Cyber Warfare •WMD - Chemical/Biological Weapons •Drones •Counterinsurgency •Risk of Urban warfare for militaries -risk of civilian deaths

What is the problem of late development? Cont.

A problem related to late development is declining terms of trade. Definition: Conditions of international trade that force countries that primarily produce raw materials to export ever-increasing amounts of raw materials to earn the revenue needed to buy the manufactured goods they require. (More money is produced from skilled labor than exporting raw materials and goods produced by unskilled labor)

Organs of the UN and what they are designed to do

Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) -When it was founded in 1945, the UN included an Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) to oversee work on development and related issues. -The GA coordinates UN Progams and agencies through ECOSOC -54 members (3 year terms) Address: Economic, Social, Environmental, Development goals -Coordinate with civil society (NGOs) Ex: WHO, UNICEF International Court of Justice -The International Court of Justice (ICJ), also known as the World Court, adjudicates disputes that arise over treaty obligations. -The Hague, Netherlands -15 judges, 9 year terms, elected by Security Council and General Assembly majority -5 permanent members have a judge each -Settle legal disputes submitted by states -Give advisory opinions on legal questions for the Security Council or General Assembly Secretariat -The various UN agencies are supported by a Secretariat with roughly 44,000 employees, which performs organizational, budgetary, translation, research, and other support services and administers decisions. Unlike delegates to the General Assembly and the Security Council, personnel of the Secretariat are employed by the UN, not by their home governments, and they take an oath not to take instructions from their home governments. -Administrative Engine of the UN, employs 40,00 people world wide -Headed by the Secretary General -Nominated by Security Council, appointed by General Assembly -5 year term (renewable) -Can bring important issues to the attention of the Security Council

What strategies have states used to develop their economies? What are the critiques of these approaches?

Import Substitution: (Used in Latin American and India after WWII) Refers to the strategy of producing domestically those goods that a country has been importing. The central strategy was to shift from the production of raw materials to manufactured goods. It would supposedly improve the balance of payments, by producing goods domestically that were formerly imported, states could import more technology without creating a current account deficit. Import Substitution Critiques: -The government is greatly involved through contracts, which caused corruption. -There was a substantial increase in global agricultural prices in the 1970s put food importers at a disadvantage. A dramatic increase in world oil prices penalized countries where industrialization was based on cheap energy. -Did not become competitive in international markets, couldn't reach the economies of scale needed to make them competitive with those produced for much larger domestic markets or international. -Reducing competition from foreign firms reduced the incentives for domestic firms to innovate and become more efficient. Because protected firms became powerful politically, politicians were hesitant to reduce their protection. As a result, protection from competition tended to become permanent instead of temporary. Helped become a source of cronyism and corruption, enriching elites at the expense of economic development.

How is international law distinct from domestic law?

In domestic law you don't have to consent and it is well-enforced unlike international law

Countries most impacted in 2022

Iraq & Afghanistan (1) Burkina Faso, Somalia, Mali, Syria, Pakistan, Iraq, Nigeria, Myanmar, Niger •The states with the greatest number of deaths from terrorism have been Iraq and Afghanistan. Afghanistan's death toll due to terrorism surpassed Iraq's after the defeat of the Islamic State in Iraq in 2017. •Iraq: over 60,000 deaths as a result of terrorism •The US has listed over 20 organizations in Afghanistan and Iraq as terrorist organizations. •Prior to once again taking over Afghanistan, the Taliban decreased its targets on civilians, but increased targeting Afghan soldiers and police -More than 28,000 Afghan soldiers and police had been killed since 2015 •The Islamic State in Afghanistan (an organization that rivals the Taliban) increased targets on civilians. -Sub-Saharan Africa accounted for 48% of global terrorism deaths. < DOESNT HAVE A LOT OF TERRORISM

Which countries have been most affected by terrorism, in terms of the number of incidents and deaths?

Iraq & Afghanistan (1) Middle East and North Africa, South Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa Burkina Faso, Somalia, Mali, Syria, Pakistan, Iraq, Nigeria, Myanmar, Niger

Revolution in Military Affairs What is it? Which conflict showed this shift?

Iraq War (Led China to invest technology in their Space Program, since they saw that the US was way more advanced in their technology for warfare) •Gives Developed Countries a significant advantage: -1991 Gulf War (7 weeks): U.S.-led coalition vs. Iraq -What was distinct about U.S. military operations during this war? Technologies -What new technologies were used and have been developed since? Satellites that give coordinates Guided weapons: Smart Bombs, Cruise Missiles Drones Space satellites, GPS (information gathering, guiding weapons systems) -What makes these technologies desirable? Less people/soldiers die, limit your own people's casualties

Which country(ies) are examples of Nuclear latency? Nuclear Opacity?

Nuclear Latency •Countries that master the cycle, but do not weaponize -A country that is part of NPT -Not going to develop nuclear weapons, but has the technology to do so in a short amount of time -Japan -Iran (presumably what Iran was going for) (Have potential to make one in a short time period; deterrence that they can move to this direction) Nuclear Opacity •Opaque? Unclear - Undeclared •- Some countries do not want to be obligated under NPT -But nuclear weapons are morally questionable, and having them may be politically damaging •Israel (not part of the NPT)

What is the problem of late development?

PP Slides -Declining terms of trade: Many developing countries rely on exports of commodities. Book These countries through decolonization provided political independence but not economic independence. The problem of late development is that those states that are developing later have to contend with something that the first developers did not: economic competition from more advanced states. Early developers enjoy first-mover advantages (3). -Economies of scale: Later developers have to start small, just as the first developers did. Producing on a smaller scale and therefore at a higher cost, they struggle to compete with the early developers. Network effects: When a particular industry begins to succeed in a certain location, other firms related to that business tend to locate in the same area to reduce costs. Investment funds: In both direct and indirect ways, investment is crucial to economic development.

What is bolstering?

PP Slides -Difficulty in budging once a decision is made; leaders tend to dig themselves in deeper. Book The tendency of decision makers facing a difficult decision to increase their certainty once a decision is made.

How do we measure poverty? Different approaches.

PP Slides -GDP per capita: Problem with calculating by per capita income? •GDP per PPP -Human Development Index: life expectancy, literacy, etc. -Gini Coefficient (0 - 1) -measures inequality: 0=everyone is equal; 1 = one person has all the wealth -Gender Development Index -measures economic equality of men and women Book -Average income: Per capita GDP refers to the average income of the people in a country. It is calculated by dividing the overall annual income of the country by the population. Most widely used, but it is one of the most misleading, especially in societies where there is considerable inequality. -Income adjusted for cost of living: One problem with traditional income figures is that they do not take into account that goods cost different amounts in different countries. Calculating income at purchasing power parity (PPP) takes this difference into account by figuring in the relative cost of goods.

What is Fundamental attribution bias and how is it tied to the security dilemma?

PP Slides -We attribute just causes/righteous or moral behavior to ourselves and interpret the behavior of others as coming from malicious intent. Book The tendency to believe that if adversaries make a concession, they were forced to, but if they make an unwelcome move, they did so freely with bad intentions; and the tendency to have the opposite bias about ourselves. The fundamental attribution bias indicates that actors are more likely to mistake a peaceful state for an aggressive one than vice versa. Other things being equal, this tendency will make it more likely that a security dilemma will spiral toward higher levels of armament, mistrust, and conflict. At the same time, actors tend to believe strongly that their own moves are unthreatening to others and that others can easily see this. Hence, if others respond negatively to their policies, actors tend to conclude that others are hostile, not that they genuinely feel threatened. Ex: Cold war US-Soviet Union U.S. leaders interpreted a variety of Soviet actions as proof of the Soviet Union's aggressive designs to expand as far as possible into central Europe, much less attention was given to the Soviet withdrawal from Austria and northern Iran. It is difficult to build trust in situations in which concessions are not noticed. Another example is states have possessed nuclear weapons for a long time consider it obvious that their own weapons are not threatening to others, whereas they perceive efforts by others states to gain nuclear weapons as a sign of aggression.

What is cognitive Theory?

PP Slides -When you are presented with evidence that is contrary to what you have always been led to believe, you tend to ignore or reject new evidence. -Living in your own world, you frame things Book Also known as confirmation bias, the theory holds that individuals tend to construct internally consistent views of the world and that psychological discomfort results when some new piece of information does not fit with an individual's existing beliefs. This discomfort is known as cognitive dissonance. The theory holds that because cognitive dissonance is uncomfortable, new information that contradicts existing views will either be discredited or will be interpreted to confirm rather than challenge existing beliefs (being in denial). Similarly, new information that reaffirms existing beliefs tend to be more readily believed and more heavily emphasized than information that class those beliefs into question (confirmation bias).

What strategies have states used to develop their economies? What are the critiques of these approaches?

PP Slides •Protectionism of Infant Industries: Used in U.S. and Japan -Tariffs Protecting their industries, but in developing states, since they were to late it didn't work (inefficiency) Using in the U.S. to create steep barriers to imports from other countries, the U.S. gave its firms the opportunity to develop without competition from established firms in other countries. (Used in Germany and Japan) Relied on protectionism in the early stages; the countries opened up markets to international competition only after their firms could compete successfully against others. Protectionism of Infant Industries: Does not succeed for the "late, late developers"

What is the Washington Consensus?

PP Slides •Washington Consensus: implied that neoliberal policies were a reflection of U.S. interests, interests of dominant economies (Margaret Thatcher in UK, Ronald Reagan in U.S.) -Takes place during Ronald Raegan, that government needs to stay away from the economy, deregulation, privatization of government-owned things, no subsidizing A development strategy favored by leading donor countries and organizations that advocates open economies, free trade, and minimal interference by the state in the economy. Liberals have argued that the success of the Asian Tigers is evidence that a free market approach-both domestically and internationally- is optimal. Let the market determine the niches they targeted.

What is Prospect Theory?

PP slides -You fight harder when you have something to lose rather than something to gain -The example in your reading is Palestine and Israel and the fight over territory over time. Book A theory that contends that how individuals weigh options is heavily influenced by whether a particular outcome is seen as a gain or a loss. Prospect theory contends that how individuals weigh options is heavily influenced by how the choices are framed. Leaders will take considerable risks to protect what they have (to avoid a perceived loss). There is a strong status quo bias in international affairs. Prospect theory may help explain why smaller, weaker states sometimes refused to bow to threats from larger, more powerful actors.

Which states are not members of the NPT?

Pakistan, India, Israel, North Korea, and South Sudan

What role do international non-governmental organizations (or transnational advocacy networks) play in supporting human rights around the world?

Raise awareness, letter-writing campaigns to get gov. to act, shame states (this will hurt their influence/soft power, since they're not following international law) Organizing activity for the protection of human rights •Civil and Political rights •Economic, social, and cultural rights (The key characteristic of all these organizations is that their members may be individuals or national-level organizations but are not states) Many transnational advocacy networks do not merely advocate; they act.In the delivery of aid around the world, transnational aid organizations can often accomplish tasks that even the most powerful governments cannot. Because they are not affiliated with governments, they can often establish relationships and go places where official government representatives cannot. Similarly, in conflict-prone areas, where the presence of foreign government personnel might provoke violence, governments rely heavily on transnational aid organizations to deliver all sorts of aid. Online Offering direct assistance to those whose rights have been violated. lobbying for changes to national, regional or international law. helping to develop the substance of those laws. promoting knowledge of, and respect for, human rights among the population.

Which ideologies have been most prominent over the past two decades in attacks carried out in the more developed (OECD) states?

Right-wing, far-right white supremacy Political

Organs of the UN and what they are designed to do Three Pillars of the UN -Security -Economic Development -Human Rights

Security Council -The fifteen-member council within the UN in charge of dealing with threats to international security. The Security Council is the most important component of the UN, but it has rarely been able to fulfill the hope placed in it. The Security Council has fifteen members, including the "permanent five" (US, UK, China, Russia, France) with veto powers. The ten nonpermanent members are elected to two-year terms by the General Assembly. The council is chaired by a president; the presidency rotates among the members, in alphabetical order, from month to month. The Security Council's purpose is to help to avoid conflict in the international arena by performing deterrent, peacekeeping, and negotiating functions. General Assembly -Today, the UN General Assembly has 193 members. In the General Assembly, all states, regardless of size, have equal rights, and each has a single vote. However, the main purpose of the General Assembly is not to pass laws but to provide a forum for debate on global issues and to express, when possible, international consensus. Second, the budget authority (power of the purse) that makes domestic legislatures so powerful is not available to the General Assembly. It is quite important as an arena in which issues are debated and discussed, and its resolutions, although not binding in a legal sense, have a great deal of influence in terms of agenda setting—in expressing the shared purpose of the international community. The General Assembly has the ability to put issues at the top of the international agenda.

Issues of human rights and humanitarian intervention may challenge which traditional principle of international relations?

Sovereignty -States are sovereign. •Some argue that there is a morality in respecting each others sovereignty and expressing tolerance over our differences. -Why would they make this point? - There is a weariness over the use of human rights, as it can become an excuse to violate sovereignty. -Justice can mean the imposition of one state's values over another's.

What do the 2015 UN Development goals emphasize?

Sustainability/Sustainable Development •1. End poverty - all forms, everywhere •2. End hunger... promote sustainable agriculture •6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all •7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all •8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all •9. Sustainable industrialization, foster innovation •11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable •12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns •13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impact •14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for sustainable development •15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss

What is the ICC? What types of cases does it try?

The Hague, Netherlands •Investigates genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes •Subjects: Individual Criminals, not states •Based on the "principle of complementarity," exercises jurisdiction when a state is unwilling or unable to investigate and prosecute •The UNSC or ICC member states may refer a case to the ICC

What are some of the critiques directed towards the World Bank?

The World Bank conducts research on development issues, make policy recommendations to specific governments, and lends money Critiques: -Conditionality -The voting procedure disenfranchises the poor countries that have the most at stake. -Lending, unless it is highly effective, may leave recipients with debt but without much benefit. -Conditionality undermines the sovereignty of recipient governments. -Conditionality often requires harsh economic policies, which hurt the poorest people in the recipient countries most. -Conditions that produce hardship can lead to unrest, destabilizing the very government the bank is trying to help and undermining the basis for reform. -Development projects supported by the World Bank have been focused only on narrow economic performance and in some cases have had severe environmental consequences. -The bank's analysis and its conditionality policies seem to be driven by an ideology, economic liberalism, that many believe is too simplistic for the problems it addresses.

Institutions associated with Brentton Woods, post WWII (the IMF and World Bank were also discussed in the notes on development)

a. International Monetary Fund (IMF) -emergency short-term loans to countries facing temporary financial crises/trade deficits -US is the largest contributor and has the largest percentage of the vote -encourage international trade b. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD, later World Bank) -Reconstruction in war-torn Europe - development elsewhere Focuses on Projects: Schools, Hospitals, Electricity, Ports, Trade, •General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) -To negotiate trade liberalization c. General Agreement on Tariffs (now World Trade Organization) -To facilitate trade between states After WWII ends, different countries came together to establish institutions that would try to regulate trade between countries (it was that deemed that the economy was a significant factor in causing WWII) •Criticisms of IMF/World Bank: -Dominated by Industrialized countries -Conditionality -Economic benefit vs Human cost •1995: GATT is replaced by the World Trade Organization (WTO)

Examples of Securitization

US and Iraq; Panama-US (how we justify war is with fear) The "Securitization" of Iraq •Not the facts, but the framing of the facts. •From Secular Arab Modernizer -Schools, education for women, infrastructure, healthcare •to "The Butcher of Baghdad" •to possible collaboration with Al Qaeda (Salafi Jihadi Organization) •1979: The Purge •Supported groups accused of carrying out acts of terrorism: PKK, MEK, different Palestinian militants •Placed by the US in 1979 on the list of State Sponsor's of Terrorism Donald Rumsfeld meets Saddam Hussein: 1983 Iraq will use chemical weapons against Iranians and Kurds from 1983-88 without repercussions; possibly 570 Chemical Weapon attacks War of the Cities: Targeted civilian populations with missile and aerial bombardment •1988 Prevention of Genocide Act, a Senate Bill to sanction Iraq for use of chemical weapons in Halabja did not pass due to intense lobbying by the Reagan-Bush White House in Congress •By 1990, Iraq had the 4th or 5th largest army in the world (in terms of mobilized servicemen) Iraq's 1990 Invasion of Kuwait -Coverage begins to focus on Saddam Hussein killing his own people (Halabja) Iraq is heavily sanctioned for over a decade (1990-2002): Deaths of ½ million Iraqi Children are attributed to these sanctions •In 2002: Iraq's armed forces were 40% of what they had been in 1991. Equipment was outdated or poorly maintained, soldiers lacked training in modern techniques of war. -In terms of "objective" security, far weaker •Post 9/11/2001: •January 2002: George Bush Axis of Evil Speech at the State of the Union (speech written by David Frum) -Iran, Iraq and North Korea •Preparation for War: Bush Doctrine, Pre-emptive War Iraq is effectively Securitized: 2003 War: U.S. Military in Baghdad

What is meant by vertical vs horizontal proliferation?

Vertical proliferation: A state developing more nuclear weapons (US-Russia) Horizontal proliferation: More countries getting nuclear weapons (China, India, Pakistan) "Horizontal" proliferation refers to nation-states or nonstate entities that do not have, but are acquiring, nuclear weapons or developing the capability and materials for producing them. "Vertical" proliferation refers to nation-states that do possess nuclear weapons and are increasing their stockpiles of these weapons, improving the technical sophistication or reliability of their weapons, or developing new weapons. •Conventional: "Overkill"/MAD -Vertical Proliferation -The U.S. and USSR •Diversified delivery systems: Bombers, Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs), Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMS), MIRVS (Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicle) •Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) -1st strike -2nd strike

What are considered crimes against humanity?

Violations of human rights that are deliberately carried out against a targeted population, are defined as crimes against humanity. Acts such as murder, enslavement, forced migration, or torture when carried out as part of a systematic campaign against a civilian population.

What is the JCPOA?

What did each side get out of the JCPOA •For Iran: Iran gets to enrich uranium •For the U.S.: It delays Iran's breakout ability; we would know about it, if the Iranians restarted the program. Iran would curtail its program and increase inspection, in exchange for lifting sanctions and right to enrich uranium to a certain degree under NPT (2015-Obama; Trump left 2018) -Iran exported its highly enriched uranium in exchange for fuel plates, which cannot be used to create a weapon -From 19,500 centrifuges to 6,000 (remainder in IAEA monitored storage) -Continued to enrich uranium with a smaller number of centrifuges, but this is low-enriched uranium useful for civilian purposes -Made its Ferdow facility (which was deeply underground) a research facility (open to members of the international community) -Transformed its Arak water reactor, which can no longer be used to make weapons grade plutonium; -Increased inspections -All this set back the time period that Iran could build a bomb, if it so decided to do so from a few months to over a year. -Iran will remain subject to a UN arms embargo for 5 years •For 15 years, 5 years beyond the 10-year centrifuge limitation, Iran's uranium stockpile is capped at 300kg, which is significantly less than is needed to produce a single nuclear weapon. •For the same 15-year period, Iran's uranium enrichment is capped at 3.67%. -90% enrichment is considered weapons-grade. •For 20 years, 10 years beyond the 10-year centrifuge limitation, the IAEA will monitor Iran's centrifuge production. •For 25 years, 15 years beyond the 10-year centrifuge limitation, Iran's uranium ore production and purchases will be monitored by the IAEA. •Permanently, the IAEA will be granted greater access to monitor Iran's nuclear activity through Iran's ratification of the Additional Protocol.

Solving the Problem: Barriers to Collective Action and Collaboration

•# of actors •Time Horizons •Competing Economic Priorities -Domestic Politics -Need for Incentives (developing world) -Conflict with Free Trade Agreement •Punishing Free Riders and Enforcing Regulation

What have developing nations ask of the developed nations in the recent COP/Climate Summits? Why would they think this request is fair?

•$100 billion pledged for developing nations to mitigate climate change (what is really needed is in the trillion): African countries are asking for over a trillion. •One single flight to Europe (one way) vs one year in the life of an average citizen in sub-Saharan Africa. From the perspective of developing countries, it seems that the developed countries, have gotten rich by exploiting natural resources and despoiling the environment, are not trying to close the door before the poorer countries can pursue the same strategies. In general, people in wealthier countries consume more resources and produce more pollution than those in poorer countries.

What is the NPT? What does it state about non-nuclear states who are signatories and nuclear states who are signatories?

•1970 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, (non-Proliferation Regime) 190 signatories -The United States, Britain, the Soviet Union, France, and China were recognized as having the rights to nuclear weapons - all other states agreed to forego the development of nuclear arsenals -The recognized nuclear powers were to move towards the elimination of their arsenals -Peaceful nuclear technology was to be allowed -The NPT non Nuclear Weapons states agree never to acquire nuclear weapons and NPT nuclear weapon states in exchange agree to share the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology and to promote nuclear disarmament aimed at ultimate elimination of their nuclear arsenals. (Nuclear states are US, UK, France, China, and Russia) -NPT says that if any other state except p5 will try to get nuclear power than sanctions will be imposed upon it. Critics •Critics argue that the treaty is fundamentally unfair as it privileges the nuclear status of the five original nuclear weapons states, to the detriment of all other countries

Which cases of Genocide have been recognized under the convention and have had some redress?

•1970s Khmer Rouge in Cambodia: against Cham Muslim and ethnic Vietnamese •1994 Rwandan genocide •1995 Srebrenica Massacre in Bosnia (3 cases of genocide have been recognized by the convention, leading to trials and tribunals) •Recognized as genocide by the United Nations as a whole. -Mass killings of the Yazidis by ISIS in Iraq -The Rohingya in Myanmar -Though the US called the killing of Black Africans in the Sudanese region of Darfur between 2003 and 2005 "genocide," a UN investigation ruled it was not genocide. -Other: Guatemalan Genocide

What is Jus in bello?

•2. Jus in bello rules -Governs the conduct of war (how do you treat captives, soldiers, you can't torture a solider from the other side, civilians) -Governed by International Humanitarian Law like the Geneva Conventions

Which states have nuclear weapons?

•China (290) •France (300) •India (140) • Israel (80) •North Korea (25) • Pakistan (150) • Russia (6500) • United Kingdom (215) • United States (6185)

What is BRICS?

•China-led: Asia Infrastructure Investment Bank •New Development Bank (NDD) -Established by the BRICS states (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) -2023 Called for the creation of BRICS currency Videos -The BRICS is trying to position itself as the voice for emerging economies and challenge western dominance of global affairs. -Projections by Goldman Sachs show the world's economic balance shifting towards the BRICS and emerging economies. China is expected to overtake the US as the world's largest economy by 2050, with India climbing to number three. -South Africa publicly supports the expansion, as does Brazil, but experts say behind the scenes, Brazil and India want a more measured approach. It seems that they are concerned about the group leaning too autocratic, so they want to have very specific requirements for admission to make sure that there's a balance amongst the members, and that it doesn't become sort of the autocratic G7. -BRICS has its own New Development Bank which seems to have more favorable terms than a traditional development bank like the World Bank or the IMF is definitely something that's attractive to a lot of countries. -The New Development Bank also wants to deepen the use of local currencies instead of the US dollar for trade and financing between the BRICS nations. -In fact Brazil and China have already struck a deal to bypass the dollar when paying for trade goods which is a major milestone in Beijing's long-term plans to establish its own currency the Yuan as the dominant International currency.

In International Humanitarian Law: What is meant by Distinction and Proportionality?

•Civilian Protections under IHL -IHL provides protections to civilians and civilian property during war grounded in two principles: Distinction and Proportionality •1. Distinction: armed forces must distinguish between civilians and military targets, and civilians cannot be deliberately targeted in war •Proportionality: attacks that cause excessive loss of civilian life, even if does so incidentally, are prohibited under IHL •These rules do not mean that if civilians are killed that it is a war crime •Civilian deaths are permissible if they are 1)unintentional; 2) necessary to the overall military objective, and 3) proportional to that objective. (Geneva convention; what is legal and not legal)

Discursive/Intersubjective

•Discursive/Intersubjective -"process through which 'threats' manifest themselves as security problems on the political agenda" -How we legitimize our perception of threat and make it hegemonic (acceptable to most- domestically and internationally)

Civil War Under what conditions are civil wars more likely to take place, according to your author?

•Economic Explanation?? •State cannot solve people's problems •Poorer people have less to lose by taking up arms •Unexpected Economic Crisis Grievance Based Explanation: -Political: seeking to overthrow the government or to force it to reform. -Economics: seeking to force a government to adopt different economic policies or to address some economic grievance. -Territorial: autonomy or independence. -Ethnicity and religion.

Media and Warfare

•Embedded reporters (tell the story through the lens of the military they are embedded with) •Mainstream media -Increasingly competitive narratives with the expansion of sources »RT, Al-Jazeera, Press TV, al-Arabiya •Social media war -States losing control of narratives? Or using social media themselves to fight emerging contrarian narratives? »2014: Gaza-Israel War »Russia in the Crimea »Syrian Civil War »Current Israeli war in Gaza

How did the Asian Tigers develop?

•Export-led Growth -Most of these states were not democracies and low wages was essential. -The gov. took an active role in accumulating capital for investment and in directing that investment into particular industries. -Governments picked industries in which they believed their firms could compete. -Domestic competition was squelched so firms could concentrate on the international market. -The state helped build the legal and bureaucratic infrastructure needed for capitalism to thrive. -The state must do certain jobs, and do them very well; high investment in math and science education. -Let the market determine the niches they targeted.

What strategies have states used to develop their economies? What are the critiques of these approaches?

•Export-led Growth Asian Tigers (Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan) East Asia developed a strategy known as export-led growth. The leader in this strategy was Japan. Saw integration with international markets as acceptable and even desirable. This strategy focused on the markets in developed countries with larger and wealthier populations. To produce mass market goods better and more cheaply. Because workers in the Asian Tigers were, at the beginning of this process, much poorer than workers in the countries with whom they were competing, wages were much lower. Much of the focus was on low-cost production based on abundant cheap labor, strategy used in China recently. Export-led growth used the profits generated and expertise gained in producing such low-end goods to move up the value chain. The Asian Tigers has very high domestic savings rates, which provided the investment needed for technological advancement. Helped these countries produce not only cheaper good but better and world's leading producers in certain technologies like laptop computers. Critiques: -Most of these states were not democracies and low wages was essential. -Domestic competition was squelched so firms could concentrate on the international market. -The Asian financial crisis of 1997-1998, that crisis helped expose the close connections between firms and the government, which in some cases were corrupt ("crony capitalism"). -The East Asian economies developed during the Cold War, this timing influenced their access to the markets. The US was willing to tolerate significant trade deficits for security interest.

What does the Genocide Convention State?

•Has an actual physical and an intentional component -Genocides begin with dehumanizing language -Among the largest genocides: WWII •approximately 6 million Jews killed by the Nazis •Article I: •(a) Killing members of the group; •(b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; •(c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; •(d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; •(e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. •Article II: The following acts shall be punishable: •(a) Genocide; •(b) Conspiracy to commit genocide; •(c) Direct and public incitement to commit genocide; •(d) Attempt to commit genocide; •(e) Complicity in genocide.

What does R2P (Responsibility to Protect) state?

•I: States MUST protect population from: Genocide, War Crimes, Ethnic Cleansing, Crimes against Humanity and their incitement •II. International Community: Assist and Encourage states to fulfill their responsibilities (Preventive) •III. International Community: Timely and Decisive Action: -Peaceful Means: humanitarian, diplomatic -Forceful Means: Sanctions, Military Intervention

What are some security implications of Climate change?

•Impact on - Food Insecurity, -disease, -Migration/Refugees, - Conflicts •Domestically •Intra-state Competition Ex: The Great Wall of India: 2500 miles long •Most densely populated large nation on earth -Melting glaciers upstream -Rising seas downstream •Destruction of crops •Dengue -½ a million flee to the slums of Dhaka each year; 70% for environmental reasons •The Wall in India is meant to keep refugees out Resource Scarcity and inter-communal Conflict Chad: Refugees feeling the expanding Sahara settle near Lake Chad, whose borders have shrunk by 90% since 1973 •With rainfall down by up to 30% over 40 years and the Sahara advancing by well over a mile every year •Conflicts between herders (nomads) and farmers over disappearing pastures and evaporating waterholes Darfur: Amid the diverse social and political causes, the Darfur conflict began as an ecological crisis, arising at least in part from climate change. Syria: 2008 Drought; 160 Villages Abandoned -At the time 2011 (way up now) U.S. households spent 7% of income on food -In the Arab world between 34 - 63 % -Price of food doubled between 2007 and 2011

What is international humanitarian law?

•International Humanitarian Law: governs conduct of hostilities -3 main sets of protections •1. Weapons Prohibitions -Gas, poison and other inhumane weapons are prohibited •2. Treatment of detainees and prisoners of war -No torture of prisoners, right to medical attention •3. Civilian Protections -Proportionality and Distinction (Online: International humanitarian law (IHL) is a set of rules that seek to limit the effects of armed conflict) •International law makes interaction more predictable and facilitates cooperation and coexistence, as well as proving restraint on powerful actors •The International Court of Justice at the Hague is a UN organ that addresses disputes between states

Where was it implemented?

•Libya -UN Security Council authorized military force in Libya to Protect civilians during the Libyan "Arab Spring"; -The Russian government abstained; allowing the use of force; implemented through NATO -The operation resulted in regime change in Libya -Chaos ensued; different rebel factions and terrorist groups •Syria (?) -The Russians vetoed similar attempts in Syria; However, U.S. forces are involved in Syria, as are Turkish Forces; and Russian, and Iranian forces and Iranian supported militias; rebel groups, at one time numbering about 5,000 have been backed by different states or wealthy individuals from Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait... etc.

Objective/Subjective Security

•Objective: Is a concrete threat present or absent •Might look at military expenditure and capabilities (approximate figures) -United States ($782 billion) -China ($250 billion) -Russia ($65 billion) -France ($64 billion) -India ($54 billion) -Saudi Arabia ($46 billion) •Subjective: defines security as the absence of fear -Not the capabilities, but the fear generated by these capabilities. Example: Nuclear Weapons (approximately) -Who do we fear? •China (290) •France (300) •India (140) • Israel (80) •North Korea (25) • Pakistan (150) • Russia (6500) • United Kingdom (215) • United States (6185) •Whose Nukes do we fear? China

Security What is meant by Human Security? What are some of the different sectors of security?

•Protecting the Survival of Someone of Something -A state's security -A society's security -A gender's security -An individual's security, etc. •Sectors of Security -The 1994 Human Development Report (by UNDP) expanded the notion of security to address human security. In addressing human security, the focus is on the individual, not just the state Concerns over: •Economic security •Food security •Health security •Environmental security •Personal security •Community security •Political security (they may be used to justify war)

What strategies have states used to develop their economies? What are the critiques of these approaches?

•State Socialism Approach -Swift Industrialization, but: •High Human Cost - Human Rights •Environmental Degradation •Inefficiency State socialism emerged with the establishment of the Soviet Union in 1917 and spread after WWII to eastern Europe, China, and Cuba. Most prominent was economic structuralism: the notion that the market capitalism and private property led inexorably to the exploitation of one class by another. In practice, used economic planning which provided an alternative to market-based distribution. The Soviet Union used a series of five-year plans that outlined detailed economic goals, including the quantities of different kinds of inputs and final products to be produced. Critiques of State Socialism: A high human cost was paid. Failed on economic as well as human grounds in the Soviet Union. State planners could not plan innovation. Economic gains in the Soviet system generally came from using more resources, not from devising innovative ways to use resources more efficiently. Overtime the economies grew much more slowly than those in the West, leaving their citizens much poorer. The Soviet Union abandoned this system.

What is Jus ad bellum?

•The Law of Armed Conflict •1. Jus ad bellum rules -Governs when it is legal to declare war or engage in armed conflict (Governed by the UN Charter and customary international law) in the case of self-defense -Since you've been attacked you have the right to go to war -Security Council deems that it is legitimate to carry out military action against the state

In which document, or documents are human rights recognized?

•UN Charter 1945: Identifies Human Rights as a principle objective -Created Commission on Human Rights that drafted the *Universal Declaration of Human Rights* •Civil and Political rights •Economic, social, and cultural rights