Intro to Sociology Final

"The Homeless Mind" is a concept introduced by sociologist Peter Berger

explores the influence of modernity on human consciousness and the sense of belonging. 1)Influence of Modernity on Human Consciousness: Modernity, characterized by industrialization, urbanization, secularization, and technological advancements, has brought about profound changes in how individuals perceive themselves and their place in the world. Traditional structures of meaning, such as religion, family, and community, have been challenged by the rise of rationality, individualism, and globalization. This has led to a sense of disorientation and alienation for many individuals as they navigate a rapidly changing and uncertain world. 2)Life-Worlds: Life-worlds refer to the subjective realities or worlds of meaning constructed by individuals through their everyday experiences, interactions, and interpretations of the world around them. In traditional societies, life-worlds were often shaped by shared cultural, religious, and social frameworks that provided a sense of stability and coherence. However, in modernity, life-worlds have become more fragmented and diverse as individuals are exposed to a multitude of competing ideologies, lifestyles, and worldviews. 3)Home-World: The concept of the home-world reflects the idea of finding a sense of belonging and rootedness in one's environment. Traditionally, the home-world was often closely tied to physical spaces, such as the family home or the local community, where individuals felt a sense of familiarity, security, and identity. However, in modernity, the home-world becomes more elusive as social structures become more fluid, mobility increases, and traditional bonds weaken. This can lead to feelings of homelessness or rootlessness, where individuals struggle to find a sense of belonging and connection in an increasingly globalized and transient world.

Racism

• Defining Racism - Racism • The attribution of characteristics of superiority or inferiority to a population sharing certain physically inherited characteristics • Prejudice and Discrimination - Discrimination • Behavior that denies to the members of a particular group resources or rewards that can be obtained by others • Prejudice is about ideas whereas discrimination is about actions.• Defining Racism - Racism • The attribution of characteristics of superiority or inferiority to a population sharing certain physically inherited characteristics • Prejudice and Discrimination - Discrimination • Behavior that denies to the members of a particular group resources or rewards that can be obtained by others • Prejudice is about ideas whereas discrimination is about actions.

Gender strategies - plan of actions

• Forged in early childhood • Anchored to deep emotions "A gender strategy is a plan of action through which a person tries to solve problems at hand, given the cultural notions of gender at play. To pursue a gender strategy, a man draws on beliefs about manhood and womanhood, beliefs that are forged in early childhood and usually anchored to deep emotions. He makes a connection between how he thinks about his manhood, what he feels about it, and what he does. Each person's gender ideology defines what sphere a person wants to identify with (home or work) and how much power in a marriage one wants to have (less, more, or the same amount)" (p. 15).

Basic Concepts

• Race - A socially constructed category rooted in the belief that there are fundamental differences among humans, associated with phenotype and ancestry • Ethnicity - Cultural values and norms that distinguish the members of a given group from others

Gender ideology

• Shallow ideologies: ideology that does not match deeper feelings • Deep ideologies: aligns with deeper feelings The Second Shift The author expresses a growing curiosity about the extent to which gender beliefs are deeply ingrained within individuals. They observe that some people may appear to hold egalitarian views about gender equality in public or on the surface ("on top"), but still adhere to traditional gender roles and expectations in their personal lives or deep down ("underneath"). Others may exhibit the opposite pattern. To better understand this phenomenon, the author decides to delve into the concept of gender ideology and its impact on individuals' lives. They seek to uncover how individuals reconcile their stated beliefs about gender with their everyday behaviors and decisions. This exploration leads them to develop the concept of "gender strategies," which likely involves investigating the various ways individuals navigate and negotiate gender norms and expectations in different contexts and aspects of their lives.

Basic Concepts

• Social stratification: - the existence of structured inequalities between groups in society in terms of their access to material and symbolic rewards. • Intersectionality: - a sociological perspective that holds that our multiple group memberships affect our lives in ways that are distinct from single group memberships. • Structured inequalities: - social inequalities that result from patterns in the social structure.

Significant changes in modernity (2)

• Temporalization With the advent of industrialization, urbanization, and technological advancements, there has been a profound acceleration of daily life, marked by increased efficiency, productivity, and consumption • Idea of Progress (Enlightenment) The idea of progress emerged during the Enlightenment as a belief in the cumulative improvement of human society through reason, science, and social reform. This concept has been central to modernity, driving advancements in technology, governance, and social norms. The belief in progress has fueled efforts to overcome social injustices, achieve scientific breakthroughs, and expand human freedoms. • Rise of Sciences & Rationalization The rise of sciences and rationalization refers to the increasing importance of empirical inquiry, reason, and logic in understanding the natural and social world. • Bureaucracy Bureaucracy refers to a system of administrative organization characterized by hierarchical authority, standardized procedures, and specialized roles. • Archivization Archivization refers to the systematic collection, preservation, and organization of records and documents for future reference and historical analysis.

Deinstitutionalization (1)

▪ In traditional societies the Background (the taken for granted) is larger. Institutions are at the DNA level. ▪ In modernity the background is reducing and foreground is expanding. The process of going from habit to choice. ▪ But what exactly moves in the foreground? The private sphere gets deinstitutionalized (examples: Family, marriage, identity, Religion, adulthood). The public sphere gets hyperinstitutionalized.

Gone Home: Race and Roots through Appalachia. Karida L. Brown

"Gone Home: Race and Roots through Appalachia" explores the complex relationship between race, identity, and migration in the context of African American communities in the Appalachian region. Here's a simplified explanation of some key concepts discussed: Paternalistic Capitalism and the Coal Industry: This refers to the historical relationship between the coal industry and African American workers in the Appalachian region. The coal industry often implemented paternalistic practices, such as creating model towns and exerting control over workers' lives. African American workers faced surveillance and threats when attempting to unionize, as their labor was crucial to the industry's profits. The Great Migration or the Great Escape?: This explores the migration of African Americans from the South to the North during the early to mid-20th century. While commonly known as the Great Migration, some scholars view it as a "Great Escape" from the oppressive conditions of the Jim Crow South. African Americans faced challenges during their migration, including harsh travel conditions and the inability to pass on their origin stories. Formation Story: A "formation story" refers to the historical narrative that shapes the collective identity and consciousness of a social group, such as African Americans. It relates to the emergence and transformation of African American subjectivity, influenced by social constructs and historical experiences. Scholars like Mead, Du Bois, and Brown emphasize the role of racial self-awareness and historical context in shaping individual and collective identities.

Erving Goffman: Theories of Social Interaction

- Social interaction • the process by which we act and react to those around us - Agency • the ability to think, act, and make choices independently • Differs from the looking glass self

Secularization

-A process of decline in the influence of religion -Constitutional separation of Church and State -Is Nietzsche's "God is dead" statement or Berger's prediction still accurate today? (secularization debate) Nietzsche's famous statement "God is dead," often interpreted as a metaphor for the decline of traditional religious beliefs and values in modern society, and Peter Berger's prediction of secularization, which posits a gradual decline in the societal influence of religion Religion In modernity • Privatization: locating religion into the private sphere. • Pluralization: varieties in faith. • Deinstitutionalization: religions does not disappear but change forms and moves into the private sphere.

Pierre Bourdieu • Forms of Capital:

1) Economic capital: economic resources. Economic capital refers to the resources and wealth that a person or family possesses, such as money, property, or investments. It's about having financial assets that can be used to buy goods, services, or investments. 2) Social capital: social connections, which could be institutionalized into titles. Membership in a group, family, political party. Social capital is about the connections and relationships that a person has with others in their social network. This could include memberships in groups, families, or political parties. It's like having a network of friends, colleagues, or acquaintances that can provide support, information, or opportunities. 3) Cultural capital: embodied (e.g. Habitus), institutionalized and objectified. Cultural capital comes in different forms. It includes the knowledge, skills, and cultural resources that a person possesses, such as language proficiency, education level, or familiarity with cultural norms and practices. It can be embodied in a person's habits or behavior (habitus), institutionalized in formal education or credentials, or objectified in cultural artifacts like books or art. • Social reproduction: - Noneconomic cultural resources or knowledge that parents pass down to children. - Linguistic and cultural competences, familiarity with culture. Education and acquired Habitus. It includes things like teaching children language and cultural norms, providing educational opportunities, and passing down knowledge or skills that are valued in society. It's like how families pass on their social advantages or disadvantages to their children through cultural practices and resources.

Child Labor and Adulthood (Hunter)

1)Distinct Periods of Life: Before modernity, childhood and adolescence were not clearly defined stages of life. However, with the advent of modernity, distinct periods of childhood and adolescence emerged. This shift was influenced by factors such as the decline of infant mortality rates, which allowed children to survive into adolescence, as well as the separation of work and domesticity. Industrialization and the emergence of a surplus economy also played roles in shaping this differentiation by creating new opportunities for education and leisure for young people. 2)Deinstitutionalization and Postponement of Adulthood: In contrast to childhood and adolescence, adulthood underwent deinstitutionalization and postponement in the modern era. Traditional markers of adulthood, such as achieving social status or prestige, securing employment, getting married, and homeownership, were delayed. This delay was driven by various factors, including economic shifts, educational attainment, and changing social norms. As societies became more complex and diverse, the pathways to adulthood became less linear, and individuals faced increased pressure to navigate a prolonged period of transition before fully assuming adult responsibilities.

Four Models of Migration

1. The classic model: A country encourages immigration and promises citizenship to newcomers (restrictions and quotas apply). This applies to countries like Canada, the United States, and Australia. 2. The colonial model: A country grants preferences to immigrants from former colonies. This applies to countries like England and France. 3. The guest workers model: Immigrants are admitted on a temporary basis, but they do not receive citizenship rights, even after long periods of settlement. This applies to countries like Belgium, Switzerland, and Germany. • Jus sanguinis (e.g. Germany) VS Jus soli (e.g. France) 4. Illegal models of immigration: Immigrants who enter a country either secretly or under a nonimmigration pretense often live illegally, outside the realm of official society

Deinstitutionalization of marriage (Andrew Cherlin)

1. The first transition: from the institutional to the companionate marriage 2. The second transition: from companionate to the individualized marriage Symbolic significance of marriage - Enforceable trust - Marriage as capstone Andrew Cherlin discusses the deinstitutionalization of marriage, highlighting two significant transitions: The first transition is from the institutional marriage to the companionate marriage. In this shift, marriages were based more on companionship and mutual affection rather than strict societal expectations or obligations. The second transition is from companionate marriage to individualized marriage. Here, marriages become even more personalized, with individuals prioritizing their own happiness and fulfillment within the relationship. Cherlin also discusses the symbolic significance of marriage, noting that it serves as a form of enforceable trust and can be seen as a capstone in one's life. In modern society, marriage is often viewed as a status achieved after significant personal and professional investments, such as living together, securing employment, saving money, and even having children. This contrasts with traditional views where marriage was seen as the foundation of adult life, with individuals marrying earlier in their life course.

Gender strategies

1. Traditional "Even though she works, the 'pure' traditional woman wants to identify with her activities at home (as a wife, a mother, a neighborhood mom), wants her husband to base his identity on work, and wants less power than he has. The traditional man wants the same" (p. 15). 2. Transitional "Between the traditional and the egalitarian is the transitional, any one of a variety of types of blending the two. But in contrast to the traditional, a transitional woman wants to identify with her role at work as well as at home, but she believes her husband should base his identity more on work than she does. A typical transitional wants to identify both with the care of the home and with helping her husband earn a living. A typical transitional man is all for his wife working, but expects her to do the lion's share at home too" (p. 15). 3. Egalitarian "The 'pure' egalitarian wants to identify with the same spheres [their spouse] does, and to have an equal amount of power in the marriage. Some want the couple to be jointly oriented to the home, others to their careers, or both of them to jointly hold some balance between the two" (p. 15). The family myth - Is created when reality contradicts a family's gender ideology.

Annette Lareau

Annette Lareau's research describes two different parenting styles: Concerted cultivation: This parenting style involves actively organizing and managing a child's schedule with structured activities, like sports or extracurricular classes. Parents often advocate for their children and encourage them to speak up and negotiate in social settings. Accomplishment of natural growth: In contrast, this style emphasizes letting children develop at their own pace, without as much structured activity or parental intervention. Parents in this style often prioritize their children's happiness and independence over academic or extracurricular achievements.

basic concepts

Audience Segregation Audience segregation involves the way people behave differently depending on who's around. • Civil Inattention: individuals in the same physical setting glance at each other and quickly look away to indicate awareness of each other but not intrusiveness it's when people briefly acknowledge each other in a public setting, like making eye contact, but then quickly look away to respect each other's privacy without being intrusive. It's a way to acknowledge others without intruding into their personal space or conversation. Two kinds of communication: expressions given and expressions given off • Nonverbal Communication - Nonverbal communication • communication between individuals based on facial expression or bodily gesture rather than on language - Face, gestures, and emotion • Response Cries -seemingly involuntary exclamations individuals make when, for example, they are taken by surprise, drop something inadvertently, or want to express pleasure

Deinstitutionalization (2)

Background and foreground deinstitutionalization refer to shifts in the relative importance and influence of social institutions in traditional and modern societies. In traditional societies, the background (the taken for granted) is larger, meaning that social institutions are deeply ingrained in the fabric of everyday life and are considered essential and unquestionable. These institutions, such as family, religion, community, and kinship networks, play a fundamental role in shaping individuals' identities, behaviors, and social interactions. They are often regarded as the bedrock of society, guiding norms, values, and practices from generation to generation. In this context, institutions operate at the DNA level, meaning they are deeply embedded in the cultural and social heritage of the community. On the other hand, in modernity, there is a reduction in the background and an expansion of the foreground. This shift reflects a process of moving from habit to choice, where individuals have more agency and autonomy in shaping their lives and identities. As traditional institutions lose their grip on social life, individuals are increasingly confronted with a growing array of options and possibilities, both personally and socially.

History of mate selection

Before Modernity In antiquity: - Survival, procreation, endogamy, pragmatic & economic reasons. After Christianity: - Self-denial. - "Courtly love" in middle ages After reformation: - Adultery is rebuked - Combination of "Courtly love" from middle ages + marriage exclusivity = monogamous marriages implying love explain in simple words ina few line seach Before modern times, mate selection was often influenced by practical considerations such as survival, procreation, and economic reasons. In ancient times, people typically married within their own social group or tribe, a practice known as endogamy. With the rise of Christianity, there was an emphasis on self-denial, and marriage was seen as a solemn commitment. During the Middle Ages, the concept of "courtly love" emerged, which romanticized love and chivalry. After the Reformation, adultery became morally condemned, and there was a shift towards monogamous marriages. These marriages combined elements of courtly love from the Middle Ages with the exclusivity of marriage vows. Couples began to prioritize love and emotional connection in addition to practical considerations, leading to the emergence of monogamous relationships based on mutual affection and commitment.

Identity before and after modernity

Before modernity: Identity were rooted institutionally/environmentally. No choice of reflection. Rooted in: • Families: work and vocation. Homogenous life. Prestige and stability. • Space: few people travelled from home. • Religion • Social world: born into social reality (family +community

Basic Concepts

Blurring the Boundaries between the Genders - Cisgender • individuals whose gender identity matches his or her biological sex - Transgender • a person who identifies as or expresses a gender identity that differs from his or her sex at birth - Intersex • an individual possessing both male and female genitalia

Research on Families Today Changing Family Patterns Worldwide

Changing Family Patterns Worldwide - Global family change over the last half-century • clans and kin have less influence • general trend toward free choice of spouse • women's rights in marriage and family are growing • decline in kin marriages • greater sexual freedom • birth rates are declining • children's rights are growing - Family trends in Western industrial societies over the last three decades • increase in births outside of marriage • liberalization of laws and norms regarding divorce • increase in nonmarital cohabitation • increasing age at first marriage and first birth • growing number of and acceptance for same-sex couples

Max Weber: class, status and party

Class and Status - Status: • the social honor or prestige a particular group is accorded by other members of society. - Pariah groups: • groups who suffer from negative status discrimination. Social order - distribution of honor (status). Economic order - distribution of economic resources (class). Legal order - distribution of power (party)

Coleman and Berger: Before and After Modernity

Coleman and Berger contrast the dynamics of social organization and individual experience before and after modernity: Before Modernity: 1)Family and Natural Persons: Social organizations were primarily structured around individuals and familial units. 2)Corporate Structure: Social organizations were not based on legal entities like corporations but rather on personal relationships and connections. 3)Relevance of Persons: Individuals held significance within social structures and were not easily replaceable. 4)Symmetry of Power: There was a more balanced power dynamic between individuals and social structures. Religion played a central role, providing a unified and integrated worldview, often described as a "sacred canopy." Societies were characterized by unified and coherent life-worlds, with a single, meaningful center of life, termed the "home-world." The distinction between private and public life was clearer. Individual identity was more stable and rooted, with a sense of belonging and coherence.

Color-blind racism

Color-blind racism: This refers to a type of racism that operates without overt expressions of racial prejudice or discrimination. Instead, it relies on subtle, often unconscious biases and stereotypes that perpetuate racial inequalities and disparities. Color-blind racism downplays the significance of race and ignores the structural barriers and systemic injustices faced by marginalized communities. White privilege: White privilege refers to the unearned advantages and benefits that white individuals experience in society simply by virtue of their whiteness. These privileges may include greater access to educational and employment opportunities, better treatment by institutions such as law enforcement and the criminal justice system, and higher social status and representation in media and politics. White privilege is often invisible to those who possess it but can have profound implications for the life chances and outcomes of individuals from marginalized racial groups. Peggy McIntosh and the Invisible Knapsack: Peggy McIntosh's concept of the "Invisible Knapsack" describes the invisible and unacknowledged privileges that white people carry with them in their daily lives. McIntosh identified a range of privileges that benefit white individuals, such as being able to move through society without being racially profiled, seeing people of their race represented positively in media, and having access to resources and opportunities denied to people of color. These privileges are often taken for granted by white individuals but contribute to the perpetuation of systemic racism and inequality.

Pluralization

Cultural pluralism - Most societies in the past were homogenous and isolated. After modernity different worlds and cultures are coming in contact and possibly bringing conflicts. • Structural pluralism: A division of Public VS Private comes with modernity. ❖Public sphere (world of work): government, law, healthcare, military, communication... ❖Private sphere (world of domesticity): family, religion, sexuality, friendships...

Race and Racism in Historical and Comparative Perspective

European expansion and colonialism during the 15th to 20th centuries had profound consequences on global history, including the emergence of scientific racism and the rise of racism as a pervasive ideology: Scientific racism: This refers to the misuse of scientific research or data to justify beliefs about the superiority or inferiority of particular racial groups. Europeans employed pseudoscientific theories to rationalize their colonization and exploitation of non-European peoples. Taxonomy, the classification of organisms, was applied to humans in a hierarchical manner, with Europeans typically depicted as superior and non-Europeans as inferior. The Rise of Racism: European colonial expansion also facilitated the spread of racist ideologies. The colonization of indigenous lands and the enslavement of Africans were justified through the dehumanization and racialization of non-European peoples. This laid the groundwork for the systemic discrimination and marginalization of non-white populations in colonial and post-colonial societies. Apartheid: Apartheid was a system of racial segregation and discrimination implemented in South Africa from 1948 to the early 1990s. Under apartheid, various laws and policies enforced racial segregation, denying non-white South Africans basic rights and opportunities. Apartheid institutionalized racism, leading to widespread social inequality, economic exploitation, and political oppression.

Arlie Hochschild

Explaining the great paradox Arlie Hochschild's concept of the "great paradox" refers to the puzzling phenomenon where individuals who are economically disadvantaged or facing hardships, such as those in working-class communities, hold political and social views that may seem contradictory to their own interests. Despite facing economic struggles, they may express support for policies or politicians that do not necessarily benefit them economically. This paradox prompts Hochschild to delve deeper into understanding the underlying emotions, values, and experiences that shape these individuals' political and social beliefs.

Basic Concepts

Family - A group of individuals related to one another by blood ties, marriage, or adoption, who form an economic unit, the adult members of which are responsible for the upbringing of children • Kinship - A relation that links individuals through blood ties, marriage, or adoption • Marriage - A socially approved sexual relationship between two individuals Nuclear family -A family group consisting of two adults living together in a household with their own or adopted children Extended family -A family consisting of more than two generations of relatives living either within the same household or very close to one another Monogamy - A form of marriage in which each married partner is allowed only one spouse at any given time • Polygamy - A form of marriage in which a person may have two or more spouses simultaneously - Polygyny • a form of marriage in which a man may simultaneously have two or more wives - Polyandry • a form of marriage in which a woman may simultaneously have two or more husbands

Feminist theory:

Feminist theory: A sociological perspective that emphasizes the centrality of gender in analyzing the social world and particularly the uniqueness of the experience of women. - Liberal, radical, socialist, black, transnational, and postmodern feminism • There are many strands of feminist theory, but they all share the desire to explain gender inequalities in society and to work to overcome them. Feminism: Advocacy of the rights of women to be equal with men in all spheres of life. Feminism dates from the late eighteenth century in Europe, and feminist movements exist in most countries today.

Becoming a Gendered Body: Practices of Preschools

Five sets of practices: Dressing up: This refers to the way children are encouraged or required to dress, which can convey messages about gender norms and expectations. Permitting relaxed behaviors or requiring formal behaviors: This involves the rules or expectations around how children behave, whether they're allowed to be casual and relaxed or expected to behave formally and follow strict rules. Controlling voices: Teachers may influence how children speak, such as encouraging certain tones or volumes, which can reinforce gendered ideas about how boys and girls should communicate. Verbal and physical instructions regarding children's bodies by teachers: Teachers may give instructions about how children should use their bodies, such as sitting a certain way or using gestures, which can reinforce gender stereotypes. Physical interactions among children: This refers to how children interact physically, such as playing together or engaging in physical activities, which can also reflect and reinforce gender norms and expectations. Hidden curriculum: The hidden curriculum refers to the unspoken or implicit lessons and values that are taught in schools alongside the formal curriculum. In this context, it refers to the ways in which schools teach children about gender through these practices and interactions. For example, by encouraging certain behaviors or interactions based on gender, schools may unintentionally reinforce gender stereotypes and expectations, shaping how children perceive and understand gender from a young age.

Deinstitutionalization (3)

Foreground deinstitutionalization specifically refers to the diminishing influence of traditional social institutions in the private sphere, including areas such as family, marriage, identity, religion, and adulthood. In modern societies, these institutions become less rigid and less prescriptive, allowing for greater diversity and fluidity in individual choices and lifestyles. For example, the traditional nuclear family model may give way to various forms of family arrangements, including single-parent households, cohabitation, or chosen families. Similarly, rigid gender roles and expectations around marriage and identity may be challenged and renegotiated. Conversely, while the private sphere experiences deinstitutionalization, the public sphere undergoes hyperinstitutionalization. This means that institutions such as government, corporations, educational systems, and legal frameworks become increasingly dominant and pervasive in public life. These institutions exercise significant influence over social, political, and economic processes, often shaping norms, policies, and practices on a large scale. This hyperinstitutionalization can lead to bureaucratization, standardization, and regulation of various aspects of public life. In summary, background and foreground deinstitutionalization describe the changing landscape of social institutions in traditional and modern societies. As traditional institutions recede in importance, individuals are afforded greater autonomy and choice in the private sphere, while institutional influence intensifies in the public sphere. These shifts reflect broader transformations in social organization, cultural values, and individual agency characteristic of modernity.

Gender inequality

Gender inequality refers to the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and privileges between men and women, often resulting in disparities in wealth, income, and social status. Some key aspects of gender inequality include: Occupational Segregation: This refers to the tendency for men and women to be concentrated in different types of jobs or industries. Women are often overrepresented in lower-paying and traditionally female-dominated fields like nursing and teaching, while men dominate higher-paying fields like engineering and finance. Gender Typing: Gender typing involves the assignment of certain roles, behaviors, and attributes to individuals based on their gender. Society often assigns specific roles and expectations to men and women, reinforcing stereotypes and limiting opportunities for both genders. The Glass Ceiling: The glass ceiling is an invisible barrier that prevents women from advancing to higher levels of leadership and authority within organizations, particularly in male-dominated fields. Despite achieving qualifications and experience equal to their male counterparts, women often face systemic barriers and discrimination that hinder their career progression.

Gender Role Socialization

Gender role socialization: The learning of gender roles through social factors such as schooling, the media, and family. Social construction of gender: The learning of gender roles through socialization and interaction with others. Hegemonic masculinity: Social norms dictating that men should be strong, self-reliant, and unemotional.

Migration

Global Migration -Migratory movements • Immigration: the movement of people into one country from another for the purpose of settlement • Emigration: the movement of people out of one country in order to settle in another

Gendered Inequalities in Families: Division of Household Labor

How has society changed? • Mothers enter the workforce 2. What's contributing to these changes? • Depression of the male dollar - Deindustrialization - Decline in unions - Increasing cost of living • Cultural understanding of gender was not keeping up with the changes in the workforce - The stalled revolution 3. Why are these changes consequential? • The second shift "Just as there is a wage gap between men and women in the workplace, there is a "leisure gap" between them at home. Most women work one shift at the office or factory and a "second shift" at home." • Marital trouble Arlie Russell Hochschild is an American sociologist known for her research on the sociology of emotions, gender, and family. She's particularly famous for her concept of the "second shift," which describes the extra domestic work that women often do on top of their paid employment. Hochschild's work has shed light on gender inequalities within families and the impact of social norms and expectations on individual experiences. She's also explored topics like emotional labor, the division of household labor, and the intersection of work and family life. Hochschild's insights have had a significant influence on our understanding of gender roles and relationships in contemporary society.

Treat each empirical chapter (Holt, Sherman, Winfield) as a case study and discuss with your group members: 1. Identify each person's gender ideology Traditional, transitional, or egalitarian? Shallow or deep? 2. Are they having marital trouble? If so, what is it? 3. What is their gender strategy for solving the problem? Did their solution resolve the problem? 4. Do they have a family myth? If so, what is it? What does having a family myth do for them? If not, why don't they?

Identifying Gender Ideology: Holt: Holt appears to hold a traditional gender ideology, with a belief in distinct gender roles and expectations. This ideology seems deep-seated, as it influences his behavior and decisions consistently. Sherman: Sherman's gender ideology appears transitional, as he may hold both traditional and egalitarian views, depending on the situation. His ideology might be more shallow, as he may not deeply question or challenge traditional gender norms. Winfield: Winfield seems to have an egalitarian gender ideology, valuing gender equality in both public and private spheres. Her ideology appears deep, as it guides her actions and choices in various aspects of life. Marital Trouble: Holt: Holt may be experiencing marital trouble due to conflicts arising from his adherence to traditional gender roles and expectations, which may clash with his partner's desires for a more egalitarian relationship. Sherman: Sherman might be facing marital trouble stemming from inconsistencies or conflicts between his transitional gender beliefs and his partner's expectations or desires. Winfield: Winfield may not be experiencing significant marital trouble, as her egalitarian gender ideology likely aligns well with her partner's views, leading to less conflict in their relationship. esolution of conflicts.

Theoretical and Historical Perspectives on Families

In understanding families, sociological theories offer valuable insights: Functionalism: This theory views families as essential for society's stability and functioning. Families serve key functions such as primary socialization, where children learn societal norms and values, and personality stabilization, which provides emotional support to family members. Functionalists emphasize the importance of family roles in maintaining social order and stability. Feminist Approaches: Feminist perspectives critique traditional theories for neglecting gender inequalities within families. They highlight how patriarchal structures and gender roles shape family dynamics and contribute to women's oppression. Feminist analyses emphasize the need to address power imbalances and advocate for gender equality within families and society as a whole.

Inequality in the USA, American Dream

Inequality in the USA: Economic inequality in the USA refers to the unequal distribution of wealth, income, and opportunities among individuals and groups within society. It manifests in various forms, including disparities in income levels, access to education and healthcare, employment opportunities, and social mobility. Factors contributing to inequality include globalization, technological advancements, tax policies, erosion of workers' rights, and systemic barriers based on race, gender, and socio-economic status. Rising income inequality has led to a shrinking middle class, with a disproportionate concentration of wealth among the top income earners. This concentration of wealth exacerbates social divisions and undermines social cohesion. Fading American Dream: The American Dream traditionally embodies the belief that through hard work, perseverance, and equal opportunity, individuals can achieve upward social mobility and attain a better quality of life for themselves and their families. However, for many Americans, particularly those from disadvantaged backgrounds, the American Dream appears increasingly elusive. Economic stagnation, declining real wages, rising costs of living, and limited access to education and job opportunities have undermined the promise of upward mobility. Social mobility has declined, with individuals from lower-income households facing significant barriers to improving their economic status. Persistent inequalities based on race, gender, and socio-economic background further contribute to the erosion of the American Dream. Public discourse often highlights the growing sense of disillusionment and skepticism regarding the attainability of the American Dream, particularly among younger generations who face mounting economic challenges and uncertainty about their future prospects.

Institutional Racism

Institutional Racism: This refers to racism that is embedded within the structures and systems of society, such as laws, policies, institutions, and practices, rather than being solely the result of individual prejudices or actions. It manifests in ways that systematically disadvantage certain racial or ethnic groups, perpetuating inequalities and disparities across various areas of life, including education, employment, healthcare, and criminal justice. The Analogy of the Cage: Michelle Alexander uses the metaphor of a cage to describe how the system of mass incarceration disproportionately affects African Americans. She explains that various aspects of the criminal justice system, including racial profiling, biased sentencing, political disenfranchisement, and employment discrimination, act as bars of the cage, trapping African Americans in a cycle of incarceration and limiting their opportunities for advancement. The War on Drugs as a Vehicle: Alexander highlights the "war on drugs" as a significant driver of mass incarceration, particularly for communities of color. She identifies three stages of this "war": the targeting of African American communities, the implementation of harsh sentencing laws, and the creation of a permanent underclass through legal discrimination and disenfranchisement. These policies disproportionately impacted African Americans and perpetuated racial inequalities within the criminal justice system.

Interactional Vandalism

Interactional vandalism is when someone purposely breaks the unspoken rules of a conversation. It's like disrupting the flow of a chat or intentionally causing confusion by not following the usual ways people talk. It's a bit like being a troublemaker in a group discussion, making it harder for others to understand or participate smoothly. Interactional Vandalism Online Interactional vandalism online refers to intentionally disrupting or subverting the norms and rules of online communication. This could involve behaviors such as trolling, spamming, harassment, or spreading misinformation with the aim of causing disruption, confusion, or harm within online communities or conversations. It can negatively impact the quality of online interactions and contribute to a hostile or toxic online environment.

Basic Concepts

Intersectionality - A sociological perspective that holds that our multiple group memberships affect our lives in ways that are distinct from single group memberships Biological essentialism • the view that differences between men and women are natural and inevitable consequences of the intrinsic biological natures of men and women Intersectionality means that different parts of who we are, like our gender, race, or background, all affect our lives in unique ways. It's like having different layers that shape how we experience the world, and these layers interact with each other. For example, being a woman might affect your experiences differently if you're also a person of color, compared to if you're white. Understanding sex differences involves looking at how men and women are different. Sometimes, people think these differences are just because of biology, meaning they're natural and can't be changed. But many social scientists say that only focusing on biology doesn't tell the whole story. They believe that how we're treated by others and the society we live in also plays a big role in shaping how we behave and who we are. So, while biology matters, it's not the only thing that influences us. Social interactions and our environment are also really important in shaping how we act and think.

Theories of Stratification in Modern Societies:Karl Marx

Karl Marx - Means of production: • the means whereby the production of material goods is carried on in a society including not just technology but also the social relations between producers. - Bourgeoisie: • people who own companies, land, or stocks and use these to generate economic returns. - Proletariat: • people who sell their labor for wages. - Surplus value: • the value of a worker's labor power left over when an employer has repaid the cost of hiring the worker. This is the extra value created by workers' labor that goes beyond what they're paid in wages. It's the profit that business owners make by selling the goods or services produced by workers. - Communism: • a social system based on everyone owning the means of production and sharing in the wealth it produces.The goal is to create a classless society where everyone's needs are met.

Sociological Theories of Religion

Marx: Religion and Inequality Karl Marx viewed religion through the lens of social inequality and economic exploitation. He famously referred to religion as the "opium of the people," suggesting that it functions as a form of social control by providing false comfort to the oppressed masses. Marx argued that religion serves to pacify the working class, diverting their attention away from the injustices and inequalities inherent in capitalist societies. By promising rewards in the afterlife, religion discourages revolutionary action in the present. Additionally, Marx highlighted the concept of alienation, wherein individuals feel disconnected from their own labor and creative potential due to the oppressive conditions of capitalism. Religion, in Marx's view, contributes to this alienation by reinforcing social hierarchies and legitimizing the power of the ruling class. Durkheim: Religion and Functionalism Émile Durkheim approached religion from a functionalist perspective, focusing on its role in maintaining social cohesion and solidarity. He emphasized the distinction between the profane (ordinary, everyday life) and the sacred (transcendent, revered aspects of life). According to Durkheim, religion serves as a symbolic representation of society's collective consciousness, embodying shared values, beliefs, and norms. Religious rituals, such as ceremonies and festivals, play a crucial role in reinforcing social bonds and reinforcing a sense of community. Durkheim argued that religion functions as a social institution that promotes social integration, regulates behavior, and provides individuals with a sense of purpose and belonging. It acts as a moral compass, guiding individuals' actions and shaping societal norms.

Research on Integration in the US

Mary Waters highlights integration as a complex process involving both the active participation of immigrants and their descendants in societal institutions and their acceptance by the broader community. This process unfolds across generations and encompasses: Intergenerational Process: Integration begins with immigrants and extends through subsequent generations. It involves the gradual incorporation of immigrant communities into key social institutions such as schools and the labor market. Symbolic Ethnic Identity: Immigrants and their descendants may maintain a sense of connection to their ethnic heritage, which contributes to their identity. This symbolic ethnic identity reflects cultural ties and traditions that are passed down through generations. Imposed Racial Identity: In addition to their ethnic identity, immigrants and their descendants may also face racial categorization imposed by society. This imposed racial identity can influence their experiences of belonging and acceptance within broader American society. Overall, Waters emphasizes that successful integration requires not only active participation in societal institutions but also social acceptance and recognition by the wider community. This process unfolds over time and across generations, shaping the identities and experiences of immigrant communities in American society.

The Gender Inequality Index (GII)

Metric of gender inequality including: reproductive health, empowerment and the labor market. The Gender Inequality Index (GII) is a measure developed by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) to assess gender disparities within countries. It takes into account three key dimensions of gender inequality: Reproductive Health: This dimension looks at maternal mortality rates and adolescent birth rates, which reflect women's access to reproductive healthcare and family planning services. Higher rates of maternal mortality and adolescent births indicate greater gender inequality in reproductive health. Empowerment: This dimension evaluates women's participation in political and economic decision-making processes, such as the proportion of parliamentary seats held by women and the percentage of women with secondary or higher education. Higher levels of political and economic empowerment for women indicate lower gender inequality in this dimension. Labor Market: This dimension examines women's participation in the labor force and the gender gap in labor force participation rates. It also considers the gender gap in estimated earned income, which reflects disparities in wages and earnings between men and women. A smaller gender gap in labor force participation and earned income indicates lower gender inequality in the labor market.

Micro sociology

Micro sociology is a branch of sociology that studies small-scale interactions and social dynamics within specific groups or contexts. It emphasizes the analysis of face-to-face interactions, communication patterns, and behaviors within everyday social settings. Key features include a focus on social processes, an interactionist perspective that highlights the significance of symbols and meanings, and the study of everyday life. Microsociology provides insights into how individuals navigate social roles, relationships, and norms, while also recognizing the connections between micro-level interactions and larger social structures. Overall, it offers a detailed understanding of the microfoundations of social order, change, and inequality.

Migration influences:

Migration is influenced by various factors and operates at both macro and micro levels: Push and Pull Factors: Migration is driven by push factors, such as poverty, conflict, and lack of opportunities in migrants' home countries, as well as pull factors, such as economic opportunities, political stability, and better quality of life in destination countries. Macro-Level Processes: These are large-scale social, economic, and political forces that shape migration patterns on a global scale. This includes globalization, economic disparities between countries, geopolitical conflicts, and environmental changes. Micro-Level Processes: These are individual or community-level factors that influence migration decisions. This includes social networks, cultural ties, and personal aspirations. Networks of migrants often play a crucial role in facilitating migration by providing information, support, and resources. Global Migration Trends: Several tendencies characterize contemporary migration patterns: Acceleration: Migration flows are increasing in pace and scale due to globalization and improved transportation and communication networks. Diversification: Migration is becoming more diverse in terms of origin and destination countries, as well as migrants' backgrounds, motivations, and pathways. Globalization: Migration is increasingly interconnected with global economic, social, and cultural processes, resulting in transnational identities and networks. Feminization: Women are increasingly migrating independently for work, education, or family reunification, challenging traditional gender roles in migration.

Models of Ethnic Integration

Models of Ethnic Integration - Assimilation • The acceptance of a minority group by a majority population, in which the new group takes on the values and norms of the dominant culture - Melting pot • The idea that ethnic differences can be combined to create new patterns of behavior drawing on diverse cultural sources - Pluralism • A model for ethnic relations in which all ethnic groups in the United States retain their independent and separate identities yet share equally in the rights and powers of citizenship - Multiculturalism • A condition in which ethnic groups exist separately and share equally in economic and political life Assimilation: This model emphasizes the acceptance of minority groups by the majority population. In assimilation, the new group adopts the values, norms, and behaviors of the dominant culture, often leading to the erosion of their distinct cultural identity. Melting Pot: The melting pot concept suggests that ethnic differences can blend together to create new cultural patterns. In this model, diverse cultural elements are combined, resulting in a unified and cohesive society where individual ethnic identities may become less pronounced. Pluralism: Pluralism advocates for the coexistence of multiple ethnic groups while retaining their separate identities. In a pluralistic society, each group maintains its cultural traditions, practices, and languages, yet all share equally in the rights and privileges of citizenship. Multiculturalism: Multiculturalism recognizes and celebrates the diversity of ethnic groups within a society. In a multicultural framework, ethnic groups coexist separately while also participating equally in economic, political, and social life. This model promotes respect for cultural differences and encourages the preservation of ethnic identities.

Significant changes in modernity (1)

Modernity refers to a period in history characterized by significant social, cultural, economic, and technological changes that began in Europe during the late 18th and early 19th centuries and spread globally over time. It represents a departure from traditional ways of life and thinking, marked by the rise of industrialization, urbanization, secularism, individualism, and rationality. • Industrialization (segregation of work from private life) \ Industrialization marks the shift from agrarian and handicraft-based economies to those dominated by large-scale manufacturing processes.Before industrialization, work was often integrated into the household or small community settings. With the rise of factories and mass production, work became centralized in urban centers, leading to the separation of work life from home life. • Secularization Secularization refers to the process by which religious institutions and practices lose their social significance and influence, often as a result of the rise of science, rationalism, and the separation of church and state. In modernity, there has been a gradual decline in the authority of religious institutions over various aspects of life, including governance, education, and morality. • Urbanization Urbanization is the process of population concentration in urban areas, accompanied by the growth and expansion of cities. driven largely by industrialization and rural-to-urban migration. development of new forms of social organization, cultural expression, and political engagement. It has also posed challenges related to infrastructure, resource management, and social inequality

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Patterson on Slavery

Orlando Patterson's concept of "natal alienation" offers insight into the profound social and psychological impact of slavery on individuals. Here's a breakdown: Slave as non-person: Natal alienation describes the condition where slaves are stripped of their fundamental humanity and reduced to the status of "non-persons." Slaves are denied basic human rights and treated as property, devoid of agency, autonomy, and inherent worth. Loss of ties in both ascending and descending generations: Slavery ruptures the social and familial bonds of enslaved individuals. Natal alienation involves the severing of ties not only with ancestors but also with future generations. Enslaved individuals are deprived of their familial and cultural heritage, disconnected from their roots, and prevented from establishing meaningful relationships with their offspring. Master as the only mediator between the slave and social life: Under slavery, masters wield absolute control over the lives of their slaves. They serve as the sole intermediary between enslaved individuals and broader social institutions. Slaves are entirely dependent on their masters for access to social interactions, resources, and opportunities, further reinforcing their subjugation and dependency. In essence, natal alienation encapsulates the complete erasure of slaves' identity, agency, and belonging within the social order. Enslaved individuals are denied the most fundamental rights and connections that define human existence, perpetuating their status as commodities rather than as autonomous human beings.

Religious Nationalism:

Religious Nationalism: Religious nationalism involves the fusion of religious identity and political allegiance, often with the aim of establishing or maintaining a nation-state based on religious principles. It typically emphasizes the importance of religion in defining a nation's identity, culture, and destiny, and may advocate for policies and actions that prioritize the interests of a particular religious group over others. Fundamentalism and Modernity: Fundamentalism, characterized by a strict adherence to traditional religious beliefs and a rejection of secular or modernizing influences, often intersects with religious nationalism. While fundamentalist movements may arise in response to perceived threats posed by modernity, such as secularization, globalization, or cultural change, they also utilize modern means of communication and organization to advance their goals. The confrontation between fundamentalism and modernity can lead to tensions over issues such as individual rights, gender equality, religious freedom, and the role of the state in regulating religious affairs.

Remittances

Remittances: financial or in-kind transfers made by migrants directly to families or communities in their countries of origin.

Basic Concepts

Sex: The biological and anatomical differences distinguishing females and males. Gender: Social expectations about behavior regarded as appropriate for the members of each sex. Gender refers not to the physical attributes distinguishing men and women but to socially formed traits of masculinity and femininity.

Religion

Sociologists are not concerned with whether religious beliefs are true or false. - Sociologists are especially concerned with the social organization of religion. - Sociologists have often viewed religions as a major source of social solidarity in that they offer believers a common set of norms and values. - Sociologists find that if a society's members adhere to competing religions, religious differences may lead to destabilizing social conflicts. - Sociologists explain the appeal of religion in terms of social forces rather than personal, spiritual, or psychological factors.

Gendered Inequalities in Families

Stephanie Coontz • American families in the 1950s: "Beneath the polished facades of many "ideal" families, suburban as well as urban, was violence, terror, or simply grinding misery that only occasionally came to light" (Coontz, p.35) • Only men's goals are accepted and approved as individualistic. • American individualism relied on the subordination of women's individuality. Stephanie Coontz sheds light on the realities of American families in the 1950s, challenging the idealized image often portrayed of this era. She highlights that beneath the outward appearance of many "ideal" families, both in suburban and urban settings, there existed significant problems such as violence, terror, or pervasive unhappiness that were often hidden from public view. Additionally, Coontz critiques the notion of individualism prevalent during this time, noting that only men's goals and aspirations were typically accepted and celebrated as emblematic of individualism. This perspective marginalized women's individuality and relegated them to subordinate roles within the family and society. Thus, while American culture promoted the idea of individualism, it often did so at the expense of women's autonomy and agency, reinforcing gender inequalities.

Varieties of microsociology

Symbolic Interactionism: 1)Symbolic interactionism focuses on how individuals construct meanings and interpret symbols in their interactions with others. It emphasizes the importance of symbols, language, and gestures in shaping social reality. Iddo Tavory's work exemplifies symbolic interactionism by exploring how individuals negotiate and construct identities, relationships, and social roles through everyday interactions. Tavory's research delves into the symbolic meanings embedded in social situations and how these meanings influence behavior and social outcomes. 2)Phenomenology: Phenomenology is a philosophical approach that emphasizes the subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals. It seeks to understand social phenomena from the standpoint of the actors involved, focusing on their lived experiences and consciousness. Within sociology, phenomenological approaches aim to uncover the subjective meanings and interpretations that individuals attach to their social interactions and experiences. This perspective highlights the importance of empathy and understanding in studying social life.

Basic Concepts

Systems of Stratification: • Slavery: A form of social stratification in which some people are owned by others as their property. • Caste: A social system in which one's social status is held for life. • Class systems: A system of social hierarchy that allows individuals to move among classes. The four chief bases of class are ownership of wealth, occupation, income, and education Class system: Class: socioeconomic variations among groups of individuals that create variations in their material prosperity and power. Class systems differ from slavery and castes in four main ways: • Class systems are fluid, and movement is possible. • Positions are partly achieved. • Classes are economically based. • Class systems are large scale and impersonal. Life chances (Weber): a person's opportunities for achieving economic prosperity.Life chances, as conceptualized by sociologist Max Weber, refer to the opportunities that individuals have for achieving economic prosperity and social mobility within a society. These opportunities are influenced by various factors such as social class, education, occupation, and access to resources. Individuals with greater life chances have better prospects for upward mobility and economic success, while those with limited life chances face barriers to advancement and may experience social and economic disadvantage.

The controversial case of Dolezal's racial selfidentification

The case of Rachel Dolezal is a controversial and complex example that prompts us to reexamine the concept of race and its implications. Rachel Dolezal, a former civil rights activist and leader of the NAACP chapter in Spokane, Washington, gained widespread attention when it was revealed that she had been identifying and presenting herself as a black woman, despite being born to white parents. Dolezal's case raises several questions about race and identity: What does race actually mean? Dolezal's case challenges traditional notions of race as solely determined by biological or ancestral factors. It highlights the fluidity and complexity of racial identity, suggesting that it can also be influenced by personal experiences, cultural affiliations, and self-perception. Is race a social construct? The controversy surrounding Dolezal's racial self-identification underscores the socially constructed nature of race. It reflects how societal norms and perceptions shape our understanding of racial categories and influence individuals' self-identification. Can race be chosen or adopted? Dolezal's case sparks debate about the authenticity of racial identity and whether individuals have the right to adopt or claim a racial identity different from their biological background. It raises questions about cultural appropriation and the boundaries of identity expression. What are the implications for social justice and activism? Dolezal's actions have been criticized for potentially undermining the struggles and experiences of black individuals by appropriating their identity for personal gain. However, some argue that her activism and advocacy work on behalf of the black community should be evaluated separately from her personal identity.

Research on Families Today

The contradictory pair: Marriage and individual freedom Marriage and Individual Freedom: There is a paradoxical relationship between marriage and individual freedom. While marriage rates remain high, there is a growing trend of delaying marriage as individuals prioritize their personal goals and autonomy. Delay in Age at First Marriage: Factors contributing to the delay in age at first marriage include the rise in cohabitation among younger people and increased enrollment in postsecondary education, particularly among women. These trends reflect shifting attitudes towards marriage and the pursuit of personal and educational goals. Modernization and Secular Change: Modernization and changing societal attitudes have promoted individualism and diminished the perceived importance of marriage as a social institution. This secular shift emphasizes personal fulfillment and autonomy over traditional marital roles and obligations. Cohabitation as a Substitute for Marriage: There is ongoing debate about whether cohabitation serves as a substitute for marriage or as a precursor to marriage. Some individuals view cohabitation as an alternative to traditional marriage, while others see it as a transitional phase before marriage. Social Class and Family Dynamics: Research highlights differences in family structures and dynamics across social classes. The service class and middle class often have distinct patterns of marriage, cohabitation, and educational attainment, reflecting broader socioeconomic inequalities and cultural norms within society.

Difference VS inequality

The difference between categorical allocation and resource allocation lies in how resources are distributed and the relationship between social categories and resource distribution: Categorical Allocation: In categorical allocation, resources are distributed based on predetermined categories or characteristics, such as race, gender, age, or socio-economic status. Individuals are assigned to specific categories, and resources are allocated to them accordingly, often without regard for individual differences or needs within each category. Categorical allocation focuses on ensuring that each category receives a certain share of resources, regardless of variations or inequalities within those categories. It may involve policies or programs designed to address historical injustices or disparities by targeting specific groups for assistance or support. Resource Allocation: Resource allocation refers to the process of distributing resources based on individual needs, merit, or other criteria, rather than categorical characteristics. Resources can include tangible assets like money, food, housing, or education, as well as intangible resources like opportunities, privileges, or social connections. Unlike categorical allocation, resource allocation takes into account individual differences and circumstances when distributing resources. It aims to allocate resources in a fair and equitable manner, considering factors such as merit, need, contribution, or preferences.

The Social Construction of Gender: How We Learn to "Do Gender"

Theorists who believe in the social construction of gender reject all biological bases for gender differences. - Judith Butler "Gender proves to be performance" - Judith Lorber "For humans, the social is the natural" • Precisely how we "do" gender varies widely by race, social class, and social context. • We selectively choose to enact different aspects of gender expectations based on what we think will work best in a particular setting.

History of Immigration in USA

These distinct periods in U.S. history of immigration mark significant shifts and developments in immigration policies, trends, and attitudes: Colonial Period: The earliest period of immigration to the American colonies, characterized by European settlers arriving primarily from England, Spain, and other European nations. Immigration during this period laid the foundations for the diverse demographic landscape of the United States. Open Door Period (Post 1850s): Following the mid-19th century, the United States experienced a surge in immigration due to factors such as industrialization, economic opportunities, and political upheavals in Europe. This period saw large-scale immigration from various European countries, as well as increased migration from Asia and other regions. The Immigration Reform (1965-1996): This period marked significant changes in immigration laws and policies, including the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, which abolished national origin quotas and prioritized family reunification and skilled labor immigration. Additionally, reforms in the 1980s and 1990s addressed issues such as undocumented immigration and asylum. Post 9/11 Period (from 2001):heightened security measures and increased scrutiny of immigration policies. This period saw the implementation of stricter border controls, enhanced vetting processes for immigrants and refugees, and the establishment of the Department of Homeland Security. Modern Day: Iy. Debates center around issues such as border security, undocumented immigration, refugee resettlement, and the status of DACA (Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals) recipients. Immigration policies continue to evolve, influenced by changing demographics, economic factors, and political dynamics.

Interaction in Time and Space

Time-space • When and where events occur - Regionalization • The division of social life into different regional settings or zones - Teams • Bonds of reciprocal dependency and reciprocal familiarity .They are formed through shared goals, tasks, or interests, and involve cooperation and collaboration among team members. - Discrepant roles Discrepant roles are when someone has different roles that don't match up or agree with each other. This happens when someone has to act in different ways in different situations, and sometimes those ways clash or don't make sense together. For example, someone might have to be tough at work but gentle at home, and it can be hard to switch between those roles smoothly. - Back region •areas apart from front-region performance, in which individuals are able to relax and behave informally. It refers to areas apart from the front-region performance, where individuals can relax and behave informally. The back region is characterized by a lack of audience or scrutiny, allowing individuals to let down their guard and engage in more relaxed or spontaneous behavior. - Front region •settings of social activity in which people seek to put on a definite "performance" for others. Front regions are settings of social activity in which people seek to put on a definite "performance" for others. These are public or formal settings where individuals present themselves in accordance with social norms and expectations, often with the aim of managing impressions and projecting a particular image or identity.

W.E.B. Du Bois: Residential segregation

W.E.B. Du Bois, a pioneering sociologist and civil rights activist, made significant contributions to the understanding of residential segregation and race relations in the United States. Here's a summary: First comprehensive sociological study of race in the world: Du Bois conducted groundbreaking research that culminated in "The Philadelphia Negro," published in 1899. This study marked the first comprehensive sociological investigation of race, providing detailed insights into the social, economic, and political conditions of African Americans living in Philadelphia. Du Bois' work challenged prevailing stereotypes and misconceptions about race and laid the foundation for future sociological inquiry into racial inequality. Study of the Seventh Ward of Philadelphia: As part of "The Philadelphia Negro," Du Bois focused on the Seventh Ward, a predominantly African American neighborhood. Through rigorous empirical research, including surveys, interviews, and ethnographic observations, Du Bois documented the socio-economic challenges faced by residents, such as poverty, housing discrimination, and limited access to education and employment opportunities. His study shed light on the systemic barriers that perpetuated racial inequality and residential segregation in urban America.

Barbara Ehrenreich

Working class poor and the cycle of poverty explain in simple words Barbara Ehrenreich focuses on the struggles of the working-class poor and how they can get stuck in a cycle of poverty. In simple terms, this means that people who are already struggling financially often find it hard to break free from poverty because of factors like low wages, limited job opportunities, and lack of access to resources like education and healthcare. This cycle can trap families and communities in poverty for generations, making it difficult for them to improve their circumstances and achieve economic stability.