Issues in Biotechnology 190 - Midterm Study Guide
Cells have proteins in their outer membrane which allows communication between cells and the environment. Specialized proteins embedded in cell membranes which receive and transmit chemical messages are referred to as
receptors.
We are in an era where CO2 concentrations are increasing at alarming rates from human activities. Which of the following are inputs to photosynthesis?
Carbon dioxide
6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy = C6H12O6 + 6O2
photosynthesis
The evolutionary history between a group of organisms is referred as:
phylogeny
The sequence of information in DNA is fundamental to an understanding of biological function. The first draft of the human genome was published in the Journal Nature in 2001. Knowing all the genes in humans may have profound affects on which areas in the future?
(Answer) A. All of these areas have been and will continue to be affected by the human genome. b. Insurance c. Marine Sciences, Aquaculture and Ecology d. Anthropology, Psychology, Psychiatry, and Forensics e. Medicine, Cancer Biology and Pharmacy
Mutations in DNA can result in a change in the amino acid sequence which makes up a protein. Changing one amino acid within a protein could change what about that protein?
(Answer) A. all of these answers are correct b. the sequence of amino acids specified in the DNA sequence called a gene c. the primary structure of the protein d. the function of the protein itself e. the overall shape of the protein
Which of the following is not a separation technique? Question options:
Homogenization
A gene is a segment of DNA that codes for:
Proteins
What is teleology?
The study of design or purpose in natural phenomena.
Strict experimental design is necessary to achieve reliable scientific observations. If a result cannot be replicated, the original results should be in doubt. In a well designed experiment
(Answer) A. multiple answers are correct for a well-designed experiment. b. the null hypothesis will not be tested and should be eliminated if it does not correspond to the hypothesis. c. the prediction will be highly probable if an experiment shows the explanation is correct d. the prediction will most likely be correct. e. if the experiment shows the explanation is incorrect, the prediction will be highly improbable.
The origin of life on earth is a fascinating topic. How did life start on earth? If life on earth could start what does this tell us about the origins of life on other planets? The best evidence available indicates that life on earth started as single cells about
3.2-3.7 billion years ago
DNA is the basic information source for most biological life on Earth. The structure of DNA was first determined in
1953
Genes are comprised of sequences in DNA which code for proteins. Proteins are chained molecules made from sequences of
20 amino acids
The genome contains the genetic information of and organism. The first draft of the Human Genome was first published in
2001
What is described as all of the DNA in an organism, including its genes?
A genome
We use the scientific method everyday in our everyday lives. How do I use this new App? How do I navigate this new software? How do I fix this? Which of the following statement is correct?
A hypothesis that does not generate a testable prediction is not useful.
What is a fractal?
A natural phenomenon or mathematical set that exhibits a repeating pattern that displays at every scale.
What is agarose?
A polymer derived from algae and used to separate molecules in electrophoresis A technique used to conduct and experiment
Evolution is a commonality of all life on earth. If perhaps the phase "theory" of evolution is confusing, then maybe it would be better described as the "law" of evolution. A law of nature. Simply stated "Given life, there will be change." Evolution is
A process by which all biological organisms change through genetic variation that is selected over time in the environment.
In the context of gene sequences, what is a 'promoter'
A sequence of DNA which is involved with the control of expression of a particular gene.
When referring to Natural Selection's role in evolution, what are examples of physiological selection?
A. (ANSWER) All of the answers are correct. b. Physiological efficiency (oxygen, food, water). c. Fitness (food-gathering). d. Disease resistance. e. Protection from injury.
Which of the following are Genomic technologies
A. (ANSWER) All of the technologies are used in genomics b. Genomics c. DNA sequencing d. Transcriptomics e. Proteomics
In cells, genes are segments of DNA that code for proteins; not sugars or complex carbohydrates, or lipids, but proteins. The code in the sequence of nucleotides in a gene specifies the sequence of nucleotides in messenger RNA which in turn specifies the sequence of amino acids in a protein. The sequence is variable because of mutations which can change the sequence of amino acids in the protein coded for by that gene. Therefore, in evolution, a change in a single code for a single amino acid may have an effect on individual survival. Proteins carry out many functions in a cell such as
A.(ANSWER) any of the answers are correct. b. hormones, like insulin or estrogen. c. regulator functions, like transcription factors. d. structural functions, like myosin in muscle fibers. e. enzymes like trypsin, that act as catalysts for cellular reactions.
The information in DNA is stored in a sequence of bases or nucleotides. The sequence of the bases are the basis for the information code. Unlike digital code which is comprised of 0s and 1s, (such as: 01100011100) the chemical units of information in DNA are:
ATGC
The human genome is all of our DNA including our genes. What percentage of the human genome consists of genes?
About 4% of the human genome codes for proteins
Which of the following is an example of the Prokaryotic Cell?
Bacteria cell
Innovation in biotechnology is happening at an exponential rate now. These developments are in the news nearly daily (if you pay attention). The development of Biotechnology is also directly linked with Industry. Basic results become applied very quickly. Which of the following is not true?
Basic Science has not yet been applied in any of today's biotech fields.
Proteins are molecules that carry out the gate keeping functions of the plasma membrane. Some of these functions include acting as a receptor, transporter, recognition protein, or as an enzymatic protein. Which of the following descriptions below best matches the protein function of a "receptor?"
Bind to external chemicals that regulate processes within the cell
Who published "The Origins of Species" in 1859?
Charles Darwin
I am a double membrane organelle. I have thylakoids and I am where photosynthesis, arguably the most important biochemical reaction on the planet, takes place. What organelle am I?
Chloroplast
What is exchanged during recombination?
Chromosome arms
The Flow of Information of life on earth usually occurs from Question options:
DNA to RNA to Protein
The predominate fundamental information basis for life on earth is stored in the molecule DNA. DNA stands for.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
The ability to finely control metabolic pathways results in efficiency where the more efficient organisms will be at a selective advantage and therefore survive to make offspring at a higher frequency than those that are less efficient. It might be said that 'only the strong survive', or maybe put another way 'the most efficient survive more often'. What are regulatory processes in which there are signals indicating "too much" or "too little" which result in a correction to the processes?
Feedback loops.
Who is considered the father of modern scientific methodology due to emphasis on experimental data and reproducibility of results?
Galileo
What animal in Lamarck's idea about how organisms change over time and generations had to stretch their necks?
Giraffes
At its most basic level all of life exists and is based on chemistry. Which of the following is not a chemical reaction?
Ice melts to form liquid water
By developing a systematic method for evaluation of testable hypothesis, one can learn more than from mere conjecture or superstition. Which of the following statements best describes the logic of the scientific method?
If the hypothesis is correct, certain test results can be expected.
Several US courts have ruled against the teaching of Intelligent Design in biology classes in public schools because
Intelligent Design and other proposed alternative explanations cannot be supports by current scientific methods
How is the amino acid sequence of a protein determined
It is determined by the sequence bases in nucleic acids
Sometimes observations are made which correlate with one another but may not have anything to do with each other. For example, the price of bananas last year correlated to the number of murders in Chicago or that vaccines correlates to the increase in autism. What is the meaning of the statement "correlation does not imply causation"?
Just because two variables vary in a similar pattern does not mean that changing one variable causes a change in the other
The polymerase chain reaction was developed by who?
Kary Mullis
What is LUCA?
Last Universal Common Ancestor
Charles Darwin coupled his conclusions about the origins of species with his theory of
Natural Selection.
A major component of cell membranes are:
Phospholipids
Arguably, the most important biochemical reaction for life on this planet is
Photosynthesis
A method used to copy small amounts of DNA many times over was invented by Dr. Kary Mullis in the 1980s and is called PCR. PCR stands for:
Polymerase Chain Reaction
_____________ are chains of amino acids.
Proteins
The world around us is made of innumerable smaller components we cannot normally observe. What are the parts of the atom?
Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
Genes code for proteins, but the code is first transferred to RNA. To start the transcription process, a large molecule,___________, recognizes a ____________
RNA polymerase; promoter site
Because it is so commonplace many of us take water for granted. But it is in fact an unusual molecule in many ways. Most biologists consider that water is a prerequisite for life. Water can absorb and store a large amount of heat while increasing only a few degrees in temperature. Why?
Rather than raise the temperature of the water, the heat must first be used to break the hydrogen bonds.
. If we want to discover the differences between people for pharmacy, ancestry, medical or forensic purposes, we could sequence all of their DNA. Another way would be to use 'markers' which show the variation. STR stand for
Short Tandem Repeats
What is a fact?
Something that has been objectively verified by observation or evidence.
Which technique is used to detect specific DNA sequences
Southern Blot
The crucial difference between the two modes of __________ is the nature of the original isolation.
Speciation
Which of the following is not a mechanism that can result in genetic variation?
Taxonomy
There are many misconceptions about evolution. Which of the following is NOT an observation or inference on which Darwin's theory of natural selection is based?
That individuals always adapt themselves to the environment and these then traits are inherited.
When asked by a reporter what they had discovered, Francis Crick famously replied:
The Secret of Life
Where in the DNA is information stored
The information in DNA is stored in the sequence of its bases
In reference to the other so called "omics" technologies, what is Metabolomics
The study of how an individual's genome and inheritance affects the body's metabolism
Using the scientific method for evaluation ideas can be evaluated. Some people confuse the words: guess, hunch, hypothesis, and theory. Experiments are used to validate explanations. Which of the following best distinguishes hypotheses from theories in science?
Theories have a broad explanatory thesis involving many repeated observations, and experiment over time
__________ is also know at the "universal solvent".
Water
In 1798, who proposed in An Essay on the Principle of Population that the world population is growing faster than its increases in resources with massive consequences to the environment?
Thomas Malthus
Which of the choices below are considered to be the driving force for evolution and the generation of new species?
Variation in DNA sequences
The structure of DNA as a double helix with complementary strands was a major breakthrough in our understanding of biology. The major contributions to the discovery of the DNA double helix structure, (although not all were recognized by the Nobel prize Committee) were made by:
Wilkins, Watson, Crick, and Franklin
The fundamental building blocks of the chemistry of biological life on Earth reveal a great deal about its workings. Atoms are an example of how small parts are parts of larger parts of an even larger whole. An atom is
a chemical unit consisting of negatively charged electrons orbiting a positively charged nucleus
The information in DNA is transferred to an intermediate, RNA. All of the following are features of RNA except:
a coiled double-stranded always helical structure.
Most methods for observing cells using a microscope involve 'fixing' the cell with chemicals and then processing them for observation. This creates the possibility of creating an image that is not in its real state. If you wanted to film the movement of chromosomes during cell division, the best choice for optical equipment would be:
a light microscope, because you can view living cells without fixation
The scientific method is at its basic a procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement and experiment, and the formulation, testing and modification of hypotheses. The scientific method is
a method as an intellectual activity encompassing observation, description, experiment and explanation of natural phenomena and a method to systematically gain a body of knowledge.
The ability to routinely and accurately measure small amounts of liquids was essential to the development of molecular biology and biotechnology. A Pipetman is:
a molecular biology tool used in the lab to measure small volumes of liquid common in biotechnology
Life is very diverse on planet Earth. A definition of life is difficult because of its diversity. But we can consider some of the commonalities of life. A common feature of life on Earth is the occurrence
a series of feedback loops that provide control of biological inputs and outputs through cycles and pathways so that even in complex pathways and ecology 'life works in cycles'.
A supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something, especially one based on general principles independent of the think to be explained is a basic tenet of the scientific method. A relationship between phenomena that has bee established based on large amount of observational and experiments data is referred to as
a theory
The separation of molecules or cellular components can be achieved by using the fact that they have different size and density. An ultracentrifuge consists of a rotor that spins tubes containing materials and is:
a tool used by cell and molecular biologists for separating and comparing cell components based on size and density
Scientists have successfully cloned
a. Cats and dogs (Answer) B. all of the animals in this list c. Frogs and fish d. Sheep and monkeys e. Mice and rats
How could a species become extinct?
a. Change in the environment or climate. b. Predation by humans. c. Loss of habitat. D. (ANSWER) All of the answers are correct. e. Emergence of a new disease.
The endosymbiosis theory by Lynn Margulis provides the best explanation for the presence of two types of organelles found in eukaryotes: Chloroplasts and Mitochondria. What is one observation that supports the role of endosymbiosis in the evolution of eukaryotes?
a. Chloroplasts and mitochondria have small amounts of circular DNA, similar to circular DNA in prokaryotes b. Chloroplasts and mitochondria have ribosomes, similar to those found in bacteria that allow them to synthesize their own protein c. Chloroplasts and mitochondria are similar in size to prokaryotic cells d. Chloroplast and mitochondrial DNA is highly related to bacterial DNA (Answer) E. All of these observations are correct
PCR is a fundamental technique in molecular biology but also in forensic analyses. Basic Forensic principles include:
a. DNA from an evidentiary sample can be matched with DNA from a suspect to implicate or exonerate b. DNA is found in nearly all cells (blood, semen, hair, etc.). (Answer)C. all of the answers are correct. d. If enough genetic variation is tested, each of us can be uniquely identified. e. Each of us is genetically unique
Forensic DNA analyses allows science to discern several possible outcomes. Given DNA samples from three suspects, the victims DNA and DNA evidence from a crime scene the possible conclusions are:
a. Data is inconclusive b. Multiple suspects were at the scene (Answer) C. any of the answers are correct. d. None were at the scene e. Suspect 1's DNA was at the scene; or Suspect 2's DNA was at the scene; or Suspect 3' DNA was at the scene
What is/are the major benefit(s) of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction?
a. Ensures transmission of important genetic information b. Enhances variants that may survive new environmental challenges. (Answer) C. All of the answers are correct. d. Enhances genetic variation in a population e. Ensures and increases genetic variation in a population.
Which of the following crises are we currently experiencing?
a. Environmental degradation and loss of wild habitat (Answer) B. We are currently in all of these crises and more c. Climate change and global toxicity d. World food resources and food security. e. Expanding global population
The components which make up living cells include atoms, small molecules, complex organelles, and cell comprise tissues and tissues comprise organs and so on. The order that best represents size from the smallest to the largest biological entities is:
a. Organelles-Tissues-Organs-Organism--Species (Answer) B. all answers are correct c. Ribosomes-Mitochondria-Nuclei-Cells-Tissues d. Cells-Tissues-Organs-Individual e. Atoms-Molecules-Chain Molecules-Molecular Structures-Organelles-Cells
Biotechnology has raised misconceptions in what areas?
a. Personalized medicine, the control of genetic and medical data, and its influence on medical insurance. (Answer) B. All of the areas listed in this answer have raise misconceptions about the applications of biotechnology c. Vaccines and vaccinations. d. GMOs in food, large Agricultural companies and the safety of our food. e. Stem cell research, tissue engineering and gene editing.
All of the following are true about the process of photosynthesis EXCEPT that
can occur in the absence of light
Darwin's theory of evolution and natural selection disproved which of the following:
a. Some organisms have gone extinct and new ones have arisen. b. Organisms are fixed since the origin of life on earth - there have been no new additional species and no losses. c. The geology and the biology of earth is always changing, never constant. d. Earth is 6,000 years old. E. (ANSWER) Both A and C.
It is now possible to clone and genetically engineer any organism(while not all have been accomplished, this is thought to be merely a matter of effort). The Principles of cloning an organism indicate that
a. all cells in an individual have nearly the same genetic makeup b. cloning of many animals have demonstrated this developmental plasticity c. all cells are derived from a zygote D. (ANSWER )all of the answers are correct e. all cells have the potential to develop into and individual
What confuses our thinking about genetically modifying organisms. Some applications are well received, others are vilified. The process of creating genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
a. has been not demonstrated in peer review journals to cause health issues b. has not been commercialized for beef, chicken or pork (Answer) C. all of the answers are correct. d. has been applied to most major crop plants e. has been applied to farm grown salmon to enhance growth
Where ever you go leave a small part of you behind, some of which may contain your DNA. Forensic applications of biotechnology
a. have continued to become more sophisticated as new techniques develop. (Answer) B. all of these answers apply to the application of biotechnology to forensics c. has been used for many years now to adjudicate crimes in the US. d. involves the analysis of DNA. e. can be extremely accurate and sensitive resulting in expanding DNA databases for convicted felons in the
The origin of new species (speciation) by evolution occurs
a. only in certain well-studied organisms b. only through the activation of specific RNA sequence. C. (ANSWER) All of the answers are correct. d. via natural selection, genetic drift, migration, and/or mutation. e. when the environment is optimal for that species.
How does natural selection work? Variation in a population can be selected for by various pressures including
a. predation selection. b. chemical selection. C. (ANSWER) all of these answers are correct. d. sexual selection. e. physiological selection.
Evolution has been a controversial topic for over 150 years and remains so today. Polls show that a significant percentage of the US population does not consider that evolution is an adequate explanation for the diversity of species on earth. The subject of evolution is controversial because
a. some people think that the theory of evolution conflicts with religious beliefs b. people have conflicting ideas about human origins. c. general public education about evolution is insufficient given modern biology. d. the subject may not be properly represented in current curriculum throughout all grade levels. E. (ANSWER) all of these answers apply
Typically, before a cell divides all of its DNA is replicated. The fidelity of replication is not always accurate. Changes in the DNA code is
a. where most mutations are harmful or neutral to the organism in which they occur, but in other cases may provide a benefit. b. called a mutation, which is any change in an organism's DNA sequence. C. (ANSWER) all of these statements are true. d. positive for diversity providing a good deal of the origin of genetic variation. e. normal and mutations are almost always random with respect to the needs of the organism.
In humans, non coding DNA makes up __________ of the genome
about 95%
The fact that the base pairs in DNA are complementary suggests for a replicating mechanism where information can be copied during cell division and transferred through generations. Which of the following nucleotide bases are present in equal amounts in DNA?
adenine and thymine
What are the four bases of RNA?
adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil
How many people die from starvation each day on Earth?
approximately 40,000
Why do people believe what they believe? Is this cultural, by repeated experience or instinct? Beliefs are different from knowledge. Why do people believe what they believe? Superstitions are
are not logically related to a course of events but rather irrational beliefs.
We can always ask a question about why? Why does this happen? About any observation. Experiments can be used to test our questions and yield observable and repeatable results to discern answers about these questions. Empirical results
are observations based on testable hypotheses.
The major chemical energy currency in life in eukaryotic cells is ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate). The major contribution of ATP in eukaryotic cells comes from mitochondria. Every cell in your body contain mitochondria. Mitochondria then might be called the most successful organism on the planet since they
are the central location of respiration in all human cells and are derived from bacteria as endosymbionts
Most biologists agree that any animal can be cloned if the effort is put against the project. This procedure typically involves the removal of the nucleus of a body (somatic) cell and injecting it into an enucleated egg cell. Animal cloning
as well as the genetic engineering of animals, has been accomplished for many different species
What about alternative explanations for the diversity of life on earth? A National discussion had developed about the teaching in public schools of an alternative explanation, to evolution, for biological diversity called Intelligent Design. This idea suggests that that the world ecology and biology is so complex that this infers that there must be a creator much the same way that the complexity of a watch infers a watchmaker. Intelligent Design is not currently a well-established, evidence
based alternative to theories of evolution by natural selection.
The environment is a selection pressure for optimized function in the biological world. Biological life tends to:
be selected for by the environment, where populations of organisms will be selected to optimize functions rather than maximize individual trait
We all have a very limited range of perception and knowledge of the world around us. How we know anything about our world is an age old problem. Science is
both a body of knowledge and an intellectual activity encompassing observation, description, experimental
DNA markers can serve as a proxy for the genome and hence can be used in the identification of any organism or individual organism including humans. Highly repetitive sequences of DNA called STRs:
can be used in DNA fingerprinting for forensic purposes
How can we observe evolution as it occurs? The average time to death from starvation in a fruit fly is about 20 hours. Selecting for increased starvation resistance in fruit flies
can produce populations in which the average time to death from starvation is 160 hours.
Chained molecules like proteins or nucleic acids consist of smaller units. Which in the following list includes all others in the list?
carbohydrate
DNA contains information. Genes are segments of DNA that: Question options:
carry information for making the proteins required by all of the cells in the body
What is a structure that is found in an Animal Cell but NOT typically in a Plant Cell?
centriole
Perhaps one reason for the controversy about evolution, is that it occurs over long periods of time. The process of evolution in biological organisms involves
changes that occur over time and many generations causing divergence in form and function
In photosynthesis plants split water into hydrogen and oxygen. If humans could invent artificial photosynthesis, it has been hypothesized that this would provide an endless supply of energy through a hydrogen economy. Without plants there would be no oxygen and very little biological energy source on earth. A cellular structure in eukaryotic plants that contains chlorophylls captures sunlight is called a:
chloroplast
Photosynthesis is one of the most amazing and the most important biochemical reactions on Earth. A cellular structure that captures sunlight to produce sugar using CO2 is called a:
chloroplast
Plants contain an organelle that us humans do not. This organelle contains chlorophyll which gives it its pigment and its main function is conducting photosynthesis, capturing the energy from sunlight, converting it, and storing it in ATP and NADPH while freeing oxygen from water. Which organelle is described?
chloroplasts
The entire genomic sequences are now known for many species of bacteria, fungi, insects, plants and animals, including humans and chimpanzees. This vast amount of information has been published and is in the public domain. The genome databases can be aligned and the similarities and relations can be examined. Individual gene sequences can be searched to find striking similarities between species. These types of analyses have shown that humans are 98% similar in DNA sequence to the chimpanzee; 88% similar to mice and about 33% similar to the genes of a rice plant. This type of analysis is called
comparative genomics
After the origin of relatively simple cells, more complex cells must have developed from these precursors. Eukaryotic cells:
contain various membrane bound compartments, such as chloroplasts, mitochondria and nuclei
Every cell has certain proteins which are specific to that cell type. A 'Western blot' is used for
detection of proteins using antibodies as in a home pregnancy test
The ability to isolate and track DNA,RNA, proteins and genes in cells and organisms was a fundamental breakthrough in molecular biology and biotechnology. A 'Southern blot' is used for
detection of specific DNA sequences
Each cell must produce only a subset of the genes that are being expressed. This subset is what differentiates one cell from another. For example, cancer cells must be expressing one subset of genes when compared to normal cells. Photosynthetic cells in a leaf are expressing different genes from root cells. A 'Northern blot' is used for
detection of specific RNA sequences
To establish that evolution by natural selection is operating in a population, one must demonstrate variability for a trait, heritability of that trait, and
differential reproductive success based on that trait.
Statistics is the practice or science of collecting and analyzing numerical data in large enough quantities to infer conclusions, especially for the purpose of inferring proportions in a whole from those in a representative sample. Statistical methods make it possible to
discern out of many observations how likely it is that certain results have occurred by chance.
The biotechnology industry is explosive, especially in agriculture, pharmacy and medicine. The development of Biotechnology is
driven by application
Sometimes people look at the natural world and think this is so complex, how could this happen by random chance and circumstance?" Complex biological structures like the horn of a ram, a chambered nautilus shell or a growing plant tendril seem complex but are actually the result of
emergent patterns that result in complex structures when simple units follow simple rules
. Critics of evolution state that that evolution is not possible since it disobeys the second law of thermodynamics. The tendency of energy to dissipate as described by the second law of thermodynamics is called:
entropy: where order tends to become disordered
How could evolution occur? How can organisms become more complex over time? Critics of evolution state that that it is not possible since it disobeys the second law of thermodynamics. The tendency of energy to dissipate as described by the second law of thermodynamics is called
entropy: where order tends to become disordered.
Sugars, such as glucose or fructose are the basic building blocks of more complex carbohydrates. Which of the following foods is high in sugars but not a significant source of complex carbohydrates?
fresh fruit
Pharmacogenomics is the study of how ___________ affects the body's response to medications
genetics
If the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules in a single human cell were stretched out and laid end to-end they would measure approximately 6.5 feet (2 meters). The average human body contains 10 to 20 billion miles (16 to 32 billion kilometers) of DNA distributed among trillions of cells. The full sequence of an individual organism's DNA is called its
genome
DNA provides the fundamental information for most living organisms on earth. The information stored in DNA is capable to organize life functions and provide a copy for the next cell division. A gene is usually a segment of DNA which will code for a protein. All the DNA in an organism, including its genes, is called a
genome.
One question regarding the evolution of eukaryotic cells was the origin of organelles. The endosymbiont hypothesis:
has accrued sufficient evidence to explain the origins of chloroplasts and mitochondria
Any gene can now be cloned and moved into plants for crop improvement purposes. Agricultural Biotechnology
has been widely used globally for genetic modification for crop improvement without a single substantiate
What is science? How does it differ from other ways of knowing about our reality? Observation of and wonder at the workings of nature are what initiate "why" and "how" type questions. Science is a system of
hypothesis making and testing to discern and validate observable facts generating evidence based knowledge.
How do atoms come together to make molecules? A covalent bond
in a molecule is made when electrons are shared between atoms
If changes in DNA occur regularly, how come some survive in a population and others do not? Natural selection acts like a filter separating the positive changes from the negative and results in the origin of new species. Populations with variations that favor their survival are favored to pass on their genes to offspring. Biological changes in species occur
in and throughout various levels in biological systems, including ecology.
Can we prove evolution? How do organisms change? Salvidor Luria asked whether bacteria evolve like other organisms. Do Darwinian principles apply to bacteria; or are they more subject to environment? Using a brilliant experimental design involving virus resistance in bacteria he was able to clearly demonstrate what phenomenon? He showed that
in the laboratory and by using bacteria which become infected by bacteriophages, chance mutations are involved in a large role in evolution by natural selection.
Birds did not evolve feathers in order to fly... anymore than they evolved feathers to fill your down comforter. Elephants did not assume their charming appearances to become circus performers. These characteristics occur as a result of variation in DNA through generations within a population and a selection for functionality. The process of biological change therefore, cannot be purposive. This indicates that
individuals do not exercise 'will' over the changes passed on to their offspring, but rather the changes are already present in the population and are selected by the environment.
"What is Life?"This is a question which has been asked since antiquity. What impresses us at first glance, is its diversity. But we also are interested in its unity. What feature seems to be shared by all living organisms on this planet? -
information is stored in chain molecules which can be replicated.
A gene is a segment of DNA which codes for a protein. Proteins conduct many of the vital functions of cells. Any gene can now be cloned. Cloning a gene
is a method used to copy a specific segment of DNA
Energy is ultimately at the basic driving force of life on earth. The overwhelming source of energy for biological life on earth
is derived from sunlight
What is the carrying capacity for human population of earth? How many people can the planet's finite space sustainably support before collapse? The world population
is now 3 billion people and has not increased in the last decade due to the success worldwide of zero population
The sequencing of DNA was developed using manual and tedious technology developed by Nobel laureate Fred Sanger. We can now sequence DNA at rapid rates and relatively inexpensively, revolutionizing many aspects of biotechnology. Automated high throughput DNA sequencing
is now conducted by robots and mega computers allowing rapid inexpensive genome sequencing
Water is an example of a polar molecule. More complex molecules can also have polar qualities. A polar molecule:
is slightly negative at one end and slightly positive at the other end
The use of biotechnology has far reaching applications, including agriculture, pharmacy, medicine, and forensics. With world fisheries in peril of over harvest, aquaculture advanced breeding, and biotechnology approaches offer some solutions. Marine biotechnology
is the optimization and use of marine organisms by humans to produce something useful
Why do some people get certain diseases and not others? Why do some medications work better for some people than others? Why do some people have certain side effects from medication while others do not? Knowing all the genes in humans allows the diagnosis and prediction of what types of medications may work well for one person and not another. Pharmacogenomics
is the study of how variations in the DNA sequence of the human genome affect the response to medication
The most simple and primitive cells on earth are the microbes, known as prokaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells:
lack internal organelles, such as mitochondria, chloroplasts or a membrane bound nucleus
Some people think that the use of biotechnology is unethical and that humans should not be involved with the manipulation of nature. Biotechnology is controversial because
largely because education about it has been lacking it has been perceived to have both position and negative
Rachel Carson is famous as the author of 'Silent Spring' (1962) which discussed the broad effects of the insecticide DDT on the 'web of life'. The ecology of a coral reef is another good example that:
life is interconnected and interdependent
Light energy is essential to most life on Earth. Photosynthesis then is arguably the most important biochemical reaction on Earth. In this reaction
light energy is used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen and that captured energy is converted to chemical energy as ATP
Something anecdotal has to do with anecdotes
little stories. Anecdotal evidence is based on hearsay rather than hard facts. People like to share stories about thing that happened to then, or that they heard about, to make a point. That kind of talk is anecdotal: based on small, personal accounts. Anecdotal evidence - links that may not exist can seem to be revealed between two phenomena, but the link may not actually exist
Water is more unusual than most people think. Most biologists and astrobiologists think that water is essential to the origin of life on earth, or perhaps anywhere. This is why one of the missions of the Mars rover was to search for water or the signs of water. Water is important to life on earth because
most biological molecules and compounds important to life dissolve in liquid water
Charles Darwin reached following conclusions (1) Variation exists in natural populations. (2) Many more offspring are born each season than can possibly survive to maturity. (3) As a result, there is a struggle for existence (4) Characteristics beneficial in the struggle for existence will tend to become more common in the population, changing the characteristics of a species. (5) Over time, and given a steady input of new variation into a population, these processes lead to the emergence of new species. These conclusions, from the Origin of Species, was coupled with
natural selection.
To establish that evolution by natural selection is operating in a population, one must demonstrate variability for a trait, heritability of that trait, differential reproductive success based on that trait, and
nothing else.
DNA is the fundamental source of information in biological life forms (although some viruses use RNA). In eukaryotes a cellular structure which contains most of a cell's DNA in animals, fungi or plants is called the:
nucleus
Robert Hooke was the first to observe cells under a microscope. If you were to look into a light microscope and view an unknown cell, what might you see that would tell you whether the cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic?
nucleus
Diversity is a hallmark of life on earth. When individual cells divide they first make a copy of all the information they carry in their DNA. Every cell in an organism usually contains a nearly exact copy of all of the DNA that codes for that organism. However, 'life' creates with mistakes. Every so often cellular mechanisms make errors during the replication process. A mutation
occurs as a random change in DNA sequence of individual basepairs
The double helix structure of DNA that is created by a sequence of bases was a clue to how one molecule of DNA could be replicated into two exact copies. DNA replication results in the same copy of DNA in each cell and
occurs before every cell divides
In order to conduct an experiment on must include controls. A Scientific control is an experiment or observation designed to minimize the effects of variable other than the independent variable. This increases the reliability of the results, through a comparison between control measurements and the other measurements. In controlled experiments
one variable is manipulated while others are held constant.
When understood, the variation and diversity of life on earth is beautiful and awesome. Evolution occurs
only through genetic variation which is propagated through a population via natural selection, genetic drift, or migration resulting in new species.
Some of the aspects of life on Earth seem contradictory. 'Life' is said to be opportunistic and is present in nearly every environment on the planet because
organisms are genetically selected for survival and reproductive success out of populations with variation and differences in the population
Photosynthesis is perhaps the most important chemical reaction on earth. Water is split during photosynthesis in plants to yield what to compounds?
oxygen and hydrogen
Organisms are related to one other like a family tree. The historical evolutionary relationship between a group of related organisms is known as its
phylogeny.
The observation that populations of organisms change over time was widely known in the early to mid 1800s. Some organisms go extinct, and new varieties and new species appear. Jean-Baptist Lamarck thought for giraffes that by stretching their necks for leaves higher in trees this characteristic would be passed on to the offspring of those giraffes. Lamarck, therefore
proposed that the inheritance of characteristics is acquired as a result of the environment, will of the organism, or purpose.
Genes can be involved with controlling expression of other genes during development. Some of which, like the hox genes, code for transcription factors that regulate when other genes are expressed. So, there are genes that regulate the expression of a number of other genes as a "coordinate expression of batteries of genes". These 'master' genes that control the expression of other genes code for
proteins
Most biochemical reactions would occur with the reactants, given enough time. But in life that might be too long. Most of the reactions in biological life then require catalysts. The many enzymes that are involved in biochemical reactions are usually:
proteins
Simple molecules like sugars, nucleotides and amino acids comprise larger chain molecules made up from these simple molecules. An example of chain molecules would be?
proteins
The sequences in nucleic acids (base pairs) in DNA code for proteins. Proteins control many or most of the important biochemical reactions in cells. Enzymes are usually:
proteins
How is a gene 'turned on' to start making RNA and then protein? Transcription factors are ?
proteins that recognize specific DNA sequences and regulate gene expression
Whole genomes have now been sequenced for many organisms. Genes have been cloned and moved from one species to another. Stem cells can develop into sperm cells. The development of Biotechnology
provides substantial molecular evidence for the Theory of Evolution
Proteins, as chained molecules are comprised of amino acids, and are an essential component of a healthy diet for humans (and other animals). Their most common function is to serve as:
raw materials for growth and metabolism.
Some species, such as the Galapagos finches, become adapted over time to their environment. Evolutionary adaptation
refers both to the process by which populations become better matched to their environment and the features of an organism that make it more fit than other individuals.
It is well known in pharmaceutical double blind testing studies, that if people are told that a drug will have a certain effect, it will, even it is only a sugar tablet and not the real test drug. The placebo effect
refers to the poorly understood phenomenon that people tend to respond favorably to any treatment.
Genes which code for transcription factors can have a large influence on gene expression. Mutations in genes that control gene expression can have large and sudden effects on the evolution of species. A protein that binds to a site on DNA next to a gene and blocks the transcription of that gene, thus preventing the synthesis of a protein that the gene encodes is known as a
repressor
Why are plants green? In photosynthesis, chlorophyll molecules act as solar antennae, so that when sunlight strikes them their electrons are excited to a higher energy state which eventually results it the splitting of water (H2O). The hydrogen ions from the splitting of H2O form a gradient that drives the chemical synthesis of ATP. The energy stored in ATP is then used to make what compound?
simple sugars
Of the following which one is common to both photosynthesis and cellular respiration?
storing energy by creating H+ gradients across membranes
. Since energy is another prerequisite of life on earth we must conclude that the energy flow through life on earth starts with:
sunlight and producers, like plants
Without a steady input of energy there would be no replicative life on earth. The energy flow through life on this planet occurs from
sunlight into chloroplasts producing sugars which can be metabolized in mitochondria generating ATP
Ken Miller:
supports the idea that ID should be taught in biology as an alternative to evolution.
Why do some species go extinct and others survive through time? Why are there no dinosaurs? But other ancient species like sharks are still here? "Survival of the fittest" may be a misleading phrase to describe the process of evolution by natural selection because
survival of an individual alone during its lifetime matters less to natural selection than does reproductive success.
Cloning is the asexual reproduction of an organism. The 'cloning' of plants was demonstrated by Steward in 1958 at Cornell University showing that plants could be grown back from a single cell. This ability, in plant or animals, is called "totipotency" and like the more recent examples of animal cloning, demonstrates
that all of the DNA that codes for an entire organism is in every cell of that organism
The process of evolution is a consistent pattern for life on earth. A particular example of evolution that is common globally and often in the news is o that evolution is wrong because it occurs too slowly to be observed in nature.
that evolution is responsible for increased occurrence of antibiotic resistant bacteria.
We can describe generalities about biological life, such as the occurrence of feedback loops, or the interconnectedness we can observe in nature; but one commonality that is an underlying principle throughout all life on earth is
that life is an information processing system, such as DNA, capable of replication with variations that can be inherited
Isaac Asimov wrote that "science gathers knowledge faster than society gathers wisdom" and in no other field is this more apparent than biotechnology. There is currently a wide gap between the knowledge of the general public about DNA, recent advances in biology and biotechnology, as well as the actual applications in the real world most likely because
the advances have been so rapid, often controversial, and this material is not required in most schools.
Emergent patterns and self assembly are wide spread phenomena in biology. Through the application of a few very simple rules
the development of complex structures can occur
Non Photosynthetic life (animals) require the primary producers (plants) for an energy source. That energy is usually in the form of sugars and some proteins. This stored energy must be converted to be useful. The metabolic function of respiration is important to cells because in this reaction
the energy in sugar molecules is used to make energy that is stored in the form of ATP an in the process liberated CO2
Each person has a unique DNA sequence. The human genome is the complete set of nucleic acid sequence for humans (Homo sapiens), encoded as DNA within the 23 chromosome pairs in cell nuclei and in a small DNA molecule found within individual mitochondria. Human genomes include both protein coding DNA genes and noncoding DNA. A person's unique DNA is carried in -
the nucleus in most cells of the body
The use of DNA technologies (as through genetic engineering) and the use of living organisms or their components to produce useful usually commercial products (such as pest resistant crops, new bacterial strains, or novel pharmaceuticals), is not common place. Biotechnology is
the production of something biological and useful for people through the use of management of living organism
Energy transfer is essential to all functions for life on earth. There must be energy to drive the reactions for metabolism and other functions. Energy flows from one chemical bond to another. Breaking covalent bonds in molecules results in
the release or transfer of energy
The ability to separate the constitutes of organismal life is essential to modern biology and biotechnology. Gel Electrophoresis is used for:
the separation of molecules, DNA, RNA and proteins by charge and size
In a basic description, all life has an information processing system. All life on this planet has the ability to replicate information with variation. The flow of information in biological life is generally from:
the transfer of information from DNA to RNA to proteins
Not every gene in the genome or an organism can be expressed at the same time. Or else we would just be a bag of protein. There must be differential gene expression where some genes are expressed in eye cell and off in others for example. The expression of a gene is said to be 'turned on' when specific signals interact with the promoter region of a gene and RNA is produced."Translation" of that code occurs in the cytoplasm and is
the transfer of information from RNA to proteins
The expression of a gene is said to be 'turned on' when certain signals interact with the promoter of a gene and RNA is produced. The strand of RNA that corresponds to a gene is complementary to the sequence of DNA. The process called Transcription", is
the transfer of information from RNA to proteins
Genes often code for proteins. Different genes have a specific and different DNA sequence compared to each other and code for different proteins which have the amino acid sequence predicted from their DNA sequence. Different proteins can be distinguished from each other by
their specific amino acid sequence
Why is a skin cell different from a heart cell? Why are cancer cells different from the cells they were derived from? Since all of the genes that code for all of the proteins in an organism are present in every cell then ?
there must be a way to turn some genes "on" and leave other genes "off"
Living organisms have various characteristics in common. Which of the following is not a characteristic of all living organisms?
they all rely only explicitly on non-organic material for replication
In DNA replication an (A) adenine always pairs with Question options:
thymidine (T)
To exist, life requires organization and organization requires energy, which means that life's molecules breakdown over time. Literally, you are not the 'same' person you were seven years ago, or even seven days ago. Life maintains itself by the process of:
turnover
Consider a face: it is comprised of a community of cells. Its basic features change very little over a year, yet in that time most of the original cells and all the molecules will be replaced. The 'fabric' changes but not the pattern. This phenomenon is explained by the process of
turnover of cells and rejuvenation from stem cells
The same way as genes code for proteins, the DNA sequence is a code for the amino acid sequence in these proteins. Proteins are molecules made from sequences comprised of a specific variation of
twenty different amino acids
The periodic table is likely the same throughout this universe. Individual atoms can bond to form molecules. A covalent bond is formed when:
two atoms share electrons
What is life? Life might well be considered as an information processing system, and then in many ways, has homologues in the cyber world. Could Artificial Intelligence (AI) be considered a life form? Selection for what works better in an environment will be selected for, while less efficient models go extinct (think about older models of cell phones). The flow of information in biological life on earth
typically occurs from DNA to RNA to protein.
Of the following techniques, which would be most unlikely to be used in a biotechnology laboratory?
use of the Hubble telescope
Proteins have function because of their shape. Their shape is dependent on the sequence of amino acids which is encoded for by their genes. For example, enzymes all have a specific function and shape, are are coded for by genes and are
used to catalyze many biochemical reactions in cells and are usually proteins
Capabilities to copy DNA were revolutionized by the innovation of PCR, which
uses a heat stable DNA polymerase to copy DNA
