Introbto sociology

10. Describe the sociological theories that developed from symbolic interactionism. What do they have in common and how do they further the perspective?

There are three offshoots of symbolic interactionism described in the textbook: Erving Goffman's theory of dramaturgy, Harold Garfinkel's theory of ethnomethodology, and the theory of conversation analysis. Each theory emphasizes "social acts rather than social facts," demonstrating that larger social institutions are constantly made and remade through individual actions and interactions. They expand on the original ideas of symbolic interactionists by reinforcing specific aspects of culture as meaningful and important in the formation of society.

9. According to Erving Goffman's theory of dramaturgy, why might you dress differently for a date than you would for sociology class?

Goffman believed that the self is created through our interactions with other people and that how we present ourselves changes depending on the social context. Because sociology class is an informal social setting, you can wear casual attire without paying heed to your hair and/or makeup. On the other hand, your clothing and grooming choices for a date would be significantly different. In this case, you would want to a make a good impression, so you would present yourself in a way that emphasizes your positive personal qualities.

5. Why do structural functionalists argue that dysfunction tends to create social change?

When one structure of society encounters a disruption, there is a ripple effect across all social structures. This leads to the need for social change so that social systems may restore balance. For example: if a country goes to war, there will be a deficit in the economy. As a result, money available for education decreases as tax dollars are given to the military; soldiers die, resulting in single-parent, single-income households; and people begin to struggle with their religious beliefs, reducing involvement in the volunteer structure of communities. The system will fight for equilibrium and will eventually function, albeit in a different manner than it did before the war.

1.Émile Durkheim's pioneering study, Suicide, used statistical data to look for correlations between demographic variables and suicide. In what ways is his work compatible with Auguste Comte's ideas about how society should be studied?

When he conducted his infamous suicide study in 1897, Durkheim used Comte's theory of positivism in the manner Comte intended. Positivism was a concrete form of social research that suggested social life could be studied in a manner comparable to the hard sciences.

2. In what ways does queer theory suggest that no category of sexual identity is fundamentally deviant or normal?

According to queer theory, sexuality is a social construct. Therefore it is fluid and is viewed differently according to the social structure of the time period. Because these views are constantly changing, conventional dichotomies of gay and straight are very limited in defining human sexual preferences and sexual involvement.

2. Consider the contrast between practical knowledge and scientific knowledge. Describe an activity or social phenomenon of which you have practical knowledge, and then list the steps you might take to develop scientific knowledge of it. Describe how your knowledge might change as you develop this scientific approach to the subject, and demonstrate that you understand the difference between the two types of knowledge.

Any answer should demonstrate knowledge of some everyday activity the student can use in a functional way but about which she does not have completely coherent, excruciatingly clear, consistent, or complete knowledge. Examples of ways to develop scientific knowledge could include schools, bookstores, libraries, or some other source of learning.

4. According to conflict theory, how do most major social institutions remain integrated into the economy and therefore reinforce the class structure?

Conflict theorists believe that the capitalist system of for-profit businesses causes mass poverty and class division. Karl Marx argued that capitalism, which emerged during the Industrial Revolution, enabled the owners of the means of production (the bourgeoisie) to exploit the masses of proletariat workers, creating an inherent system of social class. Also, false consciousness can lead oppressed people to accept inequality and not challenge their position in the class structure.

12. If you were feeling very generous to shoe manufacturers, you might argue that the manifest function of the production of newer and more expensive athletic shoes is to increase athletic performance. For a moment, let's not be generous. Explain another manifest function of the appearance of new athletic shoes, as well as at least two latent functions.

A manifest function is the obvious, intended function of a social structure, whereas a latent function is the less obvious, and sometimes unintentional, function. In this case, the obvious manifest function would be to increase revenue for makers of athletic apparel. The latent functions might include increased jealousy and competition among teenagers; violence and muggings in order to obtain shoes; teenage boys showing increased fashion consciousness; and the creation of a subculture that bonds over its interest in shoes.

10. Describe the three main theoretical perspectives of macrosociology, and name at least one theorist for each perspective.

Conflict theory emphasizes social inequality as the basic characteristic of society, structural functionalism looks at society as a unified whole that needs separate structures to function, and Weberian theory studied the process of rationalization and bureaucracies.

3. How is hip-hop music an example of a postmodern art form?

Hip-hop uses several genres of music, such as reggae and rock, and it overlays beats and words to create new sounds from old, established musical forms.

11. Describe the main features of postmodern social theory, and explain both positive and negative reactions to postmodernism.

In postmodern theory, social reality is diverse, pluralistic, and constantly in flux. In postmodernism, there are no absolutes—no claims to truth, reason, right, order, or stability. Everything is therefore relative—fragmented, temporary, situational, provisional, and contingent. Postmodernists believe that certainty is illusory, and they prefer to explore the possibilities created by fluidity, complexity, multidimensionality, and even nonsense. They propose that there is no constant or universal human truth from which we can know or interpret the meaning of existence.

9. According to Karl Marx, what is the relationship between the economy and other parts of society, including intellectual, religious, and political life?

Marx argued that because the ruling class controls the economy, it controls the rest of society as well. Therefore, he argued that the dominant ideology justifies and benefits those who own the means of production; that religion is used by the ruling class to create false consciousness and perpetuate oppression of the working class; and that the prevailing ideas are the ideas of the ruling class. Answers might also explain the distinction between false consciousness (a denial of the truth about the real circumstances in which one lives) and class consciousness, which is an understanding of the economic exploitation inherent in capitalism.

13. Identify and describe the most essential elements of the theories of the classical sociological thinkers—Marx, Durkheim, and Weber. How do their visions of modernity differ?

Marx's conflict theory centers on alienation (the sense of dissatisfaction workers feel when they are producing goods that are controlled by someone else). Durkheim's theory of structural functionalism focuses on anomie (the loss of norms and purpose that results from weaker social ties and an increased pace of change). Weberian theory emphasizes that modern industrialized society controls our lives through rigid rules and rationalization, trapping us in an iron cage of bureaucracy.

3. Sociologists often have to decide if they are going to adopt a microsociological or a macrosociological approach in any given project. Explain how these perspectives differ, paying special attention to the different assumptions about how society works that are contained within each perspective. In other words, considering the starting point of each perspective, what do they seek to reveal?

Microsociology focuses on the interactions between individuals, whereas macrosociology examines large-scale social structures. Microsociologists tend to think that individual-level interactions create the larger patterns, processes, and institutions of society. Macrosociologists tend to assume that large social structures create the context and conditions within which individuals act.

8. What are the advantages of midrange theory?

Midrange theory merges micro and macro levels of analysis. This approach to theorizing makes sociological research more feasible, because it does not simply rely on the polarities of small- and large-scale analyses.

7. According to C. Wright Mills, when we think of our personal problems as private matters of character, what are we failing to see?

Mills argued that we need to view our personal problems through the larger perspective of how they are related to the social structure in which we live and the historical context of our society.

1.The sociological perspective, as a way of thinking about the world, includes the concepts of sociological imagination from C. Wright Mills, beginner's mind from Bernard McGrane, and culture shock from anthropology. Define each concept in your own words and then explain what all three of these concepts have in common.

Social imagination is about looking for connections between the personal and the social. Beginner's mind is a technique for ignoring old knowledge in order to find new ways of seeing the world. Culture shock is a way of seeing things as if we had never seen them before. All three concepts advocate ways of thinking that help us clear away preconceptions that may be blocking us from seeing and understanding things that are directly in front of us. They all help us achieve a sociological perspective.

4. Compare and contrast conflict theory with structural functionalism. Pay special attention to the way each theory treats the origin of social change.

Structural functionalism begins with the study of structures, identified as social institutions. Any answer should emphasize that society is a stable, ordered system of interrelated parts or structures, and that each structure has a function that contributes to the continued stability or equilibrium of the whole. Conflict theory treats social conflict as the basis of society and suggests that disagreements over values and beliefs actually reflect struggles over resources and power. Conflict theory emphasizes a materialist view of society based on the economy, a critical stance toward the status quo, and a dynamic model of historical change. Conflict theorists see social change as the inevitable consequence of the struggle over resources.

6. How does taking the sociological perspective enable sociologists to understand human life in society?

Taking the sociological perspective enables sociologists to view the world through a beginner's mind. By eliminating their personal experiences, opinions, and biases, they are able to learn about the familiar world in new ways.

7. Classical sociological theory arose in the nineteenth century, in the aftermath of the American and French Revolutions and during the Industrial Revolution. Summarize how the theories of Karl Marx, Émile Durkheim, and Max Weber all reflect a concern for the consequences of modern life.

The textbook describes several concepts from each theorist that relate directly to the problems of modern life. Marx focused on the alienation and social inequality created by the rise of urban capitalism, and on how false consciousness and ideology contributed to the oppression of the working classes. Weber was concerned about how the shift to a modern industrialized society resulted in disenchantment with the world, as well as the "iron cage" of bureaucratic rules. Durkheim theorized that anomie, or normlessness resulting from social disconnection, was a consequence of the transition from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity.

8. Structural functionalism attempts to explain the social world by examining social structures, which perform functions that contribute to the stability of society as a whole. What are some of the types of functions that social structures can perform?

The textbook examines two ways of categorizing functions. First, Talcott Parsons proposed that social structures can fulfill such functions as helping us adapt to our environment and providing us with opportunities to realize goals. They also contribute to the equilibrium of society by increasing social cohesion and maintaining cultural patterns. Second, Robert Merton theorized that functions performed by social structures can be either manifest (intended) or latent (unintended).

6. According to symbolic interactionism, describe how meaningful reality is created.

The textbook uses the example of how a tree can mean different things to different people in different social situations. We act toward things on the basis of their meaning, which is not inherent in the things themselves but is negotiated through interaction and can change or be modified over time. This demonstrates that meaningful reality is created through interaction.

5. Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level approach to sociology. It sees face-to-face interactions as the building blocks of larger social institutions. Describe how individuals interacting with each other can produce larger social institutions. Pick an example and describe how specific social acts can, when repeated by many people, create large-scale social structures.

The textbook uses the example of the meaning of a tree to demonstrate the relationship between meaning and interaction. The key point is that society and the self are twinborn—social structures that only exist because they are created through individual action.