Islam and The Modern World Test #1 Calvert

Give a timeline of the Rashidun Caliphate

-632-634: Abu Bakr, the first Caliph (Khalifa); expeditions to Syria and Mesopotamia -634-644: The Caliph Umar; conquests of Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia -644-656: Caliphate of Uthman; inner conflicts within Islamic state over power and wealth -656-661: Caliphate of Ali, son-in-law and cousin of the Prophet -657: Battle of Siffin between Ali and Mu'awiyya -661: Murder of Ali by Kharijites

Give a timeline of the Umayyad Caliphate

-661-680: Caliphate of Mu'awiyya; Damascus new capital; second period of expansion -685-705: Caliphate of Abd al-Malik. Period of political centralization and administrative reform -747: The revolutionaries under Abu Muslim unfurl black banner of Abbasids in Khurasan -749-750: The Abbasid Revolution ends the Umayyad Caliphate

Give a timeline of Muhammad's life

-6th-7th c. Rise of the trade of Mecca. Emergence of the merchant aristocracy of Quraysh tribe -570: Birth of the Prophet Muhammad -610: Muhammad experiences first revelation and appeared in Mecca as the Prophet of Islam -622: The Hijra to Medina; formation of the first Islamic community; social and economic reforms -630: Bloodless conquest of Mecca -632: Farewell pilgrimage and death of the Prophet Muhammad he creates five Pillars of Islam: Proclamation of faith, Prayer, Fasting, Pilgrimage, Hajj, Zakat (charity). Shortly after Muhammad's death

Give a timeline of the Abbasid Caliphate

-749-754: Caliphate of Abu al-Abbas al-Saffah. Massacre of Umayyad family -762-763: Caliphate of al-Mansur. Baghdad founded as Abbasid capital. -813-833: Caliphate of al-Ma'mun. Cultural and scientific heyday -1258: Sack of Baghdad by Mongols. End of Abbasid Caliphate

What do Sunnis and Shi'is have in common?

-Both respect "Qur'an" -Both believe in God and his Prophet Muhammad -Both follow the obligations of prayer, fasting, pilgrimage, and almsgiving -Both revere the "Shari'a"

Why did the Muslims go on conquests?

-Spread power -Economic gain -Redirect warring instincts

What are the countries and capitals of the Middle East?

Egypt-Cairo Israel- Jerusalem Jordan-Ammam Lebanon-Beirut Syria- Damascus Saudi Arabia- Riyadh United Arab Emirates- Abu Dhabi Yemen- Sanaa Oman- Muscat Iraq- Baghdad Iran-Tehran Turkey-Ankara Kuwait- Kuwait City Qatar- Doha Bahrain- Manama Palestine- Ramallah

Who was Muhammad's wife and the first convert to Islam?

Khadija

What was the name of Medina before Muhammad established it as an Islamic city?

Yathrib

What is the Arabic word for supreme God?

"Allah"

What does "fitna" mean?

"Fitna" means trial or distress. Usually refers to dissent within the Islamic "ummah," in particular the dissent between Ali and Mu'awiyah. This fight was the first "fitna."

What is "ijtihad?"

"Ijtihad" is the exercise of applying human reasoning to points not covered in the "Quran."

What does "Qu'ran" mean?

"Qu'ran" means a reading or reciting.

Islam means what in Arabic?

"Submission"

What does Muslim mean?

"Submitter." One who submits to the laws of God.

What are some basic principles of the Qu'ran?

-The Qu'ran is God's final and most dramatic intervention in human affairs -The Qu'ran is the exact word of God -God is one -God is merciful -God is a stern judge

What are two basic premises of Muslim family law?

1) Men and women are absolutely equal before God 2) There are different roles/functions in the family and society: men are in charge of public functions and the family; women's chief roles are those of mother and wife.

What four sources is the "Sharia'a" derived from?

1. "Qur'an" 2. "Sunna" ("hadith") 3. Analogies ("qiyas") 4. Consensus ("ijma")

What are the most common ethno-linguistic groups of the Middle East and what languages do the people speak of these groups?

1. The Arabs (who speak Arabic) 2. The Turks (who speak Turkish) 3. The Persians (who speak Farsi) 4. The Kurds (who speak Kurdish, a language related to Farsi) 5. The Azeris (who speak Azeri, a language related to Turkish) 6. The Israelis (who speak Hebrew)

When was Muhammad born?

570 C.E.

When did Muhammad retake Mecca?

630 C.E.

When did Muhammad die?

632 C.E.

What is a "qadis?"

A "qadis" was a judge appointed by appointed by the state who presided over "sharia'a" courts and strengthened "sharia'a" based norms in Islamic society.

What is a Sura?

A chapter in the Qu'ran. They are sorted in order of diminishing length.

Who was Rabi al-Adawiyya?

A famous female sufi poet.

What major themes are treated in al-Fatiha? What differences/similarities do you note between the Qur'an and the Judeo-Christian tradition?

Al-fatiha is the first sura of the Qu'ran. "In the name of Allah, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful. Praise be to Allah, Lord of the Worlds: The Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful: Owner of the Day of Judgement. Thee (alone) we worship; Thee (alone) was ask for help. Show us the straight path: The path of those whom Thou hast favoured; Not (the path) of those who earn Thine anger nor of those who go astray."

Who is Ali?

Ali was chosen as the successor to Uthman in 651 C.E. He is the most revered of the founders of Islam. He was the Prophet Muhammad's cousin and the husband of Muhammad's daughter, Fatima. Belief existed that Muhammad had intended Ali to be his successor. Ali represented a broad number of Muslims whom supported the restoration of leadership to the house of Muhammad. Ali's right to the caliphate was challenged by Mu'awiyah, the governor of Muslim Syria though. Ali transferred the capital from Medina to Kufa, Iraq. He was murdered in 661. Ali's death gave rise to a dispute between those who wanted the house of Muhammad to rule and those who wanted a great leader to rule the Islamic "ummah." This dispute still exists today between the Sunnis and Shia.

What did the imam do?

An imam was considered the leader of the Muslims. The living imam appoints his successor, called imams. The Shi'a believe God granted Muhammad and his descendents special wisdom. Imams are not prophets but their judgement is infallible. In the eyes of the Shi'a, Sunni caliphs are illegitimate usurpers.

What is "fatwa?"

An islamic religious ruling made by an "ulama."

What were the three battles against the Meccan tribes?

Badr (Muslims attack Meccan caravan), Uhud (Meccans respond to Badr and attack Medina. Stopped on Mount Uhud.), and Trench (siege on Medina by Meccans)

Who was Mu'awiyah?

First caliph of the troublesome Umayyad Empire. He was a pragmatic ruler whose concerns were to expand Islam, consolidate the dynasty, and to manage resources. He challenged Ali and overtook the caliph when Ali was murdered.

Who were dhimmis?

Followers of non-muslim religions that were tolerated by law. They were allowed to freely practice their religion and manage internal affairs.

What did Muhammad do when he arrived to Yathrib?

He expelled the two Jewish tribes and unified the three warring Arab tribes.

What are the two phases of Muhammad's prophethood?

His Mecca phase from 610-622 and his Medina phase from 622-632.

Who raised Muhammad after his parents died?

His uncle, Abu Talib

What is the special significance attached to the Third Imam, Husayn Ibn 'Ali?

Husayn and a force of 72 men left Mecca for Kufa, Iraq to challenge the authority of Yazid, the second Umayyad caliphate. The Umayyads attacked and killed Husayn at Karbala. Husayn was considered a martyr, sacrificing his life for justice and the greater good.

When and how did the Abbasids fall?

In 1258 Mongols invaded much of the Middle East and sacked Baghdad. The Abbasids did not recover until Saddam Husayn and the Ba'thists came into power.

What is the Abbasid Revolution?

Internal dissent within the Umayyad dynasty became so great that a revolution occurred in 749-750 which caused the Umayyad's to be overthrown. Power was restored under the Abbasid house.

In many countries of the Middle East there exist minority ethno-linguistic and religious groups. Can you identify these minority groups? In what countries do the various minorities reside? Are any of these groups persecuted or struggling for political or cultural or religious rights?

Iraq- Kurds Iran- Arabs Egypt- Copts Iraq- Shia (Southern Iraq) Iran- Sunni Saudi Arabia- Shia Turkey- Shia The Shia are persecuted and so are the Kurds.

Name the three major monotheistic religions of the Middle East and the world.

Islam, Judaism, Christianity

What do Muslim scholars (ulama) do if an issue is not covered by the Qur'an or the hadith?

Leading scholars and leaders of the community come to a consensus. This is known as the "ijma." When collective agreement is found on an issue it becomes part of "Sharia'a."

How did tribes begin to come together?

Many tribes shared similar holy sites. These holy sites were designated areas of nonviolence where tribes would trade with each other. Thus, a new and competitive atmosphere was established at these holy sites that eventually led to the establishment of small cities.

What does "Jahiliyya" mean?

Meaning "Time of Ignorance." A term used to describe pre-Islamic Arabia.

What was the Rashidun Caliphate?

Meaning "rightly guided" the Rashidun Caliphate were the closest successors to the Prophet Muhammad. They ruled from 632-661. This period includes the rule of Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali. The capital was Medina.

Who are "ulama?"

Meaning "those who know." Teachers and scholars of Islam today whom serve as legislative and judicial interpreters of the Qu'ran within an Islamic community.

What is "Jihad?"

Meaning to persevere, "jihad" is the religious duty of Muslims to maintain the religion.

What were the economic and social consequences of Mecca's rise to commercial power?

Mecca established itself as an important commercial city within the network of trade routes along the Red Sea that connected Yemen to the world. Meccan merchants eventually established enough capital to organize their caravans and provide payments to tribes in exchange for a promise that their caravans could pass through Mecca and trade with it peacefully. Mecca also established itself as a religious site of great significance. The city's shrine, Ka'ba, became the center of an animistic cult that attracted worshippers across Arabia. The Ka'ba eventually became the site of an annual pilgrimage. During this pilgrimage warfare was suspended and Mecca became a neutral site where tribal disputes became resolved. The city also derived enormous economic growth because of its religious significance. The leading clan of Mecca was the Quraysh Tribe, which established Mecca's role as a religious site and dominated the political and economic life. The affairs of the city were loosely regulated by the Quraysh. Thus, Mecca became an area of transition where tribal ways were beginning to vanish to a system of urban rule.

Why did Mecca become a center of trade?

Mecca was situated along the coast of the Red Sea. This location made it an important center of trade. It was also between the fertile area of present-day Yemen and the rest of the world, adding to its importance.

Where did Muhammad receive his first revelation?

Mt. Hira, outside Mecca

Who was given the final revelation communicated by God?

Muhammad

Why did Muhammad gain so many followers?

Muhammad created a religion that had unified the city of Medina. His raids against the tribes of Mecca were extremely successful and each time the tribes waged war on Medina, Muhammad won. This established Muhammad as a skilled military leader and political leader. Many people swore their allegiance to Islam not because of Islam, but because of Muhammad's victories. Muhammad created a community in which the laws of human behavior in daily life were ordered by God. Muhammad had established a core concept of a single God and that God's authority in people's daily lives. He had combined himself into a prophet, social reformer, and state builder.

What happened when Muhammad died?

Muhammad had left no successor, having no sons, so there was a dispute over who should become leader. The Qur'an had also left no instructions on a succession. Early converts of Islam whom had followed Muhammad to Medina believed that Abu Bakr should be caliph.

Why do you suppose Mecca's merchant oligharchs resisted God's message, delivered through the Prophet Muhammad?

Muhammad spoke out against the pagan rituals of the tribes. He condemned the very religious practices that had made Mecca a center of trade. He also criticized the attitudes of wealthy Quraysh merchants. Thus, oligarchs felt threatened by Islam and opposed it.

Byzantine Empire

Ruled by: Emperor Religion: Greek Orthodox Language: Greek Capital: Constantinople

Why was Muhammad invited to Yathrib?

Muhammad was looking for refuge because his work had led to his persecution in Mecca by the wealthy tribes. 200 miles north in the city of Yathrib, Muhammad was welcomed as a mediator between the warring tribes of the city. Any Muslims were promised protection. Muhammad left Mecca with his followers for Yathrib, starting the hijrah.

What happens if the "Qu'ran" is silent on an issue?

Muslim scholars will then look to the Prophet Muhammad's "sunna," or behavior. Muslims look to the example of the Prophet, which is considered worthy of emulation.

Who were "people of the book?"

None-muslims. The Qu'ran instructed Muslims to protect these people and the Muslims showed toleration towards them.

Sassanid Persia

Ruled by: Shah Religion: Zoroastrianism Language: Old Persian/Farsi Capital: Ctesiphon

What is a Caliph?

Originally meaning successor. The Caliph is a religious and political leader of the Islamic community.

What was Pre-Islamic Arabia like?

Pre-Islamic Arabia was primarily composed of nomadic tribes. Arabia was a stateless society. There were many tribes, but some were much more influential than others. Security was found within the tribe and tribal solidarity was valued highly. Most tribes practiced animism and shared holy sites like the Ka'ba. Poetry was how the tribe kept a record of their history and it also created a somewhat common language.

What are the five pillars of Islamic faith?

Proclamation of faith, prayer, fasting, pilgrimmage hajj, Zakat

3 Ethno-linguistic groups of the Middle East

Semitic, Indo-Iranian, Turkic

What is sufism?

Sufism is the mystical dimension of Islam. Sufism emerged as a reaction to Umayyad materialism; by 12th century it was organized into "brotherhoods" or "orders", each with its own mystical "way" (tariqa). The goal of sufism is to come as close to God as Muhammad did. "Sufis" are those whom practice the same ritual to attempt to speak to God. Known for volunteering and social work.

What is the first source of "Sharia'a?"

The "Qu'ran" is the first source of "Sharia'a."

What was the Abbasid Dynasty?

The Abbasid's ruled from 750-1258. Under the Abbasids the ages of conquest transitioned to an age of development of institutions, enterprises, and legal systems. Bureaucrats, merchants, and judges replaced warriors in Arab culture. The Abbasids returned to the inclusive ways of the Rashidun dynasty, including all Arabs in affairs, fostering a cosmopolitan empire. They also transferred the empire from Damascus to Baghdad under the first Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur. This transfer brought the Islamic political center in contact with Iranian imperial traditions, which emphasized royal absolutism and bureaucratic specialization. Abbasid administration was modeled off of Sassanid government and employed a large number of Iranian converts to Islam. The Abbasids carried the transition of Rashidun rule (one amongst equals) to the Umayyads (Absolute authoritarian government) to their own form of government that resembled an absolutist monarchy. The rulers identified themselves as "shadows of God on earth." The Abbasids centralized political authority and placed it in the hands of an absolute monarchist who exercised powers as a secular king and spiritual head of the Islamic "ummah." This method brought the Abbasids prosperity and their rule extended from North Africa to Iran. Eventually North Africa divided into its own Islamic states, but power in the Middle East remained with the Abbasids until the tenth century.

Who gave Muhammad his first revelation?

The Angel Gabriel

What tribe did Muhammad belong to?

The Banu Hashim

What is the Haram al-sharif?

The Dome of the Rock, located in Jerusalem.

What is the Ghadir Khumm?

The Ghadir Khumm happened when Muhammad said that he is leaving his followers two precious things: the book of Allah and his progeny. After saying this the Prophet Muhammad held up his cousin Ali Ibn Abi Talib's hand. The Shi'a believe that Muhammad chose Ali as his successor at this point and Ali became the first imam.

What were the three caliphal houses?

The Rashidun (632-661), the Umayyads (661-750), the Abbasids (750-1258)

Who were the Seljuks?

The Seljuks were a confederation of Turkish tribes whom had relations with the Abbasid Empire. They spread Islam through Anatolia, paving the way for an Ottoman State.

What do the Shi'is believe in regards to leadership?

The Shi'is believe that the caliphate should follow down the bloodline from Muhammad.

What is the significance of the Twelfth Imam?

The Shi'is view themselves as a righteous yet oppressed community. In 872 C.E. Muhammad Abu al-Qasim, the twelfth Imam was captured by enemies, but disappeared. From 872-941 the Imam was thought to have contacted believers through deputies while hiding. This is known as the minor occultation. After the Imam told deputies to tell believers that he would soon die the major occultation began and still continues today. The twelfth Imam did not appoint another deputy. One day the twelfth Imam is believed to return when Islam is in a degraded state. Imam Mehdi will defeat the enemies of Islam and usher in a Golden Age when he returns the Shi'a believe.

What are the two sects of Islam?

The Sunnis and Shia

What do Sunnis and Shia's differ over?

The Sunnis and Shia'a differ over who should hold the leadership or "imamate" over the Muslims

What do the Sunnis believe in regards to leadership?

The Sunnis believe that the prophet Muhammad died without naming a successor. They believe that the Muslim community should elect a well-renowned Islamic scholar as their leader.

What is animism?

The attribution of a soul to plants, inanimate objects, and natural phenomena.

What was the battle of Siffin?

The battle of Siffin took place in 657. This battle was between Ali and his followers and Mu'awiyah and his followers. The battle ended in a draw, but caused a substantial amount of Ali supporters to withdraw their allegiance to him. This allowed Mu'awiyah to expand his rule into Syria and Egypt and prevented Ali from establishing an uncontested claim to the caliphate.

What is the most important pillar of Islamic faith?

The belief in God and his Prophet, Muhammad

What are the duties of the caliph?

The caliph's duty is to defend Islam, spread Islam, and implement "Shari'a."

What is the heart of Islam?

The heart of Islam is the law or "Shari'a." This is God's way for humankind.

What was the Hijra? And why is it considered to be of such importance that the Muslim calendar begins with this event?

The hijra was the migration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in 622 C.E. The hijra marked a turning point in the development of Islam.

Who were the kharijites?

The kharijites were the first Islamic sect in history. They were responsible for killing Ali Ibn Talib.

What is the Night of Power?

The night when Muhammad received his first revelation and was summoned to begin his prophetic mission.

How do Muslim scholars know what Muhammad's behavior was?

They look at reports of what he said and did over his lifetime. These reports are called "hadith." They were collected for easy reference in the 10th century. One of the most famous hadith collections was compiled by al-Bukhari, still referenced by Muslims today.

What was the Umayyad Dynasty?

The second caliphate house ruling from 661-750. Following Ali's death, Mu'awiyah was recognized as the caliph throughout the Islamic empire. The Umayyads moved the capital from Medina to Damascus. The Umayyads focused on Arab exclusivism, discriminating against non-muslims. They also adopted many of the Byzantium Empire's ruling principles, bringing the caliphate a large deal of material wealth. Even though Mu'awiyah and his successors saw great material wealth, there was internal dissention. The people living under the Umayyad's did not like their exclusiveness, lavish lifestyle, strong control, and pious elements of the government.

What was jizyah?

The special poll tax that all non-muslims were required to pay in an Islamic ruled area.

Why do you suppose the Rashidun period should be so highly regarded?

This is the time when four companions of the Prophet launched the movement that thrust the Islamic "ummah" out of the Arab peninsula and into world history. These four rulers were the closest line to the Prophet Muhammad and had a great knowledge of Quranic interpretation.

In the absence of the Imam, how will God's will be discerned?

Through the "ulama" whom are heirs of the Imams. Top-ranking scholars are called "Mujtahids" and any Muslim seeking guidance will attach to a living "Mujtahid."

Who was Umar?

Umar was the second caliph under the Rashidun house. Umar redirected the inter-warring instincts of the tribes to the outside world and used the unified Islamic community to begin the Islamic conquest of the Middle East. The conquests were extensive against the weakened Sassanid and Byzantium empires.

What does "ummah" mean?

Ummah refers to the entire Islamic community.

Who was Uthman?

Uthman was the third Caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate. He was murdered by mutinous tribesmen in 656. His death caused the emergence of the question of succession yet again.

Was the Rashidun Caliphate tolerant?

Yes, allowed most believers of others religions to practice in peace and offered them protection. Even though they had a poll tax it was much less than that which was levied against these people under the Sassanids of Byzantines. Even though they also had to wear different clothes, couldn't serve in the Islamic army, and couldn't have large worship spaces, non-muslim minorities were granted more toleration than in the past.

What is Zoroastrianism?

Zoroastrianism is one of the world's oldest monotheistic religions. It was founded by the Prophet Zoroaster (or Zarathustra) in ancient Iran approximately 3500 years ago. For 1000 years Zoroastrianism was one of the most powerful religions in the world. It was the official religion of Persia (Iran) from 600 BCE to 650 CE.