Jeppesen Private Pilot/Instrument Syllabus

Pilots Control Of Lift

"The amount of lift generated by an airplane is controlled by the pilot as well as determined by aircraft design factors. For example, you can change the angle of attack and the airspeed or you can change the shape of the wing by lowering the flaps.

Straight in Approach

(1) A VFR APPROACH in which the aircraft ENTERS the aerodrome traffic CIRCUIT on the FINAL LEG without having executed any other part of the circuit. (2) An IFR APPROACH in which the aircraft begins the FINAL APPROACH WITHOUT first having executed a PROCEDURE TURN (PT). 3) No course reversal

Aviation Area Forecast

(FA) Forecast of visual meteorological conditions (VMC) and general weather conditions over an area the size of several states. Used along with inflight weather advisories to determine forecast enroute weather and interpolate conditions at airports where no TAFs are issued. FAs are issued 3x daily by Aviation Weather Center (AWC) for each of 6 areas in contiguous 48 states.

RNP Approach

(required navigation performance) approaches are designed to be flown with any type of equipment that meets the RNP integrity requirements specified for the approach procedure

Volcanic ash forecast transport and dispersion chart (VAFTAD)

- A model that focuses on hazards to aircraft flight operations with emphasis on the ash cloud location. The concentration of volcanic ash is forecast over 6- and 12-hour time intervals, beginning 6 hours following the eruption - Uses four panels in a column for each valid time period - the top three panels in a column reflect the ash location and relative concentration in the atmosphere - The bottom panel in a column shows the total ash concentrations for an atmospheric layer - Designed for flight planning purposes only

National Convective Weather Forecast

- A near real-time, high resolution display of current and one-hour extrapolated forecasts of selected hazardous convective conditions for the contiguous United States - Provides echo intensity, cloud tops, lighting frequency and direction of cell movement - Updated every 5 minutes

National Convective Weather Forecast

- A near real-time, high resolution display of current and one-hour extrapolated forecasts of selected hazardous convective conditions for the contiguous United States - Provides echo intensity, cloud tops, lighting frequency, and the direction of cell movement

Airport Environment

- A plan view of the airport provides airport environment information, such as runway data and lighting systems - The airport reference point (ARP), shown on Jeppesen charts, is the approximate geometric center of all usable runway surfaces

Traffic Pattern

- A rectangular virtual path above an airport that facilitates the coordination of the flow of aircraft in the air (5 different positions) - Always to the left unless the sectional says otherwise

Pilot Weather Report (PIREP)

- A report, generated by pilots, concerning meteorological phenomena encountered in flight - Can be UA or UAA -

Magnetic Compass

- A self contained unit that determines direction by a bar magnet and two poles. The bar magnet can mount freely and align itself with the earth magnetic field that points to magnetic north and south - Variations between true and magnetic north can be corrected by looking at the isogonic line on sectional chart - Deviation is caused by disturbances of the magnetic field by metal objects in the plane and cannot be completely eliminated and thats why most planes have a magnetic deviation card to correct fo this error - Compass errors ANDS and UNOS

Required Navigation Performance (RNP)

- A set of standards that apply to both airspace and navigation equipment. The use of RNP in conjunction with RNAV provides greater flexibility in procedure and airspace design, as well as making it more effective for ATC to offer direct routing - Navigation equipment must be able to keep the airplane within a specified distance of the centerline of a route, path, or procedure at least 95% of the time - Within 2 nm for enroute - 1nm when for terminal operations - .3 NM for approach procedures

Direct User Access Terminal System (DUATS)

- A system that provides current FAA weather and flight plan filing services to certified civil pilots, via personal computer, modem, or telephone access to the system. Pilots can request specific types of weather briefings and other pertinent data for planned flights. - Can provide text alerts - DUAT/DUATS are also available through the Lockheed Martin Flight Services Web Portal

The Atmosphere

- A thin layer of gases surrounding Earth - Nearly 99% of the atmosphere exits within 30 kilometers 100 thousand feet of the surface

Runway Markings

- A visual runway is only marked with the runway number and the centerline but threshold markings might be included if the runway is used, or intended to be used, for international commercial operations, and aiming point markings might be included on runways 4,000 feet or longer used by jet aircraft

Climatological Forecast

- A weather forecast, usually a month or more in the future, which is based upon the climate of a region rather than upon current weather conditions. (rain on 4th of July in San Francisco)

Automated Service Observing System (ASOS)

- ASOS has more advanced capabilities than basic AWOS systems and is the primary surface weather observing system in the United States, with about 1,000 stations installed at airports across the U.S. - Can measure variable cloud height, variable visibility, rapid pressure changes, precipitation type, intensity, accumulation, and beginning and ending times and peak winds

VFR On Top

- ATC authorization for an IFR aircraft to operate in VFR conditions at any appropriate VFR altitude. - Must be in VFR conditions and below Class A airspace

Separation From VFR Traffic

- ATC can alert IFR planes of VFR traffic if the workload permits when in VFR conditions even with radar coverage pilots must have a see and avoid for other aircraft

IFR Climb Considerations

- ATC expects you to maintain a continuous rate of climb of at least 500 ft/min to your assigned cruising altitude (then once within 1000ft maintain between 500-1500ft on the climb

Seperation

- ATC provides distance from other VFR and IFR aircraft

Class A Airspace

- Above 180 (above 18,000-60,000ft) - 12NM offshore - Visibility Requirements= All IFR and controlled by ATC - Equipment= IFR equipped Part 91.205 - Requirements= Must be IFR rated (we could not enter this airspace) - Entry= Must have ATC clearance

Traffic Advisories

- Advisories issued to alert pilots to other known or observed air traffic which may be in such proximity to the position or intended route of flight of their aircraft to warrant their attention. - Will use clock position callouts

Short Field Takeoff and Climb

- 10 degrees of flaps - Give yourself as much runway as possible - Gradually increase rpm to 2000 then full power while holding on the brakes - Wait 3 second after applying full power than release brakes and go forward (keep elevator neutral until rotating speed) - climb at a rate of 56 knots until you clear 50ft obstacle - Finally bring up flaps once you reach knots and clear obstacle (maintain pressure on elevator)

Soft Field Takeoff and Climb

- 10 degrees of flaps - No brakes - Elevator full back - 2000rpm till start moving forward - Full power then once landing gear goes off stay in grounding effect while you build up air speed -Plane will want to go up but keep elevator down until you built enough airspeed to pull up (roughly around 70 knots) - Pull up on elevator and begin climb (take out flaps)

Low Level Significant Weather Prog Chart

- 12 hour forecasts are on the left and the 24 hour forecasts are on the right - The bottom two charts forecast surface weather and the top two charts forecast the low-level weather up to the 400-millibar pressure level (24,000 feet) - Prog charts are designed to help you plan flights to avoid areas of low visibilities and ceilings as well as areas where turbulence and icing might exist

Enroute Charts

- 18,000ft and below is called low enroute charts and have victor airwaves -18,000ft and above are called high enroute high charts and have jet routes - Only surface features shown on an enroute chart are bodies of water and airports - If you follow the airways between nav aids and follow the IFR prescribed minimum altitudes you should have proper clearance

Thunderstorms

- 2 Types of Thunderstorms: 1. Air Mass Thunderstorms 2. Severe Thunderstorms - Single Cell: lasts less than one hour - Super Cell: severe thunderstorms may last two hours - Multi-Cell: storm is a compact cluster of thunderstorms (air mass in different stages of development) - Squall Line: a line of thunderstorms ahead of a cold front

Reciprocating Engine Operation

- 4 Stroke Operating Cycle (intake, compression, power, exhaust)

Total Flight Hours Needed

- 40 Hours Minimum: - 20 Hours of Dual Training Minimum Breakdown: - 3 Hours of Cross Country Training - 3 Hours of Night Training which includes: a.) 1 Cross Country flight of over 100NM total distance b.) 10 touchdowns and landings to a full stop - 3 Hours of IFR Training - 3 Hours flight training at least 60 days prior to test - 10 Solo Hours Breakdown: - 5 Solo Hours of Cross Country - 150 NM cross country with 3 points and one leg 50NM between take off and landing - 3 Takeoffs and landings at an airport with an operating tower - 3 Hours of Check Ride Prep - 5 solo hours can be anything

Accelerated Stalls Description and Recovery

- 45 degree baked turn, power to idle, pull until first indications of a stall then bank out and kick the opposite rudder

Procedure to Follow When Lost

- 5 C's 1. Climb 2. Communicate 3. Confess 4. Comply 5. Conserve

Hazardous Attitude

- 5 Types of Hazardous Attitudes 1. Macho Attitude= come on i can do this 2. Anti-Authority= why should i listen to you? 3. Impulsivity= rushing too quickly 4. Invulnerability= come on i can do this 5. Resignation= theres nothing more I can do

Malfunction Reports

- A Malfunction report is a report made when you have lost a certain piece of equipment and includes the following information 1.Aircraft identification 2.Equipment affected 3.Degree to which the equipment failure will impair your ability to operate under IFR 4.Type of assistance desired from ATC - Keep in mind some are worse than others for example if an ADF is busted but the airport had no NDB then no biggie

Special VFR

- A Special VFR Clearance allows an aircraft to fly under the airspace weather minimums. Basic VFR minima are 1,000-foot ceiling and 3 miles visibility. If the reported weather is less, a pilot can request a Special VFR Clearance. - 4 Requirements 1. Below 10,000ft 2. In Controlled Airspace 3. 1 SM Visibility and Clear of Clouds 4. IFR Equipped Airplane and Pilot (when at night)

Visual Descent Point

- A VDP is the point from which you can make a normal descent to a landing if you have the required visual references in sight and you are starting from the MDA - Only for non-precision approaches

VOR Operational Considerations

- A VOR utilizes VHF frequencies like those used by FM radio and broadcast television - Relies on line of sight - Terminal VOR's have a range of 25 miles and used mostly for instrument approaches - High and Low Altitude VOR's are used for navigation on most airways and can be used for some approaches - Be sure to identify and verify a VOR with the morse code before using it

Safety Alerts

- A center controller when it becomes apparent that your flight is in unsafe proximity to terrain, obstructions, or other aircraft - Aircraft Conflict Alert is the second type of safety alert that occurs when the separation between you and another plane could be compromised

Runway Incursion Avoidance

- A collision with another aircraft vehicle, object, person etc. - Tips to prevent a. look at the airport layout before taxiing b. complete as many checklist items as possible before taxiing c. Have good communication d. Always look up when taxiing e. listen to the radio for other potential traffic

Decompression Sickness

- A condition caused by a rapid reduction in the ambient pressure surrounding the body. When decompression occurs, nitrogen and other inert gases that are normally dissolved in body tissue and fluid expand to form bubbles that rise out of solution - Scuba diving best example

Hyperventilation

- A condition when you start to breathe very fast - brought on by stress and lack of carbon dioxide in the body - Increase in respiratory breath - Sweating - Headache - Lightheadedness - Cures: 1. Take slower deep breaths 2. Breathe into paper bag

Control Tower Services

- A control tower provides services in the terminal area. Prior to flight from an airport with an operating control tower - ATIS once an hour or when rapid conditions change - Clearance delivery - ground control

GPS Flight Planning

- A fundamental principle of GPS navigation is that you are always flying to a waypoint, never from a waypoint - Works on mostly direct to navigation

Weight

- A heavier loaded airplane is gonna increase the takeoff roll and take longer to speed up, wont climb as well or fast - Must be sure that the plane is kept within the C.G. margins in order to be safe

ILS Hold Line

- A hold short line for a runway that helps to keep aircraft from interfering with the ILS signal

Corilois Force

- Affects all objects moving freely across the face of the earth. Essentially, things such as ocean currents and airplane flight paths, which would otherwise follow a straight line, end up tracing a curved path due to the earth's rotation - The further the point from the equator the more the corilois effect will come into play (earth is spinning faster) - Pressure gradient and corilois force work together to create wind as the air moves from high pressure to low pressure in the northern hemisphere coriolis effect movies the air to the right (moves to the left in the southern hemisphere) - This continues until the pressure gradient and force and coriolis force are in balance and as the air movies into the low pressure it moves counter clockwise around the low (clockwise around the high) - True for high levels of the atmosphere within 2000 feet of the ground frictional force reduces the coriolis force

CG 2 Types

- Aft CG= behind 1. Decreased Stability 2. Increased Cruise Speed 3. Decreased Stall And Spin Recovery - For CG= forward 1. Increased Stability 2. Decreased Cruise Speed 3. Increased Stall Speed

Holding Pattern (Teardrop)

- After crossing the fix you turn to a heading which is 30 degrees away from the holding course outbound side of the pattern - Once established on the heading fly outbound for 1 minute then turn right to intercept the course inbound

Preforming The Approach

- Approach clearance - Initial Approach segment a. 1 mile prior to the DME fix turn right 90 degrees and intercept the DME arc - Intermediate Approach Segment a. do before landing checklist (except landing gear and flaps) - Final Approach Segment - Missed Approach Segment

Airspace

- Areas in white show controlled airspace, which includes Class B, C, D, and E airspace. - Uncontrolled airspace, Class G, is shaded gray on Jeppesen charts and brown on FAA charts - Blue shading is used to identify class B airspace (lines are used to identify mode c areas) - The letter C or D in a box following the airport name indicates Class C or D airspace on FAA charts - If no special VFR is available no SVFR is put on the top of the airport - MTR's are also put on the chart

Level off From Climbs and Descents

- As a guide, use 10% of the vertical velocity when you intend to maintain the descent speed during level off. For example, if your vertical velocity is 500 ft/min, begin the level off 50 feet before you reach the desired altitude _ For some descents based on speed it may be better to begin leveling off 100-150 feet above desired altitude

Automation Management

- As a professional pilot flying a large airplane in a commercial operation, you typically use the autopilot for most of the flight and hand-fly the airplane only during takeoffs and landings - Automation management requires training to not only command, recognize, and monitor the various modes of flight but to gain a thorough understanding of how the autopilot interacts with other systems - Must be able to know what to do when things go wrong and shit hits the fan

Gear Warning Horn

- As a reminder to pilots, most airplanes with retractable gear have a gear warning horn that will sound when the airplane is configured for landing and the gear is not down and locked. Usually, the horn is linked to some combination of throttle setting, flap position, or airspeed indication

Types of Clouds

- As air cools to its saturation point condensation changes invisible water vapor to a visible state - Are divided into four different groups: low, middle, high, and clouds with vertical development - Cloud names based on names: cumulus (heap), stratus (layer), nimbus (rain), and cirrus (ringlet) - Low clouds= surface- 6500ft AGL (stratus, stratus cumulus, and nimbostratus) - Middle clouds= 6,500ft-20,000ft altrostatus and altocumulus - High Clouds= 20,000ft and up cirrus, cirrus stratus and cirrus cumulus - clouds with vertical development= nimbostratus, cumulonimbus

Pressure Effects

- As aircraft climbs and descends can cause atmospheric pressure affects different parts of the body - Ear and Sinus Block - Toothache (imperfect fillings, damaged root canals) - Gastrointestinal Pain - Scuba Diving

Climbing and Descending Turns

- As always, expect changes in pitch forces when rolling into and out of turns, and use the attitude indicator to correct any deviations identified on the primary instruments

Declaring An Emergency

- As pilot in command you are responsible for the safety of your flight - Pilots in distress are threatened by serious and/or imminent danger and require immediate assistance - An urgency situation, which is not immediately dangerous, requires prompt assistance to avoid a potentially catastrophic event - Can declare an emergency at any tie by using the current frequency you're on (if no response use 121.5) - Use mayday 3 times for an emergency - USe PAN PAN for the same method for an urgency - squawk 7700, 7600, 7500 depending on situation - declare special emergency for terrorist threat

Three Cell Circulation Pattern

- As the earth rotates, the single-cell circulation breaks up into three cells per hemisphere that distribute heat energy. In the Hadley cell, warm air rises and moves toward the poles until reaching approximately 30° latitude where the air cools and sinks back to the surface. - Some of this air moves poleward until, at about 60° latitude, it meets cooler air migrating from the poles

Locating Flight Information

- At faa.gov, you can search for most of the flight information that you need to fly safely in the National Airspace System -

Land Breeze

- At night the cycle reverses the land cools faster than the water and the land breeze blows from the cooler land to the warmer water. - The pressure gradients are a reversal of what occurs during the day, however, because the temperature contrasts are smaller at night, the land breeze is generally weaker than the sea breeze

Side Step Manuever

- At some airports where there are two parallel runways that are 1,200 feet or less apart, you might be cleared to execute an approach to one runway followed by a straight-in landing on the adjacent runway - Sidestep as soon as possible to the parallel runway when you have the runway in sight

Temperature Inversion

- Atmospheric condition in which warm air traps cooler air near the earth's surface - Acts as a lid for weather and pollutants - Below the inversion, visibility is often restricted by fog, haze, smoke, and low clouds. Temperature inversions occur in stable air with little or no wind and turbulence

AHRS

- Attitude Heading Reference System uses inertial sensors such as electronic gyroscopes and accelerometers to determine the aircraft's attitude relative to the horizon - A general indication of the airplane's attitude is determined by comparing signals received from three antennas located in different parts of the airplane.

Automated Weather Reporting Systems (AWOS)

- Automated Weather Observing System - Uses various sensors to provide real time data for the airport (level A,1-3) - 3 Being the most advanced

ADSB

- Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast - Broadcasts aircraft speed, altitude, position - ADSB in= allows you to see your own location - ADSB out= transmits a signal to others of your location (ATC)

ATIS

- Automatic Terminal Information Service - Updates once every hour or once when weather conditions rapidly change - Labeled with a phonetic identifier and contains wind, altimeter setting, runways in use, notams, etc.

ATIS

- Automatic Terminal Information Service - Updates once every hour or once when weather conditions rapidly change - Labeled with a phonetic identifier and contains wind, altimeter setting, runways in use, notams, etc. - At larger airports can have a departing and arriving ATIS

METAR

- Aviation routine weather report - (METAR): two types - routine (every hour) and selected special weather report (SPECI) given at any time to update METAR for rapidly changing weather conditions, aircraft mishaps, or other critical info.

Cruise Performance Charts

- Based on the altitude chosen and power setting it can calculate (true airspeed, BHP, and gallons burned per hour)

Takeoff Minimums

- Based on visibility and not required for Part 91 flying more tailored towards commercial jet operations a. Prevailing Visibility= the greatest distance a weather observer or tower personnel can see throughout one-half the horizon. Prevailing visibility is reported in statute miles or fractions of miles b. Runway Visibility Value= Is the visibility determined for a particular runway by a device located near the runway called a transmissometer. RVV is reported in statute miles or fractions of miles c. Runway Visual Range= in contrast to prevailing or runway visibility, is a prediction of what a pilot in a moving aircraft should see when looking down the runway from the approach end - Standard takeoff minimums are a. one staute mile visibility for two engines or less and 1/2 mile visibility for three or more engines

Eights On Pylons

- Be sure to look at winds aloft beforehand - Pick out two points that are roughly 1/2 mile apart - Need to find the Pivotal Attitude (like the obstacle your attached to has a tether - Enter from a 30 degree angle try to perpendicular to the wind - Keep the pylon within a reference point of about two inches behind the leading wing tip - The point of this maneuver is not to maintain a constant bank or radius through the maneuver but pivotal altitude (keep 30-40 degrees of bank though and keep 1/4 mile away) - One you reach pylon bank inward (while doing the turn look both forward and at the pylon) - If the pylon begins to move forward pitch down if the pylon begins to move backwards pitch up - Throttle should be kept the same through the whole maneuver - One you complete the turn for the first pylon scan for traffic - May have to use some degree of anticipation for the second pylon to roll into it - Once you complete the second turn you can fly straight and level to exit the maneuver - For pivotal altitude equation its ground speed^2/11.3- Periodically scan between your airspeed, traffic and the pylon

Performance Charts (Takeoff Charts)

- Be sure to use the POH for your specific airplane as that will produce the most accurate results - Takeoff charts usually incorporate compensation for pressure altitude, outside air temperature, airplane weight, and headwind or tailwind component

Propellor Hazards

- Be wary of being to close to a moving propellor only hand prop when you have the optimal training and no other options

Airport Beacons and Obstruction Lights

- Beacon on if weather is less than VFR during the day (helps locate airport at night) - Obstruction lights installed on towers, structures, power lines and are pulsating or bright red lights to stand out)

Flight Overview

- Before you start planning, take a preliminary look at factors that might prevent you from making the flight - Initial factors to consider are weather, airplane performance and equipment, potential routes, and your instrument proficiency level

Aircraft Speed Limits

- Below 10,000ft msl cant be above 250 knots - Below 2500ft within 4nm of a class C or D airport above 200 knots - 200 knots or less in a VFR corridor or below class B airspace

Glides

- Best glide performance is at the maximum lift-to-drag ratio, or L/Dmax. This occurs at a specific value of the lift coefficient and, therefore, at a specific angle of attack

Pitot Static Instrument Failures

- Blockage of both the ram air inlet and the drain hole causes the airspeed indicator to react like an altimeter, moving in the opposite direction from how you would expect the airspeed indicator to move in a climb or descent

Class D Airspace

- Blue Airpot With blue ring around it - Up to 2,500ft - Visibility Requirement= 3SM, 1000ft above, 500 ft below, 2000ft across - Equipment Requirements= Just a two way radio - Entry= Establish 2 way radio communication with ATC prior to entering the airspace - Requirements= Student Pilot Certificate

Class C Airspace

- Bold Magenta Lines up to 4,000ft - 10 NM radius,- Visibility Requirements= 3 SM, 1000ft above, 500 ft below, 2000 ft across - Equipment Requirements= Mode C Transponder and Two Way Radio - Requirements: Student Pilot Certificate - Entry= Must Establish Communication - Upside down wedding cake

Heading And Communications

- Both the Jeppesen airport chart and the FAA airport diagram show the airport name, identifier and location, as well as a chat index number and effective dates - Jeppesen airport charts, communication frequencies are listed in the order in which they are normally used during departure

Fronts

- Boundaries between air masses a. Cold Fronts b. Warm Fronts c. Stationary Fronts d. Occluded Fronts

Briefings

- Briefers can give 3 briefings 1. Standard Briefing 2. Abbreviated Briefing 3. Outlook Briefing 4. Inflight Weather Briefing

Power Off 180

- Bring power back to idle - Fly a tightened power - Pick out your landing spot - Land within 200 feet beyond the touchdown point

Surface Analysis Chart

- By reviewing this chart, you obtain a picture of atmospheric pressure patterns at the earth's surface - You also can see the locations of high and low pressure systems and associated fronts - Chart updated every 3 hours

Preflight Weather Briefing

- Call the number an tell the operator which state you are departing from and that you want a briefer - Say you would like a weather briefing and follow the flight plan form on the back of the nav log

Landing Illusion

- Can be caused by a wide variety of factors including runway width, sloping runways and terrain, and weather conditions that reduce visibility

Frontal Discontinuities

- Can be either a rapid change between air masses or a slow and steady change between air masses a. Temperature b. Wind c. Pressure d. Dew-point

LDA Approach

- Can be thought of as a localizer approach system that is not aligned with the runway centerline - LDA approaches have an electronic glide slope - If the approach course is within 30 degrees of the runway straight in minimums may be available - either 3 or 6 degrees wide

Inflight Weather Sources (Flight Service)

- Can be used to get an inflight weather briefing (has a vast collection of PIREPS)

TANCAN

- Can be used without a VOR as a DME unit

Canceling an IFR Flight Plan

- Can close anytime in VFR conditions - IFR Flight plan will be automatically closed when you land - At a non-controlled tower you can close with ATC or Call the briefer when you land

VFR Departure

- Can depart VFR and pick up your IFR clearance in the air must stay in VFR conditions until ARTCC gives IFR clearance

Completing The Navigation Log

- Can either complete the nav log online or by hand

Intercepting and Tracking a Course

- Can put a flight plan in your data base - GPS provides an auto sequencing of way points - Has turn anticipation

Processing An IFR Flight Plan

- Can submit flight plan over the radio, telephone or app - Plan is taken to center where routes are analyzed and look at possible restrictions for the flight - File flight plans at least 30 minutes prior to departure due to steps for center to do - Once flight plan is processed your clearance will be ready when you contact ATC - If you don't use activate flight plan it will delete 1 hour after proposed time

Time and Distance to a Station

- Can use basic formulas and geometry to calculate time and distance to the station - Time to station= Time for bearing change (minutes x 60)/Degrees of bearing change

Convective Turbulence

- Caused by currents, or thermals, which develop in air heated by contact with the warm surface below - Flying into the capping stable layer is a way to avoid the rough turbulence

Motion Sickness

- Caused by the brain receiving mixed messages about the state of the body

Spin Causes and Phases

- Caused when by an uncoordinated stall when one wing stalls more than the other - incipient spin= the first phase, and exists from the time the airplane stalls and rotation starts until the spin is fully developed - fully developed spin= exists from the time the angular rotation rates, airspeed, and vertical descent rate are stabilized from one turn to the next - Spin Recovery= begins when the anti-spin forces overcome the pro-spin forces

Reporting Procedures

- Certain Reports that should be made without the controller - MAREVELOUSV500 acronym

Approach Briefing

- Cessna 20JA, descend and maintain 11,000, expect VOR/DME Runway 30 approach at Kalispell." This is the time to brief the approach so you can memorize the important details of the procedure

Departure Charts (Obtaining Charts)

- Charts are either produced by the FAA (domestic) or Jeppesen (international) and are published in TPP (terminal procedure publications)

VSI Instrument Check

- Check once the plane starts up that the VSI is reading zero if the VSI is not on zero then you'll have to mentally remember the number its on for straight and level flight

Route Selection

- Check the routes for several different factors for availability of route alternatives, aircraft performance considerations, and fuel economy - If there is no preferred IFR route that is available plan it out yourself on the airways and look at t he departures and arrivals for both airports - Look for alternate airports if necessary for your route

Intersections

- Checkpoints along an airway that provide a means for you and ATC to check the progress of your flight - Intersections are given five-letter names, and the actual location of an intersection is based on two VOR radials, DME, or other navaids

Cylinder Head Temperature Gauge

- Common in both complex and high performance airplanes. If the airplane has cowl flaps, a CHT gauge is required equipment - The CHT measures the temperature of the metal of the combustion chamber

Non Radar Reports

- Compulsory reporting points, - OM or FAF inbound, - ETA change of 3 mins or more

Runway Edge Lights

- Consist of a single row of white lights bordering each side of the runway and lights identifying the runway threshold - Can have HIRL, MIRL, LIRL

Volcanic Ash

- Consists of gases, dust, and ash from a volcanic eruption, can spread around the world and remain the stratosphere for months or longer - Reverse course if needed

Airport Facility Directory

- Contains a descriptive listing of all airports, heliports, and seaplane bases that are open to the public. The A/FD Legend helps you interpret the information in an airport listing

Heading Indicator (How It Works)

- Contains a gyro and senses direction about the vertical axis (contains free gyros and not slaved which means it doesn't align north automatically)

Weight and Balance Documents

- Contains the basic empty weight or licensed empty weight and other useful load items such as fuel, oil, passengers, baggage, etc.

Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)

- Contains the basic flight information and ATC procedures for VFR and IFR operations in the National Airspace System - Contains 10 chapters including nav aids, aeronautical lighting, airspace, etc. - Set up more like a textbook

Common Errors

- Control Errors - Heading Errors - Altitude Errors

Terminal Approach and Radar Control (TRACON)

- Coordinate very closely with the ARTCC to integrate arrival traffic from the enroute state to the terminal area, and transition departure traffic to the enroute phase

High Altitude Performance

- Critical altitude is when the waste gate is fully closed and any increases in altitude cause manifold pressure to decrease - Ram air effect increases pressure in the induction system as airspeed increases - This increases air density to the turbocharger causing it to produce a higher manifold pressure

Positive Exchange of Flight Controls

- Critical during the demonstration performance method of flight instruction - PILOT PASSING CONTROL: "You have the flight controls." - PILOT TAKING CONTROL: "I have the flight controls." - PILOT PASSING CONTROL: "You have the flight controls."

Final Approach

- Depends on if you're precision or non-precision approach - The regulations list the requirements that you must meet to descend below the DA or MDA. You must be able to identify specific visual references of the runway environment and comply with visibility and operating requirements - DA= come down on the glide slope and make a decision - MDA= come down to the altitude and hold there until you see any of the visual requirements than you make a call (MAP is usually at the threshold so get down sooner)

Alcohol, Drugs, and Performance

- Depressants can slow reaction time - Alcohol must not have a level above .04 percent, at least 8 hours, no lingering side effects - Stimulants can excite nervous system and cause mood swings which is dangerous to flying

Weather Depiction Chart

- Details surface conditions as derived from METAR and other surface observations. - shows areas of VFR and IFR in the US - Chart updated every 3 hours

Pulse Demand

- Detect when the user begins to inhale and provide a measured amount of oxygen during each breath - They are typically portable systems with battery-operated electronic controls as shown in figure 11-30, but the FAA has also approved built-in systems for some airplanes

Turbulence

- Develops when air currents change direction or velocity rapidly over a short distance

Integrated Flight Displays

- Digital Flight instruments that help to make up a glass cockpit (tell same info as steam gauge) - Typically consist of a PFD and MFD

DUATS

- Direct User Access Terminal System - Provides FAA-approved online weather briefings and flight plan processing. Information that you can obtain on the DUATS website includes: a. Current, continuously updated weather information. b. Plain language weather. c. Flight plan filing and closing. d. Automated flight planning

Gyroscopic System

- Directional gyros are almost all air-driven from the pump and by evacuating the case and allowing filtered air to flow into the case and out through a nozzle, blowing against buckets cut in the periphery of the wheel (suction gauge, attitude indicator, heading indicator) - Two main principles at play when applying to gyroscopes are precession and rigidity in space

The Exhaust System

- Directs exhaust out below the engine compartment through a muffler and tail pipe. As the hot exhaust gases heat the muffler, metal shrouds around the mufffer capture the heat and redirect it towards the cabin - Cracked muffler can cause carbon monoxide poisoning

Applying SRM

- Disengaged autopilot example over a minor mechanical issue (flew into side of a mountain)

Additional Markings

- Displaced threshold - Blast Pad - Yellow X

Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)

- Displays current heading in a window also can change the type of mode like VOR, GPS, Localizer, etc.) - Has a heading bug as well - has a trend vector which will help show what the turns will be in six seconds

DME

- Distance Measuring Equipment - Slant Range Distance= The difference between the slant range distance and the horizontal distance is not significant if the aircraft is at least 1 mile from the station for every 1,000 feet of altitude

Primary and Supporting Methods

- Divides the panel into pitch instruments, bank instruments, and power instruments - This method further classifies instruments as being primary or supporting depending on the maneuver you are performing and whether you are establishing or maintaining an attitude. Use the primary instruments to provide the most essential information. - Supporting instruments reinforce the indications on the primary instruments to help you meet the desired performance - For example, to establish a specific airspeed in straight-and-level flight, use the manifold pressure gauge or the tachometer as the primary instrument to adjust power and use the airspeed indicator as the supporting power instrument

SDF Approach

- Does not include an electronic glide slope and is less accurate than an LDA - SDF localizer course is 6 or 12 degrees wide

Parasite Drag

- Drag that does not contribute to lift generation; drag caused by landing gear struts, cooling intakes, antennas, rivet heads, etc. - Three types of parasite drag are: 1. Form Drag= The portion of parasite drag generated by the aircraft due to its shape and airflow around it. Examples include engine cowling, antennas and the aerodynamic shape of other components 2. Interference Drag= comes from the intersection of airstreams that creates eddy turbulence, currents, or restricts smooth airflow. For example the intersection of the wing and the fuselage at the wing root has significant interference drag 3. Skin Friction Drag- The aerodynamic resistance due to the contact of moving air with the surface of an aircraft. Every surface no matter how smooth has a rough ragged surface when viewed under a microscope

Visualizing Entry Procedures

- Drawing out the hold and your position on some scratch paper or using the "thumb rule"

Types of Precipitation

- Drizzle is distinguished by very small droplets (less than 0.02 inches in diameter). It is commonly associated with fog or low stratus clouds a. Virga= drizzle that evaporates before it reaches the ground - Ice pellets and hail - Snow

Atmospheric Circulation

- Due to the tip of the earths axis and the clouds it causes an uneven amount of heat over the earths surface leading to pressure changes - Equator receives the most heat

Attitude Indicator (Errors)

- During coordinated turns the gyro can turn towards the turn (less then 5 degrees less than bar width) - Acceleration and deceleration can cause the horizontal bar to go up a bar width - More than 100 degrees of bank or 60 degrees of pitch unreliable

Preparing For The Approach

- During the approach overview, determine which approaches are in use or likely to be in use at the destination airport, and review those procedures as early as possible - Use the weather information for the destination airport to analyze whether a successful approach is likely - After you select an approach, perform an approach briefing, in which you focus on specific details of the final and missed approach segments

Sea Breeze

- During the day air flows from the water to the land because land surfaces heat faster than water surfaces the wind blows from cool air to warmer land a return flow forms above the sea breeze due to the pressure gradient

Enroute Flight Advisory Service (EFAS)

- EFAS provides weather advisories tailored to your type of flight, route, and cruising altitude. - EFAS can have a large source of PIREPs. - EFAS is also equipped with weather radar that can help to avoid thunderstorms

Electronic Flight Bag

- EFBs display a wide variety of flight information, such as airport information, airport diagrams, a moving map, weather displays, flight plans, routes, checklists, aircraft performance charts, and logbooks. Can be used for every phase of flight - IPADS, Fore-flight, etc.

Refueling

- Each wing has a fuel cap for fuel - Be sure to use a ground wire when refueling as static electricity from the equipment can cause a spark and ignite the fuel - Commons types of fuel are 100LL (blue), Jet A (clear), and 82LU (purple)

Motion Sickness

- Effect when visual and/or motor feedback is inconsistent with vestibular info - When in IFR conditions focus gaze on instrument panel

Transponder

- Electrical device designed to receive a specific signal and automatically transmit a specific reply - Helps to display 4 digit code and show ATC whether you're on VFR, IFR, Flight Following - Mode C displays an airplanes altitude to ATC (required in class A,B, and C airspace) - Ident helps an airplane flash on ATC screen

ELT

- Emergency Locator Transmitter - Emergency signaling devices to help locate downed aircraft. Required for most general aviation airplanes, these electronic, battery-operated transmitters emit a distinctive audio tone on designated emergency frequencies - If armed and subjected to crash-generated forces, ELTs are designed to activate automatically. The transmitters should operate continuously for at least 48 hours over a wide range of temperatures - Most aircraft have a remote ELT switch in the cockpit or are designed to provide pilot access to the ELT. If necessary after a crash landing, you can manually activate the ELT

T Routes

- Enable RNAV-equipped aircraft to more efficiently fly around or through terminal areas with Class B and Class C airspace. These routes also reduce controller workload by providing a published route instead of controllers having to radar vector aircraft along those flight paths

Low Level Significant Weather Prognostic Charts

- Enables easy comparison of different times—the 12-hour forecasts are on the left and the 24-hour forecasts are on the right. - The bottom two charts forecast surface weather and the top two charts forecast the low-level weather up to the 400-millibar pressure level (24,000 feet). - Prog charts are designed to help you plan flights to avoid areas of low visibilities and ceilings as well as areas where turbulence and icing might exist

Distance Measuring Equipment

- Enables you to track your distance to or from a VOR - You can obtain distance information from VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, and Localizer DME - DME receivers work by sending a paired pulse to and from the station the time it takes calculates a distance - Watch out for slant range error (1nm per thousand feet or more and the error will be negligible)

Interpreting A Star

- Essentially like a reverse SID and the procedure ends at an approach fix - The STAR officially begins at the navaid or intersection where all the transitions to the arrival converge - A STAR is usually named for the navaid or fix where its associated transitions converge and the arrival procedure begins

Controlled Airports

- Establish contact with the tower stating your - Name of the facility - Call Sign - Request if short - Position and altitude - If the tower tells you to stand by that means to wait for further instructions - Say student pilot if you want more info

Departure Options (ODPS)

- Established for airports that have high terrain or obstructions near the airport. These procedures might be in graphic or textual form - In IFR conditions, the departure procedure is a reliable method of ensuring terrain and obstacle clearance - Unless you have SID assigned with it ODP's for an IFR clearance are rare

See and Avoid

- Even on an IFR flight plan you are responsible to see and avoid other aircraft when possible (ATC can't see every plane on radar) - Use auto pilot if possible to help improve scan

Observed Winds and Temperature Aloft Forecasts

- Every 3000ft show the direction and velocity of the wind

Using Numbers On The Radio

- Every number is stated the same except for 9 which is called Niner - For radio frequencies each number is stated individually with a decimal they say "point"

Departure Options (SIDS)

- Expect to fly at an airport with a SID unless you file for "No Sid" in your remarks section - Have the charted procedure or at least the textual description with you

WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation System)

- Extremely accurate navigation system developed for civil aviation. - A series of ground stations generate a corrective message that is transmitted to aircraft by a geostationary satellite

Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR's)

- FAR Parts cover subjects ranging from aircraft certification and maintenance to pilot medical standards and flight rules. As a private pilot, you should pay particular attention to FAR Part 61, FAR Part 91, and NTSB 830 - Booklet containing flight rules and info

Flight Plan

- File a VFR Flight Plan with flight service using either 1800-WX Brief or by phone - Can file either domestic or ICAO

Filing the IFR Flight Plan

- File either through fore-flight or through a briefer - Make sure you file at least 30 minutes prior

Flying An Straight in ILS Approach

- First establish yourself on the localizer and maintain altitude and airspeed - Try to maintain between 400-600fpm on the descent and make small corrections with the heading as the ILS becomes more sensitive

Gear System Malfunctions

- First feel for the increased drag, slower airspeed and nose pitch up. -Check the mirrors and ask tower if they see your landing gear - If one of the landing gear lights aren't working follow the abnormal checklist than replace the light and see if that helps - If that doesn't work check for the popped circuit breaker and follow the emergency gear extension checklist

Soft Field Landing

- Fly traffic pattern the same as normal landing - Land with full flaps -Difference between normal and soft field - Landing is different once you cross the threshold you'll want to keep the airplane 1-2 feet off the ground during ground effect (helps lower speed) - During ground effect it's ok to add small amount of power to level off before landing - Allow wheels to land gently and slowly remove power (keep from those wheel off the runway for as long as possible) - Use minimal to no brakes when slowing down

Private Pilot Privileges

- Fly with passengers (May Be PIC) - May be PIC of an aircraft for compensation or hire if in connection with a business venture and is incidental and doesent carry passengers, cargo, or property - You may not pay less than the pro rate of share if flying with passengers (rental fee, fuel, oil) - May be PIC of aircraft for a charitable organization (if you have at least 600 hours) - Maybe reimbursed by a local state or federal government agency for a search and locate operations - Maybe be PIC of aircraft being shown off to prospective buyer if you have at least 200 hours and you're an aircraft salesmen - Maybe PIC of an airplane towing a glider if you meet 61:69 requirements- Maybe PIC of a LSA for its production flight

Low Visibility

- Fog a. Advection fog= warm moist air over cold surface b. Radiation fog= forms over level areas on clear cool calm nights c. Uplsope Fog= forms when moist, stable air is forced up a sloping land mass" d. Precipitation Induced Fog= warm air over a cool surface f. Ice Fog occurs in cold weather when the temperature is much below freezing and water vapor sublimates directly as ice crystals - Haze - Smoke - Smog - Dust

Alternate Airports

- Follow the 321 rule - The following standard alternate minimums apply: •For a precision approach procedure — a 600-foot ceiling and two statute miles visibility. •For a nonprecision approach procedure — an 800-foot ceiling and two statute miles visibility. •For an airport with no instrument approach procedure — a ceiling and visibility that allow for descent from the MEA, approach, and landing under basic VFR conditions

Lost Procedures

- Follow the 5 C's: - Climb, communicate, confess, comply, conserve

Preforming The Approach

- Follow the CDI and watch for the vertical glide slope - Follow the steps in involved for the other approaches

Wire Strike Avoidance

- Follow the FAA guideline to maintain a 2,000-foot horizontal distance from any tower (unless you are safely above it), to reduce the risk of colliding with an antenna guy wire. - Flying at least 1,000 feet AGL (except during takeoff and landing) dramatically reduces your chances of a wire strike

IFR Cruising Altitudes

- Follow the hemispheric rule - 0-179 heading odd altitude 1,3,5,7 - 180-359 heading even altitude 2,4,6,

Instrument Training

- For Instrument Rating you must have a. PPL b. Speak , write and understand english c. Pass knowledge test D. Get ground school e. 50 hours of PIC (if not part of 141 school) f. 40 hours of actual or simulated time (15 must be in in aircraft) g.

Gyroscopic Instrument Failure

- For glass cockpit use the backup instruments in the plane - For analog instruments if the gyroscopic instruments in VFR condition just land if in IFR contact ATC immediately

Maximum Weight Limits

- For low-powered airplanes, the maximum weight limit is specified as maximum weight, maximum certificated weight, or maximum gross weight - Bigger planes have maximum weights for different phases of the flight

Static Stability

- Forces and moments on the body caused by a disturbance tend initially to return the body toward its equilibrium position.

Other Weather Depiction Equipment

- Foreflight - Lighting Detection Equipment

Controlling Lift

- Four ways that are used to control lift 1. increasing airspeed 2. change angle of attack - The two other methods of controlling lift consist of changing the shape of the airfoil or varying the total area of the wing. Flaps and leading-edge devices are examples of how these methods are used in flight

Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF)

- Frequency designated for the purpose of carrying out airport advisory practices while operating to or from an airport without an operating control tower.

Enroute Radar Procedures

- From departure you will be handed off to a center station frequency - Be sure to repeat back the instructions to the tower or controller - When the mode C transponder has made contact they will say "radar contact " until there is a "contact lost" or "radar services terminated"

Hot Starts

- Fuel injected engines tend to be more difficult to start after they are hot and have been shit down for a few minutes - With no cooling air flowing through the cowling, the residual heat in the engine can boil the fuel in the injection system's lines and components, and the resulting bubbles can cause vapor lock - May be a good idea to keep the fuel pump on after starting to allow the bubble time to dissolve - Follow the POH hot start instructions

FADEC

- Full Authority Digital Engine Control - Continuously monitors engines through the different phases and uses sensors t o provide the optimal amount fo fuel for each injector (no mags or mixture only one lever) - Must have an ECU backup and electrical power for the backup in case the FADEC fails

GPS Operation

- GPS consists of 3 segments: space , control and user - GPS receiver establishes a position from trilateration

Timed Approach From a Holding Fix

- Generally conducted at airports where the radar system for traffic sequencing is out of service or is not available and numerous aircraft are waiting for approach clearance - If you are issued a time to depart the holding fix inbound, it means that timed approaches are being used - The holding fix may be the FAF on a non-precision approach, while a precision approach might use the outer marker or a fix used in lieu of the outer marker for holding

Moisture

- Generally speaking, if the air is very moist, poor, or even severe weather can occur; if the air is dry, the weather usually will be good

Induced Drag

- Generated by the airflow circulation around the wing as it creates lift.

Waypoints

- Geographical locations in latitude and longitude along a route to mark a route and follow an aircraft's advance along that desired route - VFR waypoints are shown on sectional and terminal area charts to provide a supplementary navigation tool

Convective Outlook Chart

- Has 3 day panels - Issued five times daily - Day 2 panel outlines areas of severe thunderstorms - Day 3 panel only outlines the areas of severe thunderstorms - The abbreviations slgt, mrgl indicate low coverage during the forecast period - High risk categories are mdt, enh, and high

Attitude Indicator (How It Works)

- Has a horizontal gyro that spins is held up by mechanical gimbals that can move with the plane - Inside the instrument there are 4 pendulous vanes located in 4 corners below the gyro that helps to spray air when the gyro begins to tilt off its axis - Uses principles of rigidity in space

PFD Failure

- Has a white light behind it that if it fails then the information is still there but it cannot be seen and should automatically switch over to the MFD _even with a big electrical failure you can still rely on the back up analog instruments

Controlled Flight into Terrain Awareness

- Having no prior knowledge before you hit the ground, object or person - Most airplanes are equipped with a (TAWS)

Restrictions To Visibility

- Haze- Caused by a concentration of very fine dry particles. Individually, they are invisible to the naked eye, but in sufficient numbers, can restrict your visibility - Smoke- the suspension of combustion particles in air - Smog-a combination of fog and smoke, can spread very poor visibility over a large area - Dust- refers to fine particles of soil suspended in the air

Surface Winds

- Headwind and tailwinds components affect the runway length for takeoff and landing - Watch for cross wind component and have an idea for a demonstrated cross wind component either in the POH or through your personal minimums

Approach Light System

- Help instrument pilots transition to visual references at the completion of an instrument approach (most complex ones have flashing lights pulsating towards the runway)

Approach Lighting System

- Help the pilot transition from instrument references to visual references for landing - Different types of approach lighting systems are: Sequenced flashing lights (SFL) or runway alignment indicator lights - (RAIL). SFL and RAIL consist of a series of brilliant blue-white bursts of flashing light - MALFS (medium intensity approach lighting system) - ODALS (omnidirectional approach lighting system) - REIL (runway end identifier lights)

DME Arcs

- Helps to position an aircraft from en-route to the approach and is considered a transition - Intercept point, turn 90 degrees then follow the turn ten twist ten rule - Try and make sure you stay within 1/2 mile of the distance on the arc (ex 10nm)

Turn Indicators

- Helps to show the rate and quality of the turn - Inclinometer the ball that helps to display quality of turn

Oil System

- Helps with lubrication and cooling of the engine - Two types of systems are: 1. Wet Sump System= oil sump is in bottom part of the engine oil pump drays it through the sump and is circulated throughout the engine 2. Dry Sump System= oil sump is separate from engine pumps are used for circulation - Oil pressure too low indicates oil pump not putting out enough pressure too high may mean a clogged line - Make sure oil pressure rises after starting within 30 seconds, 60 seconds in cold weather

Pressures

- High (H) is a high pressure center surrounded on all sides by lower sea-level pressure - Low (L), is a low pressure center surrounded by higher pressure. - Ridge is an elongated area of high pressure - Trough is an elongated area of low pressure - Col can designate either a neutral area between two highs and two lows, or the intersection of a ridge and a trough - Generally speaking air will flow from the cool dense air of high pressures to the warm less dense air of lows (Coriolis force can affect this tho) - A strong gradient tends to produce strong winds while a weak gradient produces weak winds

High Clouds

- High clouds have bases beginning above 20,000 feet AGL. They are generally white to light gray in color and form in stable air. - They are composed mainly of ice crystals and seldom pose a serious turbulence or icing hazard. - The three basic types of high clouds are called cirrus, cirrostratus, and cirrocumulus"

Flying an RNAV Approach to LPV Minimums

- Huge help to have the moving map with the ground track, speed and direction to aid in situational awareness

Severe Weather Reports and Forecasts

- Hurricane Advisory - Convective Outlook - Severe Weather Watch Bulletin

Departure Standards

- IFR departures are designed according to the criteria in the U.S. Standard For Terminal Instrument Procedures (TERPS) - Aircraft must establish a climb of at least 200ft per NM - If obstacles penetrate a slope of 152 per NM a climb gradient may be required

Convective Outlook

- Identifies where severe thunderstorms may develop during the next 6 to 73 hours - Can labeled as slight, moderate, and high - Surface winds of 50 knots or greater, hail greater than 3/4 of an inch, and tornadoes

Risk Management

- Identifying, assessing, and mitigating the risks that specifically apply to each flight. Use the 5P checklists during flight planning to manage risks and make a Go or No-Go decision

Briefing the STAR Procedure

- If ATC issues a STAR clearance, review and brief the procedure so you understand what you are expected to perform (the earlier the better since things can get hectic approaching the airport) - Especially important when flying into a new airport - Set up radio and navigation equipment to minimize the number of changes - Listen to other traffic for situational awareness

Approach Clearances

- If airport only has one approach it will just say cleared for the approach - If the airport has several it will specify which one - Circling approach clearance if you have to circle to land for a different runway - Contact Approach is an approach available to aircraft operating on an IFR flight plan, where the pilot may deviate from the published instrument approach procedure and proceed to the destination airport by visual reference to the surface - Visual Approach can be initiated by either pilot or controller if you have the aircraft in sight or the field in sight (even if no field in sight if you got the aircraft you can go for the visual as long as you maintain separation

Enroute Navigation Using GPS

- If it is a IFR approved panel mounted GPS it may be used as primary sourse of navigation but if it doesent have WAAS enabled then you must have a backups means of navigation such as a VOR - Active monitoring of the second navigations system is not required if RAIM in the GPS is enabled

Flooded Starts

- If the engine doesn't start after 30 seconds stop the cranking the engine to allow the starter time to cool off - If you see fuel dripping from the intake manifold drain line that means the engine has flooded (although with some engines you may not see fuel leak - The objective of the flooded engine starting procedure is to purge the excess fuel from the cylinders until you obtain a combustible fuel/air ratio - Fuel injected engines recommend keeping the mixture full rich until above 3000ft

Weight Shift Computations

- If the weight or the CG is beyond the appropriate limits you can make small adjustments to the fuel CG etc. to make it fall within the appropriate limits

Lost Communication Procedures

- If you believe that your radio has failed set transponder code to 7600 and if you are in an area of radio coverage it will display on ATC's radar - If neither the transmitter or receiver is working you need to remain outside the class D airspace until you determined the direction and the flow of traffic - Join the airport traffic pattern and maintain visual contact with the tower to receive light signals. - During the daytime, you should acknowledge tower transmissions or light signals by rocking your wings and at night by blinking your landing light or navigation lights - ALSO IF YOU HAVE IT USE A CELL PHONE

Inflight Fire

- If you experience a fire while in flight, follow the checklist procedures specified in the POH for your airplane and declare an emergency by radio

Intercept Procedures

- If you penetrate an area with security-related flight restrictions, you risk being intercepted by U.S. military or law enforcement aircraft. Review the intercept procedures in the AIM regularly. If you are intercepted: ●Do not adjust your altitude, heading, or airspeed until directed to by the intercepting aircraft. ●Follow instructions from the intercepting aircraft given by visual signals or radio communications until positively released. ●Attempt to contact the intercepting aircraft or ATC on 121.5 and provide your aircraft identity, position, and the nature of the flight. ●Squawk 7700 on your transponder unless otherwise instructed by ATC

Visual Illusion (Autokinesis)

- If you stare at an single point of light with a dark background for more than a few seconds the light will appear to move

Asymmetrical Flap Extension

- Immediately return the flap control to the up, or the previous position, while maintaining control of the airplane. Should you be in the approach phase of the traffic pattern when an asymmetrical extension occurs, perform a go-around and adjust your airspeed for approach and landing

Induction Icing

- Impact icing forms when the airplane flies in visible moisture with the air temperature at or below freezing. - Flying through super-cooled water droplets causes them to freeze on the airframe. As ice blocks the intake, the engine's performance decreases due to the reduced airflow - Can use an alternate static source which draws air from the engine cowling

Aircraft Performance And Design

- In developing performance charts the test pilot is following the checklist and making sure the airplane is in good airworthy condition - The manufacturer develops performance data for the plane based on actual flight tests

Cold Downslope Winds

- In high parts of mountains where snow and ice are present the air can become extremely cold forming a high pressure air becomes more dense and pushes down the mountain when it goes through a narrow canyon it can reach very fast velocities

Landing Distance Charts

- In many respects, landing distance charts are similar to takeoff distance charts. They normally include compensations for temperature, altitude, airplane weight, and headwind or tailwind component, and most provide the landing distance from a height of 50 feet as well as the length of the ground roll itself

Lift Equation

- In order to increase lift you must influence one or more factors a. increase airspeed b. increase angle of attack

Spin Recovery

- In order to recover from a spin follow the PARE model P= Power idle A= Ailerons Neutral R= Rudder opposite E= Elevator down then up

Straight and level flight

- In straight and level flight your maneuvering is limited to either speeding up or slowing down - When slowing down the angle of attack must increase

Chart Supplements

- Include data that cannot be readily depicted in graphic form on charts. This data applies to public and joint-use airports, seaplane bases, and heliports, as well as navaids and airspace - Each Chart Supplement contains five primary sections: 1. The Airport/Facility Directory Legend 2. The Airport/Facility Directory 3. Notices 4. Associated Data 5. Airport Diagrams

Takeoff and Landing Performance

- Incorporates factors such as a. Weight b. Surface winds (use a maximum cross wind component chart in POH) c. Runway gradient and surface

Navigation Aids (VOR)

- Indicates a small compass rose

Icing

- Induction, Structural (rime, clear, mixed), Instrument - trace, light, moderate, and severe - Frost is a related element that poses a serious hazard during takeoff. It interferes with smooth airflow over the wings and can cause early airflow separation, resulting in a loss of lift

Climbs

- Initiated by increasing the angle of attack and if theres excess power the plane will start in a climb then slowly go back to equilibrium

Gear Position Indicators

- Installed to help you keep track of where the gear is in the gear cycle. Position lights are one common type of indicator - Can be either red or green to display locations

Instrument Flight

- Instrument flying was developed in the 930's to allow pilot to fly within wide range of weather (Low grade VOR's came first)

Non-Compulsory Reporting Points

- Intersections and nav-aids are designated as either compulsory or non-compulsory reporting points - Identified by open triangles, and position reports are not required unless requested by ATC

Forecasting Methods (Persistence Method)

- Involves simply predicting that the weather you are experiencing at the moment will continue to prevail

Tracking

- Involves some trail and error based on the winds - May need to adjust heading 10-20 degrees to stay on the radial

Composite Flight Plan

- Is a request to operate IFR on one portion of a flight and VFR for another portion

Wind Shear

- Is a sudden, drastic shift in wind speed and/or direction that occurs over a short distance at any altitude in a vertical or horizontal plane - Microburst= severe downdraft

SFRA

- Is airspace where the ready identification, location, and control of aircraft is required in the interests of national security. Depicted on charts, the SFRA includes all airspace within a 30 nautical mile radius of the Washington DC VOR (DCA) from the surface up to but not including flight level 180 (FL180)

Center Weather Advisories (CWA)

- Is an unscheduled weather advisory issued by an ARTCC to alert pilots of existing or anticipated adverse weather conditions within the next two hours

Hydroplanning

- Is caused by a thin layer of standing water that separates the tires from the runway. It causes a substantial reduction in friction between the airplane tires and the runway surface and results in poor or nil braking action at high speeds - Pick longer runways and be light on the brakes (best way to remedy is to prevent)

Navigation Database

- Is extremely important that before any flight the GPS database is current and up to date

Station Passage

- Is indicated by the first positive, complete reversal of the TO/FROM indicator

Winds and temperature aloft forecast (FD)

- Issued 2 times daily and valid for either 6, 12, or 24 hours - Contains: forecasts winds in knots and in reference to true north, at true altitudes for 3000' increments up to FL120, temps in Celsius - Winds <1500' above the surface are not forecast. Temperatures are not forecast for altitudes within 3000' of the surface

Approach Briefing

- It can be effective to verbalize the primary elements of the approach even if you are flying alone. You can brief these items in any order based on your preference and the chart layout

Private Industry Sources

- It is important to understand that weather information received from non-FAA or non-NWS sites might not be current, accurate, or relevant - Must go to reliable and trustworthy sources - Make sure the weather resources you are using have met FAA requirements

Telephone Information Briefing Service

- It provides continuous recordings of area and route meteorological briefings, airspace procedures, and special aviation-oriented announcements, and can include selected METARs and TAFs

Communications Section

- Jeppesen and the FAA place their communication frequencies in a row of boxes near the top of the approach chart - The frequencies are always listed in the order in which you normally use them when approaching the airport

Airport Operations

- Just because you're at a towered airport doesn't relieve you of responsibilities to see and avoid other traffic - Voluntary program called operation lights on which recommends pilots turn on landing lights and anti collision lights on within 10 miles of an uncontrolled airport

Emergency Approach and Landing

- Keep calm and follow the ATC procedures - Make sure you have plenty of space to work with below (good field size and wind direction) - Don't be afraid to change the landing site if needed - Follow the ABC procedure - Follow the POH abnormal checklist for that procedure

Task Management

- Keeping track of the tasks you need and want to accomplish and making sure you complete them. - In two-pilot crew operations, each person is responsible for completing specific tasks, and you both need to be informed of the other's actions

Situational Awareness

- Knowledge and understanding of your surroundings and situation and the risk they potentially pose to your safety - Don't become complacent - Do all the NOTAM checking, taxiing instructions before you start taxiing - Sterile cockpit= Dont talk while taxiing or during takeoff

Hypoxia

- Lack of oxygen to the blood tissues and organs - 4 types: 1. Hypoxemic Hypoxia 2. Anemic Hypoxia 3. Stagnant Hypoxia 4. Histotoxic Hypoxia - Symptoms: - Feelings of sluggishness - Euphoric initially - Light headed - Headache - Cures: 1. Bring supplemental oxygen with you 2. Get to a lower altitude

LNAV

- Lateral Navigation (some do have an electronic glide slope tho) - Goes down to MDA works like a non-precision approach

Class E Airspace

- Lightly Shaded (also everything else?) - 3 Areas of Class E Airspace1. Surface= Dashed magenta line (lined up with a runway because ATC wants full control, instrument approach) 2. At 700ft= Magenta bold ring (lightly shaded at airport) 3. At 1200ft= Everywhere else - Everything below echo is gulf airspace - Below 10,000ft visibility= 3,1,5,2 - Above 10,000ft visibility= 5SM, 1000ft above/below, 1 mile away - Equipment:-Below 10,000ft= Nothing- Above 10,00ft= Transponder - Requirements= Class E= Student pilot requirement and no permission required to enter class E

Altimeter

- Like the airspeed indicator, the digital altimeter provides a central window and a pointer on a moving tape to display the indicated altitude - The trend vector shows the altitude that the airplane will reach in six seconds if it continues to climb or descend at the same rate. The altimeter might have a bug to select the reference altitude for the autopilot

Latittude

- Lines run East and West but measure North and South. - 0 at the equator but 90 either representing north or south pole

Taxiway Markings

- Links between parking areas and runways are called taxiways - hold lines used to keep aircraft clear of runways

Preparing For The Approach

- Listen to ATIS to get the weather info - Preform an approach overview and after ATC tells you which approach to expect brief it before entering the approach - Listen to the morse code on the ILS to confirm it is up and running

Local Wind Patterns

- Local wind patterns much more important for local flying purposes (works same as global but on a smaller scale)

LPV

- Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance (LPV) is type of APV approach, in addition to LNAV/VNAV, which takes advantage of high accuracy and integrity of WAAS. LPV minimums may have decision altitudes as low as 200 ft heigh above touchdown with visibility minimums as low as 1/2 mile. - Must be WAAS certified and is ore accurate than LNAV/VNAV

LP

- Localizer Performance without vertical guidance - WAAS procedures without vertical guidance (still has good accuracy) - Has an MDA but is lower than most other non-precision approaches

Weather Considerations

- Lockhead Martin Flight Service provides both weather briefings and weather products - Be sure to check numerous weather charts to get a full picture of the flight

Altitude Selection

- Look at the MEA and follow the hemispheric rule - Must take into account whether the plane is pressurized or not and if you have supplemental oxygen or not - Consider the winds and possible icing

Low Clouds

- Low clouds extend from near the surface to about 6,500 feet AGL. - Low clouds usually consist almost entirely of water but sometimes may contain supercooled water, which can create an icing hazard for aircraft. - Types of low clouds include stratus, stratocumulus, and nimbostratus

Basic Med

- Lower than a third class medical - In order to get basic med must have: 1. A drivers license 2. Get physical exam for state license physician 3. Complete basic med education course - Basic Med is make for people with 1. Mental health disorder 2. Neurological disorder 3. Cardiovascular issue Allows pilots to: - To fly with 5 or less passengers - To fly VFR or IFR in the US - Fly up to 18,000ft and not exceeding 250 knots - Cant fly for compensation or hire

VFR Cruising Altitudes

- Magnetic course of 0-179 (Easterly) - Odd thousands plus 500 - Magnetic course of 180-359 (westerly) - Even thousands plus 500

Stall Causes and Types

- Main cause of stalls is when the airflow over the top of the wings is not able to reach the back of the wing (different factors such as weight, c.g., fuel, etc. can affect the stall speed) - Types of stalls: 1. power on stalls 2. power stalls 3. accelerated stalls 4. secondary stall 5. cross controlled stall 6. elevator trim stall

Pressurization Emergencies

- Main problem to keep in mind is cabin decompression and can either be rapid or slight - Rapid can happen between one and ten seconds and slight cabin decompression can be dangerous because you may not be able to notice it before hypoxia kicks in - If this happens put on oxygen masks descend to a safe altitude declare an emergency and land as soon as possible and go see a doctor once you land as you may suffer from decompression sickness

Magnetic Compass (Instrument Check)

- Make sure compass is full of fluid, and during taxi the compass indicates known headings

Graph Method

- Make sure once the weight and total moments are added up to check on the graph to make sure the weight and cg are within moments

Airspeed Indicator (Instrument Error)

- Make sure that when facing the wind the airspeed indicator reads zero if there is a reading point aircraft away from the wind - If airspeed does not come alive during the takeoff reject the takeoff

Tracking (ADF)

- Make sure you account for wind factor when tracking the NDB may need to make 10-20 degree adjustments

Operating Procedures

- Make sure you are familiar with the POH recommended procedures to get the most out of the engine

Preparing For The Arrival

- Make sure you have at least a textual description of the STAR - Listen to the ATIS as soon as possible - Get NOTAMS - Figure out which instrument approach is in use

Approach Clearance

- Make sure you let ATC know what type of approach you want - If they say "cleared fort he approach you can preform whatever approach at the airport you want

Starting an Auxiliary Fuel Pump Engine

- Make sure you wait until the gauge gas 3-5 gallons before turning off the primer

Steep Spirals

- Make sure you're at a suitable altitude so you can complete at least 3 full 360 turns - maintain airspeed of 60 knots - If at a tower get permission before doing this maneuver - Pull out carb heat - Pull throttle to idle - Can do up to 60 degree bank - Every once in a while preform a clearing burst (rev up the throttle if allowed) - Once you reach pattern altitude enter the left downwind and treat it like a normal landing (make it a tight pattern) ACS - Maintain a specified airspeed of +/- 10 knots - Get back to heading of +/- 10 degrees - Have at least 1500 feet AGL above the ground when finished

Radio Magnetic Indicator (ADF)

- Makes it easy to determine your position in relation to an NDB by combining a slaved compass card and bearing pointer in the same instrument. An RMI is like a movable-card ADF on which the card automatically rotates to reflect the aircraft's magnetic heading - With an RMI the arrow head always points tot he station and the back of the arrow is away

Airport Signs

- Mandatory instruction signs - Direction signs - Information signs - Location signs - ILS ciritcal area - Destination signs - Runway distance remaining signs

Safety Alerts

- Mandatory services provided to all aircraft. Controllers warn you if, in their judgment, your airplane is in unsafe proximity to terrain, obstructions, or other aircraft - 78 Juliet Romeo, low altitude alert, climb to 8,000 immediately (example)

Vertical Navigation Planning

- Many STARs include information on vertical navigation planning to help crews of jets and turboprops save fuel by reducing the amount of time they fly at lower altitudes. - The charts provide expected altitudes for key fixes along the route - Calculating a rate of descent: - Rate of Descent = Altitude to Descend ÷ Distance (NM) × Groundspeed (Knots) ÷ 60

Commercial Pilot Privileges

- May act as PIC for compensation or hire - May not engage in common carriage which involves holding out, or advertising your services to furnish transportation for any member of the public

Atmospheric Circulation

- May be considered simply to be the movement of air relative to the earth's surface - Because the atmosphere is fixed to the earth by gravity and rotates with the earth, there would be no circulation without forces that upset the atmosphere's equilibrium. - The dynamic nature of the atmosphere is due, in a large part, to unequal temperatures at the earth's surface

Develop The Route

- May need to make adjustments with airspace etc.

Localizer Back Course Approach

- May receive a false glide slope while flying the localizer back course

Exhaust Gas Temperature Gauge

- Measures the temperature of the exhaust gases leaving the combustion chamber. Generally, the exhaust temperature increases as you lean the mixture until the optimum fuel/air ratio is achieved - Further leaning causes the temperature to decrease - Best Economy Mixture= To find the peak temperature, you progressively lean the mixture until the EGT stops rising - Best Power Mixture= The best power mixture produces the greatest amount of power for a particular setting and generates less heat (used for higher power settings)

Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB)

- Meteorological and aeronautical data recorded on tapes and broadcast over selected NAVAIDs. Generally, the broadcast contains route-oriented data with specially prepared NWS forecasts, inflight advisories, and winds aloft. - It also includes selected current information such as weather reports (METAR/SPECI), NOTAMs, and special notices.

Middle Clouds

- Middle clouds have bases that range from about 6,500 to 20,000 feet AGL. - They are composed of water, ice crystals, or supercooled water, and may contain moderate turbulence and potentially severe icing. - Altostratus and altocumulus"

Stall Speeds

- Minimum flying speed for an aircraft. If aircraft reduces past minimum the a/c stalls and loses altitude rapidly. - Factors depend on the weight, CG location, configuration, and bank angle (the heavier the flight the faster your approach speed should be)

Moisture, Precipitation, and Stability

- Moisture can change forms: a. Evaporation= water to gas b. Sublimation= water to ice c. Condensation= air to water d. Deposition= air to ice - Precipitation a. Virga= when clouds produce rain but it dissolves before it reaches the surface b. freezing rain (water that is super cooled and freezes on impact) c. hail d. snow - Stability= is the atmospheres resistance to vertical motion (the more stable the better)

Table Method

- Moment Table= Is provided for each of the most common payload areas, such as front seats, rear seats, usable fuel, and baggage area - Moment Limits Table= The table method uses rounded weights and approximate arms, so it is not as precise as the computation method, but this method eliminates some of the chances for arithmetic errors

Meteorological Forecast

- More accurate than other methods. Uses the scientific knowledge of atmospheric conditions - In many cases, an experienced meteorologist can produce an accurate 6- to 12-hour forecast simply by analyzing a variety of weather charts and other data

Windshield Ice Control

- Most aircraft are equipped with a defroster consisting of vents that direct heated air across the windshield on the inside of the cabin - Some windsheild anti-ice can be used to put a small amount of alcohol on the windshield although this is something that should be done before the ice forms if possible - You can also electronically heat the windshield

Induction System (Fuel Injected)

- Most newer airplanes are installed with fuel injection systems which have great benefits over carburetor engines including reducing amount of fuel required, increasing power output and allowing for the precise use of the fuel, and reduction in evaporative icing (difficult to start hot engine) - Rather than having a carburetor a fuel injector is split up into different components which are: 1. Auxiliary Fuel Pumps= Pumps fuel from the fuel tank into the fuel control unit 2. Fuel Control Unit= Determines the amount of fuel needed based on the mixture and throttle settings 3. Fuel Manifold Valve= The fuel is sent here and then gets dispersed to the nozzle of each cylinder 4. Fuel Discharge Nozzles= The fuel is then entered directly into the combustion chamber where it finally mixes with the air

Holding Pattern Entries (Direct)

- Most often used since it can be used within 180 degrees - Cross the fix and immediately establish a right turn to the outbound heading and fly the pattern

MFD

- Multi Function Display can usually display many other kinds of information in the form of overlays, such as terrain, instrument procedures, graphical weather, lightning strikes, and traffic information etc. (may come back come back and do electronic 6 pack)

Additional Certificates and Ratings

- Multi engine rating - CFI, CFII, MEI

Commercial Training

- Must be 18 years of age - Have at least 250 hours - 120 hours of training - 55 hours of instruction - 10 hours of flight training in a complex aircraft - Having commercial license without instrument entails certain restrictions (cant fly passengers for hire more than 50nm at night)

Partial Panel Flying

- Must be able to scope out the the working instruments for analog and use the back up instruments for glass cockpit

Outbound and Inbound Timing

- Must make sure the inbound leg is one minute long - need to make adjustments on the outbound leg after the first lap based on the wind - For a GPS hold legs are based off of distance not off of time

Flight Information Publications

- NOTAMS - Chart Supplement

Other Airspace Areas (NSA)

- National Security Areas are established at locations where there is a requirement for increased security and safety of ground facilities

Dead Reckoning

- Navigation of an airplane solely by means of computations based on airspeed, course, heading, wind direction and speed, groundspeed, and elapsed time. - Also using the compass

Area Charts

- Near several major air traffic hubs, the density of information on the enroute chart can make it difficult to read and interpret. Area charts are created to portray these locations in a larger scale, to improve readability and provide more detail. You might think of these charts as the IFR equivalent of VFR Terminal Area Charts - A gray dashed line shows the area covered by the area chart

NDB

- Nondirectional beacons are shown with a true magnetic north

Cross Wind Correction

- Not adding the proper wind correction can cause you to stray from the protected airspace or not be able to cross over the fix on the inbound leg properly - Use normal bracketing and drift correction techniques to stay within the hold properly

Minimum Fuel

- Not an emergency, but only an advisory that any undue delays could cause an emergency situation

Importance of Balance

- Not only vital how much weight you put on the plane but WHERE you put it (aircraft must stay within the proper limits) - CG= center of gravity is the imaginary point where the aircraft would be perfectly suspended if possible - CG limits are the forward and aft center of gravity locations within which the aircraft must be operated at a given weight. Also called the CG envelope or range, the CG limits are established by the manufacturer

Flight Over Hazardous Terrain

- Numerous hazards for the inexperienced pilot. Decreased aircraft performance at high altitudes, turbulence, rapidly changing weather, and difficulty in locating a forced landing site are just a few of the challenges of a mountain flight. - Make sure you bring warm clothing first aid kid matches etc.

Airborne Weather Radar

- Observes current conditions ahead of the aircraft - Aircraft radar is prone to many of the same limitations as ground-based systems

Airborne Weather Radar

- Observes current conditions ahead of the aircraft - On the actual aircraft itself and it helps to show up to date weather cells

Controlled Flight into Terrain Awareness

- Occurs when an aircraft is flown into terrain or water with no prior awareness on the part of the crew that the crash is imminent

Abnormal Combustion

- Occurs when the flame does NOT spread evenly and smoothly through the combustion chamber. - Two types of abnormal combustion are preignition and detonation a. detonation= uncontrolled explosion of fuel b. preignition= duel air mixture ignites early before the cyinder head reaches the top of the combustion chamber

Pressurization Components

- On a pressurized plane with a turbocharged engine the compressor section of the engine is able to limit how much air is being taken away from the engine by a venturi - In the compressor section of the engine inside the venturi the air moves at super sonic speeds creating a barrier preventing a portion of the compressor discharge air from flowing to the pressurization system - From the sonic venturi the air moves to the heat exchanger where it is either heated or cooled to a comfortable temperature in the cabin - From the heat exchanger the pressurized air is taken to the cabin through the air ducts - To regulate the amount of air pressure in the cabin, an outflow valve opens and closes to allow the pressurized air to vent out of the cabin at a controlled rate. - Another valve, the safety/dump valve, vents the pressurized air overboard if the outflow valve fails - This valve is similar in design to the outflow valve, but is set to open at a higher cabin differential pressure—it opens automatically when the maximum cabin differential pressure is exceeded

Course Deviation Indicator (CDI)

- On an analog indicator or HSI display, as well as on the GPS unit. You typically have the ability to switch the primary navigation display between a GPS and VOR receiver and an annunciator indicates which equipment is being used as the navigation source

Heading Section

- On both Jeppesen and FAA charts, the heading section identifies the city, airport, instrument approach procedure title, and the airport identifier - Make sure to study the whole approach to make sure you have all the necessary equipment - VOR-A means that the approach is not within 30 degrees of the runway - If approach has the same navigation source it will work its way back from Z

Airports

- On instrument charts they are labeled either as airports with instrument approaches (blue or green) or airports without instrument approaches (brown)

Emergency Approach Procedures

- Once you get to the airport you can choose which approach would be best suited for you and make sure you arrive at the airport a close to the ETA time as possible - If you have an EFC time leave at that time and complete the approach

Emergency Assistance

- One advantage of IFR flight is the constant communication with ATC and can always reach out to them when you have a problem - Can get a vector or assistance if needed planes in emergencies always get priority

Aviation Weather Center

- Online weather service providing up-to-date aviation weather conditions

The Aviation Weather Center

- Online weather service providing up-to-date aviation weather conditions

Reading Back Clearances

- Operating at an airport with clearance delivery be prepared to write down and read back the clearance - Have an airport diagram as well

Dynamic Stability

- Out of its own accord, an aircraft eventually returns to and remains at its equilibrium position over a period of time.

Weather Depiction Chart

- Overall weather picture across United States - Observed flying category: IFR - Hatched area MVFR - Non-hatched area VFR - Not outlined - Issued every 3 hours starting at 01z - Valid at time of issuance

ILS Approaches to Parallel Runways

- Parallel Dependent ILS Approach= operations may be conducted to parallel runways with centerlines at least 2,500 feet apart (airplanes must be 1.5 miles apart diagonally - If the runway centerlines are between 4,300 and 9,000 feet apart airplanes must keep a diagonal separation of 2 miles apart - Simultaneous Independent ILS Approach= differs from a parallel (dependent) approach in that the runway centerlines are separated by 4,300 to 9,000 feet and the approaches, which do not require staggered separation, are monitored by dedicated final controllers - Pilots must maintain good focus as the final controllers cant order a missed approach immediately if either no response or planes get too close

Ground Effect

- Phenomenon associated with the reduction of induced drag when flying very close to the ground; Earth's surface alters airflow pattern around the airplane. - Creates a cushioning effect below the plane

Pilot Weather Report (PIREP)

- Pilot Reports= voluntary reports from pilots due to un-forecasted weather - Symbology for PIREP=UA - Urgent for PIREP= UUA - Contains: Location, time, altitude, type of aircraft, sky cover, flight visibility, Wx, temperatures, wind, turbulence, icing, and remarks - Be suspicious of PIREPS that are more than 1 hour old - Can file with tower, ATC, 1800WXBrief, Flight Service Station

Heading Indicator (Errors)

- Pitch and bank are what cause the heading indicator to go off - An additional gimbal is needed to allow free rotation of the gyro - Precession can cause the heading to drift off the proper setting (must reset it every 15 minutes - During excessive pitch and roll conditions it can cause the attitude indicator to become inaccurate

Pito Static Instruments

- Pitot Static measures ram air pressure and compares it to static pressure to indicate and aircrafts speed through the air (airspeed, altimeter, vertical speed indicator) - Uses both the pitot tube and the static port - Static port helps to measure static air pressure

Pitot Static System Instruments System Errors

- Pitot and static port blockages are the main culprits check during preflight and turn on pitot heat or alternate static if needed - If the ram air inlet clogs but the drain hole remains open, the pressure in the line to the airspeed indicator vents out the drain hole, causing the airspeed indicator to drop to zero - If both the ram air inlet and drain hole are blocked then the airspeed indicator acts as an altimeter - If the static port becomes blocked then the airspeed indicator will still work but give inaccurate readings - When you climb to a higher altitude then the static port became clogged it will read lower than it should when you go lower it will read faster than it should - Can use alternate static if needed (it will read airspeed a little faster, altimeter a little higher, and VSI sligtht increase)

Flight Planning

- Plan Out Nav Log and Legs - Once the direction is determined once corrected for wind that is your true heading

Flight At Various CG Positions

- Planes are naturally bit to be slightly forward CG (more stable that way) - If the CG is too AFT a small bump can cause the plane to go into an unstable pitch up attitude - Aft C.G. makes it easy to enter a stall and a flat spin - Lateral stability can be compromised if you have large fuel imbalances

Aircraft Lighting

- Position lights on from sunset to sunrise (nav lights) - anti-collision lights on all the time unless pilot deems it unsafe (strobe)

Gyroscopic Instruments

- Power the attitude indicator, heading indicator and turning coordinator - Based on the two fundamental principles of precession and rigidity in space - Rigidity in Space= Refers to the principle that a wheel with a heavily weighted rim spun rapidly tends to remain fixed in the plane in which it is spinning - Precession= When an outside force tries to tilt a spinning gyro, the gyro responds as if the force had been applied at a point 90° further around in the direction of rotation

Vertical Speed Indicator (How it Works)

- Powered by Pito Static System - Inside the VSI is a diaphragm that is directly connected to the static port - The case on the outside of the diaphragm is filled with static air and has a calibrated leak which is a small hole which limits the rate at which the pressure of the case can change - When there is a change in pressure the diaphragm changes instantly while the case pressure changes slowly and the change in pressure results in the vertical speed being shown (5-9 second lag after leveling off) - As the aircraft climbs, the diaphragm contracts and the pressure drops faster in the diaphragm than in the case, the change in pressure will show on the vertical speed indicator and it is vice versa when descending

Vertical Speed Indicator

- Powered by Pito Static System- Inside the VSI is a diaphragm that is directly connected to the static port- The case on the outside of the diaphragm is filled with static air and has a calibrated leak which is a small hole which limits the rate at which the pressure of the case can change- When there is a change in pressure the diaphragm changes instantly while the case pressure changes slowly and the change in pressure results in the vertical speed being shown (5-9 second lag after leveling off)- As the aircraft climbs, the diaphragm contracts and the pressure drops faster in the diaphragm than in the case, the change in pressure will show on the vertical speed indicator and it is vice versa when descending

Airspeed Indicator

- Powered by both pitot tube and static port- The pitot tube measures ram pressure and the more air pressure there is the greater the diaphragm will expand- The static port helps bring in static air around the diaphragm to help give a more accurate reading of speed- this will subtract out the air that the pitot tube captured and help read the true airspeed (if the static port weren't used you would get different readings of speeds at different altitudes)- Ram pressure- minus static pressure= dynamic pressure

Turning Coordinator

- Powered by electric gyro - Helps to show the quality and amount of bank in a turn - The inclinometer is depicted by a ball filled with mercury in the middle helps to show the quality of the turn with a ball in the middle - Slip= the rate of turn is too slow for the angle of bank and the ball movies to the inside of the turn - Skid= the rate of turn is too great for the angle of bank and the ball moves to the outside of the turn

Attitude Indicator

- Powered by engine driven vacuum pump - Gives you a view as if you were looking at the plane from behind - Must adjust the horizon bar before each flight and must be periodically checked to make sure the vacuum pump hasn't failed

Heading Indicator

- Powered by engine driven vacuum pump- Has to manually be adjusted before every flight and every 15 minutes or so - The heading indicator in most training airplanes has whats called a free spinning gyro meaning it doesn't have an automatic north seeking system built into them - In excessive pitch and roll situations the heading indicator can tumble needing correction

Altimeter (How it Works)

- Powered by pitot static system as well - Inside has a diaphragm that expands when you go higher and contracts when you go lower - The air inside the wafer is trapped and as you increase in altitude the static pressure goes down and as air escapes out the vent the wafer will expand to match the pressure in the chamber - As you decrease in altitude the static pressure goes up which causes the wafer to contract to match the pressure in the chamber

Altimeter

- Powered by pitot static system as well- Inside has a diaphragm that expands when you go higher and contracts when you go lower- The air inside the wafer is trapped and as you increase in altitude the static pressure goes down and as air escapes out the vent the wafer will expand to match the pressure in the chamber- As you decrease in altitude the static pressure goes up which causes the wafer to contract to match the pressure in the chamber

Precipitation

- Precipitation can be defined as any form of particles, whether liquid or solid, that fall from the atmosphere. Whether it reaches the ground or evaporates before it reaches the surface, precipitation contributes to many aviation weather problems

Compiling and Processing Weather Data

- Predicting weather conditions begins with an analysis of present and past conditions - The information is passed among various agencies for processing, analysis, and creation of weather charts, graphics, and text

Steep Turns

- Preform clearing turn - First apply clearing turns on both sides - Enter around 95 knots 2500rpm - Once you reach 45 degree angle apply back pressure and possibly trim up - Try and maintain nose angle and keep it straight and level off when you reach 360 degrees - Repeat for opposite side and then level off and re-trim airplane - No lower than 1500AGL (3000-3500MSL) ACS- Maintain the entry altitude of +/- 100 feet - Airspeed of +/- 10 knots - Bank of +/- 5 knots - Roll out on entry heading of +/- 10 degrees

Graphic Winds And Temperature Aloft

- Presented on an interactive map on the Aviation Weather Center website and through chart overlays at Flight Service online. You select the altitude and time frame for your forecast (6, 12, or 24 hours) and the system draws wind direction arrows that depict the direction at each station - If the altitude you have selected is less than 1,500 feet above the station, the station circle is not shown

Pressurization Principles

- Pressurization is accomplished by pumping air into an aircraft that is adequately sealed to limit the rate at which air escapes from the cabin - The air pressure increases to produce a cabin environment equivalent to that at a lower altitude - Cabin pressure altitude is a term that describes the equivalent altitude inside the cabin—it is the primary factor in the effectiveness of a pressurization system. - Cabin altitude is limited by the strength of the airframe and its ability to withstand repeated pressurization and depressurization, as well as by the amount of compressed air the pressurization system can produce. - Cabin differential pressure is the difference between the cabin air pressure and the outside air pressure

Flight Service

- Primary FAA source of preflight weather information. You can call for a phone briefing for your specific flight at 1-800-WX-BRIEF or obtain an online weather briefing and other weather information at 1800wxbrief.com

Runway Layout

- Primary is normally positioned to use PREVAILING Wind during takeoffs and Landings. - Secondary will be aligned with Other Common Wind directions - Based off the magnetic direction to the nearest 10 degrees

Steep Turns

- Primary is the attitude indicator - Altimeter as primary pitch and VSI as supporting pitch

Briefing Information

- Prior to flying an instrument approach, you should perform an approach briefing to ensure you are thoroughly familiar with the approach procedure - The briefing section found at the top of the chart presents information to help you prepare for the approach

Power Control

- Propeller RPM is adjusted using the propeller control and is indicated on the tachometer. When used correctly, these controls can provide the most efficient combinations of power and RPM for a variety of flight conditions - When decreasing the prop make sure the mainfold pressure is within the proper limits and vice versa (make sure the prop rpm is in a good place before reducing power) - Don't make power changes to abruptly

Propellor Ice Control

- Propeller anti-ice system uses alcohol, the spinner is equipped with discharge nozzles that are pointed toward each blade root. The alcohol is discharged from the nozzles, and centrifugal force causes the alcohol to flow down the leading edge of the blade to prevent ice formation - An electric propeller anti-ice system has rubber boots with wires embedded in them to heat the inboard portion of each blade - During flight, you can refer to an ammeter that shows the amount of electrical current being supplied to the boots

Continuous Flow

- Provide adequate oxygen for flights up to 25,000 feet and are available in three styles: constant flow, adjustable flow, and altitude compensated a. Constant Flow= Systems are used on many reciprocating-engine airplanes to provide continuous oxygen delivery at a constant flow rate (main con is a lot of oxygen is wasted) b. Adjustable Flow= Systems enable pilots to vary oxygen delivery according to altitude and the pressure in the oxygen tank c. Altitude Compensated System= a further improvement of the adjustable-flow design. The system uses a barometric control regulator that automatically adjusts the rate of oxygen flow for the altitude (most popular)

Altitude Heading Reference System (AHRS)

- Provide attitude, heading, rate of turn, and slip/skid information - The AHRS uses inertial sensors such as electronic gyroscopes and accelerometers to determine the aircraft's attitude relative to the horizon - Sometimes a GPS system is used where the planes determines position from 3 different antennas - Magnetometer- An essentially electronic compass with none of the errors associated with a real compass It Instead uses a suspended bar magnet, the magnetometer uses a flux valve or flux gate, which is an electronic means of sensing magnetic lines of force

Vectors

- Provide navigational guidance on an advisory basis only. The controller might vector you for safety reasons or you might request a vector if you are unfamiliar with the area

Runway Lighting

- Runway edge lights (high, medium and low intensity) - Threshold lights (marks the end of each runway green for landing red for takeoff) - Displaced threshold lights (also green lights) - Touchdown Zone Lighting (white lights flush mounted in runway from 100ft from threshold to 3000ft or halfway whichever is less) - Runway Centerline Lighting System (flush mounted to help you stay in the center during takeoff and landing are white, then red and white last 3000ft of the runway then all red last 1000ft) - Land and Hold Short Lights (a row of five flush-mounted flashing white lights installed at the hold short point only used for land and hold short operations - Taxiway lead off lights= pulsating flush mounted green and yellow lights leading off the runway - Pilot Controlled Lighting= can tap 3,5,7 times for intensity

Circling Approaches

- Runway not aligned within 30 degrees of the runway - Runway closure - Unfavorable winds - Cannot descend until you are established on a final approach watch airspeed and altitude

Climb Performance

- Same factors that affect takeoff and landing performance affect climb performance - Two of the most important are VX and VY a. VX= best climb rate over a distance (best right after takeoff in certain instances) b. VY= best climb rate over time ( best after you have cleared all obstacles) - absolute ceiling= when the aircraft can climb no more - service ceiling= when a single engine aircraft can only maintain a 100fpm climb

Sectional Charts

- Sectional charts and terminal area charts (TACs) are your primary VFR navigation references and depict topographic information, visual landmarks, and airport data. Updated every six months

Mileage Break Point

- Shown by an X on an airway - This symbol indicates a point on the airway where the course changes direction and where no intersection is designated. - The symbol might also designate a computer navigation fix with no ATC function

Minimum Safe/Sector Altitude (MSA)

- Shown on approach charts, provides 1,000 feet of obstruction clearance within 25 nautical miles of the indicated facility, unless some other distance is specified. - The 1,000-foot criterion applies over both mountainous and non-mountainous terrain - Neither navigation nor communication coverage is guaranteed

Front Panel

- Shows the area covered by the chart - Can also contain the time zone and the major cities - Also has a legend

Airport Visual Aids

- Similar to traffic signals on a highway (may seem confusing but makes sense over time

Fatigue and Noise

- Some effects of fatigue include degradation of attention, impaired coordination, and decreased ability to communicate - Cockpit noise can contribute to fatigue, stress, and even airsickness, can also make communication difficult (cause hearing loss long term)

Descent Charts

- Some manufacturers supply charts to help you plan your descent. For a given airspeed and configuration, you can use them to predict the time, fuel, and distance to descend from your cruising altitude to your destination

Weight Shift Formula

- Sometimes during weight and balance computations, you will find that the CG falls outside acceptable limits. You could rearrange the weights of passengers and baggage and calculate the CG location over and over, but there is an easier way. The following formula helps you to compute exactly what is necessary to bring the CG within limits

Using The Radio

- Speak in a professional manner - Allow a pause before speaking that way you wont interrupt someone or someone waiting for a response - Call should be as brief as possible to avoid radio congestion

High Drag Devices

- Spoilers= deployed from the upper surfaces of wings to spoil the smooth airflow, reducing lift and increasing drag - Speed Brakes= "purpose — to increase drag and provide fairly rapid deceleration - Propellor Driven Aircraft (at idle)

Communication Failure

- Sqawk code 7600 - If in VFR conditions land as soon as practical - For IFR: - Altitude To Fly: - Fly the highest among: M= Minimum altitude prescribed for IFR E= Expected (eg expect 5000ft after departure) A= Assigned by ATC - Route to Fly - Select route by the following order A= Assigned route if known V= Vectored (fly to fix, route, airway, way point last vectored to) E= Expected by ATC (last expected) F= Filed route

Stall and Spin Awareness

- Stalls occur when you exceed the critical angle of attack - Spins occur through an uncoordinated stall (when one wing stalls more than the other

Class G Airspace

- Starts at surface and is underlying airspace - Surface- 17,999ft (top) - Visibility:- Below 1200ft AGL(day)= 1SM, Clear of Clouds(night)= 3,1,5,2 - Above 1,200ft AGL(day)= 1,1,5,2Below 10,000ft AGL (night)= 3,1,2,5 - Above 1200ft AGL (day)= 5,1,1,1Above 10,000ft AGL (night)= 5,1,1,1 - Entry= Nothing Required - Equipment Requirements:- Below 10,000ft= nothing- Above 10,000ft= transponder - can get up to 14,500 ft MSL due to elevation on western states and Alaska

Atmospheric Stability

- State of equilibrium of the atmosphere - Makes vertical motion more challenging as opposed to an unstable atmosphere - Overall, the combined effects of temperature and moisture determine the stability of the air and, to a large extent, the type of weather produced

Straight in Landing vs. Circling Approach

- Straight-in landing minimums normally are specified when the final approach course is positioned within 30° of the runway and a minimum of maneuvering is required to align the airplane with the runway - If the final approach course is not properly aligned, or if it is desirable to land on a different runway, a circling approach may be executed and circling minimums apply (circling minimums always higher)

Source Region

- The area where an air mass acquires the properties of temperature and moisture that determine its stability - An ideal source region is a large area with fairly uniform geography and temperature

Straight and Level Flight

- The attitude indicator provides main reference point with VSI, altimeter, and airspeed being supporting -

Clouds With Vertical Development

- The bases of clouds with vertical development are found at altitudes associated with low to middle clouds, and their tops extend into the altitudes associated with high clouds. - Frequently, these cloud types are obscured by other cloud formations. When this happens, they are said to be embedded - towering cumulus, cumulonimbus

Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service

- The broadcasts include advisories such as AIRMETs, SIGMETs, convective SIGMETs, and urgent PIREPs. - When a HIWAS is updated, ARTCC and terminal facilities will broadcast an alert on all but emergency frequencies

Ceiling And Visibility Analysis

- The ceiling and visibility analysis (CVA) provides a real-time display of current observed and estimated ceiling and visibility across the continental United States. - The CVA can help VFR-only pilots avoid IFR conditions, and is updated every 5 minutes

Volcanic Ash Forecast And Dispersion Chart

- The chart is developed, with input from National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP), using a model that focuses on hazards to aircraft flight operations with emphasis on the ash cloud location. The concentration of volcanic ash is forecast over 6- and 12-hour time intervals, beginning 6 hours following the eruption

V Speeds and Color Codes

- The color codes on an airspeed indicator provide important information on the operation of the aircraft. These markings actually reflect the airplane's performance envelope

Magnetic Compass (System Operation)

- The compass uses bar magnets suspended in a fluid so they can pivot freely and align themselves with earths magnetic field

Clearance Shorthand

- The controller can talk extremely fast so its important to shorthand in order to keep up with the clearance

Current And Forecast Icing Products

- The current icing product (CIP) combines sensor and numerical weather prediction (NWP) model data to provide an hourly three-dimensional picture of icing risks - Forecast Icing Product using the same graphic depiction, uses an NWP model to predict the probability of icing in the future in a given area

Longitude

- The distance in degrees east or west of the prime meridian - 0 degrees is labeled at the prime meridian (greenwich England) - 360 degrees total (180 on east 180 on west)

RAIM (Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring)

- The equipment monitors and compares signals from multiple satellites to ensure an accurate signal - 5 Satellites allows a fault in the other 4 to be detected - 6 Satellites allows a backup to be ready in case one fails

Final Approach Segment

- The final approach segment allows you to navigate safely to a point from which, if you have the required visual references in sight, you can continue the approach to a landing. - Depending on the approach procedure, the final approach segment begins at a final approach fix (FAF), final approach point (FAP), or where you begin the descent when referring to vertical descent indications

Computation Method

- The first step is to locate the empty weight and empty CG position in the weight and balance report - List the weight of each item of the useful load. To convert aviation gasoline from gallons to pounds, you can use either the standard six pounds per gallon or the weight specified by the manufacturer - Using a standard loading form for the airplane enables you to perform an organized and complete weight and balance condition check - Once the weights are added up add up the total moments on the other column - Make sure the weight and total moments are within limits - Can take off some weight and moment for runup and taxi

Lift

- The force created by the effect of airflow as it passes over and under the wing. The airplane is typically supported in flight by lift. - In unaccelerated flight the 4 forces are in equilibrium

Climbing Flight

- The four forces acting on a plane become different - Once the climb is initiated eventually thrust would replace lift as the the opposing force for weight until the plane is vertical - At the point where the aircraft is vertical thrust is the only force opposing drag and weight

Analogue Forecast

- The future will be like weather that historically occurred when similar conditions were present. (Doesn't work great)

Intermediate Approach Segment (IAF)

- The intermediate segment is designed primarily to position the airplane for the final descent to the airport. - The intermediate segment, normally aligned within 30° of the final approach course, begins at the intermediate fix (IF), or intermediate point, and ends at the beginning of the final approach segment - If there is no intermediate approach fix then it is the segment inbound to the final approach fix

Minimum Crossing Altitude (MCA)

- The lowest allowed altitude at certain fixes an aircraft must cross when proceeding in the direction of a higher minimum en route altitude (MEA). - The FAA uses an X enclosed in a flag to alert you to an MCA restriction and the MCA's are usually listed in a box nearby

Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude (MOCA)

- The lowest published altitude in effect between radio fixes on VOR airways, off-airway routes, or route segments, which meets obstacle clearance requirements for the entire route segment and which ensures acceptable navigational signal coverage only within 25 statute (22 nautical) miles of a VOR. - Has asterisk in front of it

Cruise Performance

- The manufacturers of today's light airplanes provide cruise performance charts to indicate rate of fuel consumption, true airspeed, range, and endurance - In selecting cruising speed you may need to look at the tradeoff of fuel burned vs. time

Mid and High Level Prognostic Charts

- The mid and high level SigWx charts cover similar weather phenomena using similar symbology. - The mid SigWx chart covers altitudes from 10,000 feet MSL to FL 450. - The high-level significant weather prog chart covers altitudes from FL 250 to FL 630. - It presents a forecast of thunderstorms, tropical cyclones, squall lines, moderate or greater turbulence, widespread duststorms and sandstorms, tropopause heights, the location of the jet streams, and volcanic activity

Middle And High Level Significant Weather Prog Chart

- The middle significant weather prog chart covers altitudes from 10,000-45,000ft - Has similar symbology with the low level significant weather prog chart - High level significant weather prog chart covers areas from 250-630 and presents a forecast of thunderstorms,"tropical cyclones, squall lines, moderate or greater turbulence, widespread dust-storms and sandstorms, tropopause heights, the location of the jet streams, and volcanic activity

Landing Minimums

- The minimum visibility prescribed for landing a civil aircraft while using an instrument approach procedure. - Can vary depending on type of approach and type of lights installed and whether its a straight in landing or circling approach

Effects of Operating at High Total Weights

- The more weight you add the more lift the wing will have to produce - Being at maximum weight having tight turns where load factor is increased can have structural damage if you're not careful

Principles of Weight and Balance

- The name for a distance from a datum is a arm (generally measured in inches) - Distances aft of the datum are negative and forward of the datum are positive - Moment is a measurement of the tendency of the weight to cause rotation at the fulcrum - To find the center of gravity of an object or a group of objects, the moments of all the parts are added, and this total is divided by the total weight of the parts

Weather Radar Services

- The national weather service provides a large network of weather radar sites - Can help detect coverage, intensity, and movement of precipitation

VFR Restrictions to an IFR Clearance

- The pilot can request "maintain VFR conditions" on IFR flight plan to avoid departure and arrival procedures must follow VFR rules and See and avoid

Plan View

- The plan view is an overhead presentation of the entire approach procedure - Can also have a course reversal/procedure turn - On both Jeppesen and FAA charts, some, but not all, terrain high points and man-made structures are depicted with their elevations

Center of Gravity Position

- The point at which you could hold balance the aircraft on a pen (theoretically) -Most planes are built to be slight more nose heavy

Density Altitude

- The pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature and is equal to pressure altitude only when standard atmospheric conditions exist at that level - Can calculate density altitude from chart in POH

Density Altitude

- The pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature. - At standard temperature pressure altitude and density altitude are the same at hotter temperatures density altitude might be 2-3000 feet above pressure altitude - Can find density altitude on a chart - Compute density altitude if necessary before using performance charts

Propellor Principles

- The propellor blade is an aerodynamic force that helps to bring the plane forward and produces thrust - The propellor has more of an angle of attack on the root to compensate for the propellor moving faster on the tips than at the center - A fixed-pitch propeller is most efficient only at one particular RPM and airspeed (either a climb propellor or a cruise propellor)

Initial Approach Segment (IAF)

- The purpose of the initial approach segment is to provide a method for aligning the airplane with the approach course - The initial approach segment begins at an initial approach fix (IAF) and usually ends where it joins the intermediate approach segment

Center of Gravity Limits

- The specified forward and aft points within which the CG must be located during flight. These limits are indicated on pertinent airplane specifications.

Descent/Timing Conversion Table

- The table indicates the distance from the final approach fix to the missed approach point and the elapsed times to the missed approach point based on groundspeed - Found on Jeppesen charts only

Global Wind Patterns (come back)

- The three-cell circulation pattern produces semi-permanent low and high pressure areas - Tropical air rises and flows northward at 30 degrees latitude the winds are pushed eastward causing winds to pile up making a high pressure where eventually winds get pushed back towards the south where the low pressure exists - Creates northeast trade winds, prevailing westerlies, and polar easterlies

Atmospheric Pressure

- The unequal heating of the earth not only causes circulation patterns for sir density but also for air pressure - Thats why these altimeter settings differ (areas of equal pressure are connected by lines called isobars) - Isobars are drawn in 4 millibar intervals - The resulting pattern reveals the pressure gradient, or change in pressure over distance - Closely spaced isobars reveal a strong pressure gradient spaced out isobars reveal a weak pressure gradient

Lift

- The upwards vertical action that opposes weight - Incorperates factors of bernoulli's principle and newtons third law

Off Airport Facilities On Airport Facilities

- There are two basic types of VOR or NDB approaches—those that use a navaid located beyond the airport boundaries (off airport) and those with the navaid located on the airport (on airport) - Looking at the approach chart profile view will show which one you have

Glide Distance Charts

- These charts show how far your airplane will glide at the best glide airspeed (L/Dmax), provided there is no wind

VORTAC and VOR/DME

- These facilities are functionally identical to both civilian and military users

Graph Method

- This method is similar to the table method, except that the values from the tables have been combined and plotted on a graph for you

Remote Communication Outlet (RCO)

- This symbol is used for Flight Service remote communication outlets (RCOs) when they are not located adjacent to navaids or airports

Radar Departure

- This type of advisory will be issued to you either in your initial IFR routing clearance or by the tower just before takeoff - Follow the heading from tower until you're handed off to approach

Thrust

- Thrust is the force that opposes drag, and whenever there is more thrust than drag, the airplane accelerates along the flight path until the increasing drag restores the equilibrium

Review E6B Calculations

- Time, speed, and distance - Fuel Consumption - Airspeed Desnity Altitude Calculations - Conversions Electronic Flight Computers? (look up)

Visual Contact Approaches

- To expedite traffic, ATC may clear you for a visual approach in lieu of the published approach procedure if flight conditions permit - Contact approach may be to your advantage because it requires less time than the published instrument procedure, allows you to retain your IFR clearance, and provides separation from IFR and special VFR traffic

Flying an NDB Approach

- To fly an NDB approach, you must know how to track specific bearings using an ADF display and heading indicator to fly a course to the runway -

GPS Approach Equipment

- To fly the RNAV approaches the GPS must be certified for en-route, terminal and IFR approaches - Need either a BarO-VNAV= needs the altimeter setting and compares the planes altitude to the calculated position on the glide slope - WAAS Certified GPS= Determines a glide path by its vertical and horizontal GPS position (doesn't need altimeter setting)

Turning Flight

- To maintain altitude during a turn you must increase lift until the vertical component of lift equals weight - The horizontal component of lift creates a force toward the center of the turn known as centripetal force which causes the airplane to turn - Centrifugal force is the opposing force resulting from the inertia of the turn

Air Foil Ice Control

- To protect the wings and tail and leading edges from icing, most airplanes use pneumatic devices. On many reciprocating-engine and turboprop airplanes, deicing boots are pneumatically inflated to break the ice, allowing it to be carried away by the airstream - Thermal Anti-Ice System= Heated air is directed through ducting in the airfoil leading edge, to thermally prevent ice from forming

Forecasting Accuracy and Limitations

- To some degree, this is due to the large distances between weather reporting stations and the length of time between weather reports. - Also, the atmosphere occasionally does not behave exactly like computer models predicts it should - Large scale events are typically much easier to predict than short term weather phenomena like tornadoes and wind-shear are much harder to predict

Oxygen Storage

- To transport and store oxygen, most civil aircraft use oxygen cylinders, available in various sizes - Can either be built into the plane or be portable - Chemical oxygen generators are used in air carrier and other pressurized airplanes to provide emergency oxygen to passengers if the cabin loses pressure - FAR Part 91 requires you to have an oxygen supply of at least 10 minutes for each aircraft occupant when flying a pressurized airplane above FL250

Navigating with GPS

- To use GPS equipment for IFR operations, it must be certified according to a technical standard order (TSO) - Can tell if its certified by referencing the flight manual - Make sure that you are familiar with the operations of the particular model

Glide Slope

- Transmitter broadcasts a navigational signal to provide accurate, narrowing vertical guidance on a front course ILS approach. You refer to the glide slope indicator to maintain a glide path to the runway - Full scale deflections are .7 degrees either up or down

Localizer

- Transmitter to provide information regarding the airplane's alignment with the runway centerline - An antenna sends out a signal in two directions one in front of the runway and one that allows a back course if needed (must be approved by ATC) - Much more sensitive than a VOR and must make small corrections when tracking in bound

Weather (The Atmosphere)

- Troposphere= surface-24-50,000 feet - Tropopause is on top and acts as a lid to all the water vapor in the troposphere (characterized by rapid temperature change) - Stratosphere= some severe thunderstorms get into this layer but not much

System Operation

- Turbochargers have either manual or automatic waste-gate valves that help to control how much exhaust is going through the turbine - Make sure the oil pressure is int he green before advancing the throttle otherwise this will lead to an overboost (large jump in power) - When powering down let the engine run at idle for a little bit and allow the turbine to slow down and the turbocharger to cool otherwise the oil will boil and lave carbon deposits on the shaft

Turbocharging Principles

- Turbocharging compresses intake air before it enters the combustion chamber, providing a much higher manifold pressure than on a nonturbocharged engine. This higher manifold pressure allows you to climb higher and attain higher true airspeeds. You can often climb above adverse weather - A high performance airplane's power is typically measured by the amount of air pressure in the intake manifold. This pressure is referred to as the manifold absolute pressure (MAP)

Magnetic Compass Errors

- Turbulence can cause inaccuracies must have a backup gyro instrument to use - Variation= difference between true north and magnetic north (variation depends on place) - Compass Deviation= Is error due to magnetic interference with metal components in the aircraft, as well as magnetic fields from aircraft electrical equipment (compensating magnets can reduce but not eliminate error, the remaining error is on compass deviation card) - Magnetic Dip= compass errors UNOS and ANDS

Waypoints

- Two kinds of waypoints a. Flyover Waypoint= navigation indications will not provide guidance for a turn until you pass over the waypoint followed by intercept maneuver to the next waypoint b. Flyby Waypoint= the GPS anticipates the turn and provides guidance before so you don't fly through the course

Partial Power Loss

- Two options: 1. Continue flight with reduced power (not what i would do) 2. Declare an emergency and prepare for landing either at the nearest airport or in a field if the engine is getting worse

Localizer Approach

- Two situations where you would use a localizer approach : a. If you cannot or choose not to use the glide slope portion of the approach b. If the approach is specifically designed to be a localizer only approach

Descending From The Enroute Segment

- Two types of descent clearances you will encounter 1. ATC asks you to descend and maintain a certain altitude 2. ATC says to descend at pilots discretion which allows you to descend whenever you choose

Fuel Systems

- Two types of fuel systems are gravity fed and fuel pump system (high wing typically has gravity fed low wing has fuel pump) - Primer is used to pump fuel directly into the intake system prior to engine start - Fuel quantity gauges have a sensing unit in each tank but its important to check visually before each flight

Satellite Weather Pictures

- Two types of images are available from satellites which are visible and infrared - Visible pictures are used primarily to determine the presence of clouds as well as the cloud shape and texture. - IR photos depict the heat radiation emitted by the various cloud tops and the earth's surface

Satellite Weather Pictures

- Two types of images are available from weather satellites — visible and infrared (IR). a. Visible pictures are used primarily to determine the presence of clouds as well as the cloud shape and texture. b. IR photos depict the heat radiation emitted by the various cloud tops and the earth's surface

Weather Avoidance

- Two types of weather avoidance radars for controllers to assist pilots are a. Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR) b. Weather Radar Processor (WARP) - Controllers can provide vectors around weather if requested (can also deviate yourself) - Follow Airmets, Sigmets, Convective Sigmets, Pireps, CWA's

Icing

- Types of Icing: 1. Structural Icing= Over surface of aircraft 2. Instrument Icing= Occurs in crevasses of airplane that affects instrumentation 3. Induction Icing= Occurs in internal compartments of airplane (engine, carb ice)- To avoid turn on anti-ice or de-ice equipment

Oxygen Servicing

- Typical high-pressure oxygen cylinder is charged to a pressure of 1,800 to 1,850 pounds per square inch (psi) with a maximum pressure of approximately 2,200 psi - Dont leave it exposed to heat or direct sunlight because the air can expand and cause the pressure to go over

Intercepting A Bearing (ADF)

- Typically a 45 degree or 30 degree intercept is the good angle to use

UNICOM

- Universal Communications - For privately owned air/ground communication station that transmits on a limited number of frequencies

Complete The Nav Log

- Use 5 P's double check info etc.

Table Method

- Use a loading form to list the weights, arms, and moments of the useful load items carried in the airplane - After you determine the total weight and total moment of the airplane, you can refer to a moment limit versus weight table to determine if the airplane is loaded within allowable CG limits

Risk Management (skipped over ADM)

- Use the 5'ps and the PAVE checklist to asses risk in every flight situation

Determining Total Weight And Center Of Gravity (Computation Method)

- Use the computation table to add up all of the weight and the moments - Ig you're over weight at all you must leave something behind

Emergency Descent

- Used to achieve the fastest practical rate of vertical descent to reach a safe altitude or landing during an emergency situation. - You might need to perform this maneuver due to an uncontrollable fire, a sudden loss of cabin pressurization, or any other situation demanding an immediate and rapid loss of altitude. - Your objective is to descend as quickly as possible without exceeding the airspeed limitations of the airplane - Follow the POH's recommendations

Airport Beacon

- Used to guide pilots to lighted airports. Airport beacons might be of the older rotating type, or the newer flashing variety, which produces the same effect - Only used at night or during the day if the weather is less than 1000ft ceilings and 3 statute miles visibility

Katabatic Winds

- Used to refer to downwind flows that are stronger than mountain breezes

ADF Operational Considerations

- Uses a low to medium frequency band to identify the ADF - Be sure to positively identity and also keep in mind that lighting, precipitation etc. can cause disturbances in the signal

Electric Gear Systems

- Uses an electric motor that is mechanically connected to the landing gear and the motor is reversible so you can both raise and lower the gear - If the system has mechanical gear doors then they open and close during the gear cycle - Main purpose of landing gears are to support the plane during landings

Missed Approach Procedures

- Usually due to low visibility conditions - A missed approach segment may designate a straight climb, climbing turn or a climb to a specified altitude followed by a turn to a certain fix, nav-aid, or navigation fix

Clean Air Turbulence

- Usually more of a high altitude phenomenon (Greater than 15,000 feet) but it can occur at any altitude - can take place with no visiual warning and if often found near jet streams

Visual Glide Slope Indicator (VASI)

- VASI (visual approach slope indicator) can be either two bar or three bar - PVASI (pulsating visual approach slope indicator)

Gyroscopic Instrument Failure

- VFR just land normally - If in IFR conditions switch to an alternate display or go to partial panel flying and notify ATC immediately - The earlier you can detect the problem the better

VHF Communication Equipment

- VHF= Very High Frequency - Has stations between 118.00-135.975 - Communication equipment requires both a communicator and receiver which are called transceivers

Checking VOR Accuracy

- VOR Checkpoints= Either on the ground or in the air you can take the airplane to a specific point at the airport center the needle and compare with the published radial for that checkpoint - VOT= VOR Test Facility (can find on chart supplement) - +/-4 degrees on the ground - +/-6 degrees in the air

Ground Equipment

- VOR= Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range - VOR reception is strictly line of sight - Basic VOR provides only course guidance but VOR/DME and VORTAC facilities provide distance measuring equipment - A VORTAC is a collocated VOR and military navigational aid called a TACAN. Civil aviation uses the portion of the TACAN system that provides distance information - VOR stations transmit radio beams, or radials, outward in every direction, similar to spokes on a wheel

VASI

- Visual Glide Slope Indicator - The two-bar VASI shows whether or not you are on a glide path that will take you safely to the touchdown zone of the runway

Visual Glide Slope

- Visual glideslope indicators are light systems that indicate your position in relation to the desired glide path to the runway

Intercepting a Radial

- Visualize your current position and where you want to go - Scan instruments and start making the turn on radial based on CDI deflection and rate of movement

Projections

- Ways to map earth on a flat surface without it becoming distorted

High Altitude Weather

- Weather between the 24,000 feet and 50,000 feet (the height of the tropopause Jet Stream= Is a narrow band of high speed winds that reaches its greatest speed near the tropopause. Typical jet stream speeds range between 60 knots and about 240 knots. Jet streams normally are several thousand miles long, several hundred miles wide, and a few miles thick

Weight and Load Factor

- Weight is the only one of the four forces that does not depend on the flight path and always acts towards the center of the earth - Weight can change slowly over time due to fuel burn - The load factor is defined as the load the wings are supporting divided by the total weight of the airplane - Some planes such as fighters designed to handle more G's other planes such as airliners tend to be able to handle fewer

Controlled Flight Into Terrain

- When a pilot has no prior knowledge before they strije the ground, obstacle object etc. - Terrain awareness and warning systems (TAWS) have helped with this problem TAWS equipment not only displays color-coded terrain data on a moving map but provides aural warnings and alert annunciations if the aircraft is close to terrain

Warm Downslope Winds

- When a warm air mass moves across a mountain range at high levels, it often forms a trough of low pressure on the downwind, or lee, side which causes a downslope wind to develop - Can cause a rapid increase in speed when going down the mountain slope

ATC Holding Instructions

- When controllers anticipate a delay at a clearance limit or fix, you will usually be issued a holding clearance at least five minutes before your ETA at the clearance limit or fix - The controller will issue a holding clearance which includes the name of the fix, directs you to hold as published, and includes an expect further clearance (EFC) time. - An example of such a clearance is: "Cessna 1124R, hold east of MIKEY Intersection as published, expect further clearance at 1521

Instrument Checks

- When first turning master switch on be sure to check for ref flags on both the turning coordinator and attitude indicator (also make sure the gyros sound normal) - Check during taxiing that the ball on the turning coordinator movies on the outside of the turn

RAIM Failure During An Approach

- When preforming a GPS approach with Non-WAAS GPS equipment the receiver preforms a RAIM prediction at least two prior miles to the final approach fix to ensure RAIM capability - Should go from armed to approach mode - If a RAIM error pops up either switch the navigation equipment or proceed tot he missed approach point

Unusual Attitude Recovery

- When recovering from an unusual attitude without the attitude indicator, use the turn coordinator to stop a turn, and the pitot-static instruments to stop an unintended climb or descent - Nose high= add power nose down - Nose low= reduce power nose up

NOTAMS

- Provide time-critical flight planning information regarding a facility, service, procedure, or hazard. Used when flight information is not known far enough in advance for publication aeronautical charts or chart supplements - Examples include temporary flight restrictions (TFRs), primary runway closures, new obstructions, communication frequency changes, changes in the status of navaids or airspace, radar service availability, and other information essential to pilot decision making - Two Primary NOTAMS: 1. NOTAM D- Information is disseminated for all navigational facilities that are part of the U.S. airspace system, and all public use airports, seaplane bases, and heliports listed in the Chart Supplements 2. FDC NOTAM- "issued by the National Flight Data Center, contain regulatory information, such as TFRs or amendments to aeronautical charts

Sequencing

- Provides a safe and orderly flow of arriving aircraft into the traffic pattern - 78 Juliet Romeo, follow the Cessna turning final, do you have that traffic in sight?

MULTICOM

- Provides an air-to-air communication frequency for pilots to announce their position and intentions to other aircraft in the area (122.9)

Flight Service

- Provides live telephone briefers, a pilot Internet portal, and a recorded telephone information briefing service. - Primary source of preflight information for all pilots

Flight Service Station

- Provides live telephone briefers, a pilot Internet portal, and a recorded telephone information briefing service. - Primary source of preflight information for all pilots

Hurricane Advisory (WH)

- Provides the location of the storm center, its expected movement, and the maximum winds in and near the storm center

Q Routes

- Q-routes facilitate high-altitude. long-range direct flights and closely-spaced Q-routes can accommodate increased operations within congested airspace areas, such as the east and west coasts of the U.S.

Navigating With GPS

- RNAV equipment computes the aircraft position, actual track, and groundspeed, and then displays distance and time estimates relative to the selected course or waypoint - Many of these GPS units are considered flight management systems (FMS). An FMS is a computer system containing a database that enables programming of routes, approaches, and departures that can supply navigation data to the flight director/autopilot from various sources - EFB can be a good use as well

Use of ATC for Radar Approaches

- Radar vectors to the final approach course provide a method of intercepting and proceeding inbound on the published instrument approach procedure - Should not turn inbound on the approach course until you're cleared for the approach if you may pass through it let the controller know - Minimum Vectoring Altitude= altitude to help you clear obstacles and terrain and not pictured on the approach charts and below MEA, MOCA, etc.

Radar Charts And Images

- Radars help to display the echo of clouds and cells - Depending on the type of product, this radar data is used to depict the location, size, shape, and intensity of precipitation, as well as the direction of cell movement - Radar only depicts precipitation in liquid or frozen form so intense fog wont show up on the radar

Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear

- Regulations only require you to carry flotation gear and a signaling device during certain overwater commercial operations. - However, it is highly recommended that you include several other basic survival items in the event of an emergency - A survival kit should be able to provide you with sustenance, shelter, medical care and a means to summon help without a great deal of effort or improvisation on your part

V-g Diagram

- Relates velocity to load factor - Flying within the boundaries depicted by the diagram minimizes the risk of stalls, spins, and structural damage

Pitot Static (System Operation)

- Rely on air pressure differences to measure speed and altitude. Pitot pressure, also called impact, ram, or dynamic pressure, is connected only to the airspeed indicator, but static pressure, or ambient pressure, is connected to all three instruments

Compass Turns

- Remember the compass errors ANDS and UNOS - Use timed turns to get on accurate headings

Communication

- Remote Communication Outlets (RCO's) - ARTCC - ATIS

Radar Weather Reports

- Report not only defines areas of precipitation, but also provides information on the type, intensity, and location of the echo top of the precipitation. In addition, these reports normally include movement (direction and speed) of cells

Simultaneous Converging Instrument Approach

- Requires that the approaches have missed approach points at least three miles apart and missed approach procedures that do not overlap - Depending on whether or not the runways intersect. Although you fly the converging approach as you would any other similar approach, converging approaches all terminate with a straight-in landing

Determining Your Progress

- Requires two VOR's to track route (have one VOR on one side of your route, the second VOR tuned into the other side of your route) - Can also use other navigation fixes with second VOR to identify position

CFIT Awareness

- Research causes of CFIT awareness - Avoid complacency - Avoid behavioral traps (pressure to complete a flight, flying beneath VFR or IFR minimums etc.)

Control Tower

- Responsible for the safe, orderly, and expeditious flow of all traffic that is landing, taking off, operating on and in the vicinity of an airport, and when the responsibility has been delegated, towers can also provide for the separation of IFR aircraft in terminal areas - Before you takeoff and are waiting for the release the tower is talking to approach control to get adequate spacing

Vision In Flight

- Retina= Contains many photosensitive cells called cones and rods, which are connected to the optic nerve. The pattern of light that strikes the cones and rods is transmitted as electrical impulses by the optic nerve to the brain where these signals are interpreted as an image - Cones= concentrated in the center of the retina and are sensitive to color and bright lights - Rods= located outside the fovea the rods are 10,000 times more sensitive to light than cones used for night time vision

First 4 Pages of Commercial Syllabus

- Review PPL knowledge on airports, signs, pilotage, cross country flight procedures, etc.

Night Vision

- Rods= located outside the fovea the rods are 10,000 times more sensitive to light than cones used for night time vision - With rods don't look directly at object look slightly off (use continuous scanning) - Night vision can take up to 30 minutes to form (use red light to avoid losing night vision)

Right of Way Rules

- Rules used to help pilots avoid conflicting traffic situations. - Aircraft in distress always get the right of way - Aircraft approaching head on both aircraft turn right - Hierarchy to follow for right of way rules

Fitness For Flight

- Run through IMSAFE checklist

Reporting Turbulence

- When reporting turbulence you go by frequency and intensity - frequency= occasional, intermediate, continuous - intensity= light= slight erratic changes in altitude or attitude light chop= slight rapid bumpiness without changes in altitude or attitude moderate= change in altitude or attitude but positive rate of control at all times moderate chop= rapid bumps ro jumps without appreciable chnages in altitude or attitude severe= large abrupt changes in airspeed and altitude aircraft momentarily out of control extreme= aircraft uncontrollable structural damage

Airspeed Indicator (How it Works)

- displays the speed of your airplane by comparing ram air pressure with static air pressure the faster the aircraft moves through the air, the greater the pressure differential measured by this instrument

Composition of the Atmosphere

78% nitrogen 21% oxygen 1% other

Runway End Identifier Lights

> REIL > Pair of synchronized flashing lights located laterally on each side of the runway threshold

Cockpit Traffic Displays

A CDTI can be a dedicated screen or traffic can be included on a multi-function display (MFD) in an integrated cockpit or on a GPS moving map (still important to incorporate visual scanning techniques)

Moving Map

A GPS moving map provides a pictorial view of the present position of the aircraft, the programmed route, the surrounding airspace, and topographical features

Bar Symbol

A bar symbol crossing an airway at an intersection indicates a change in MEA. This symbol can also be used to indicate a change in MAA or to show a change in the MOCA when an MEA is not published for the route

Stationary Front

A boundary between air masses that don't move possibly causing rain for several days

Front

A boundary between two air masses (the two masses typically have different temperature and moisture characteristics)

Fog

A cloud at ground level.

Inertial Navigation System (INS)

A computer-based navigation system that tracks the movement of an aircraft via signals produced by onboard accelerometers. The initial location of the aircraft is entered into the computer, and all subsequent movement of the aircraft is sensed and used to keep the position updated. An INS does not require any inputs from outside signals.

Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)

A differential global positioning system (DGPS) that improves the accuracy of the system by determining position error from the GPS satellites, then transmitting the error, or corrective factors, to the airborne GPS receiver.

Airspeed Indicator

A differential pressure gauge that measures the dynamic pressure of the air through which the aircraft is flying. Displays the craft's airspeed, typically in knots, to the pilot.

Primary Flight Display (PFD)

A display that provides increased situational awareness to the pilot by replacing the traditional six instruments used for instrument flight with an easy-to-scan display that provides the horizon, airspeed, altitude, vertical speed, trend, trim, and rate of turn among other key relevant indications.

Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)

A flight navigation instrument that combines the heading indicator with a CDI, in order to provide the pilot with better situational awareness of location with respect to the course line.

Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)

A flight navigation instrument that combines the heading indicator with a CDI, in order to provide the pilot with better situational awareness of location with respect to the course-line.

Lazy Eights

1. Clearing turn 2. Mixture rich 3. Pitch pitch bank 4. 45 degree point should have 15 degree bank in 5. That point increasing bank by 90 degree point have 30 degree bank in and slicing that horizon in 6. By 90 degree point start to slice that horizon 7. By 135 degree point you should press the nose down and should be at the lowest point8. From 135 to 180 degree point slowly bring out bank and pitch and draw level at 180 degrees - Whatever altitude you gain you have to lose on the next turn ACS- Be at +/- 100 feet of original altitude - Be at +/- 10 knots of original airspeed - Heading at the 180 degree point +/- 10 degrees

Precipitation Causes

1. Condensation deposition method= ice crystals continue to grow until the cloud can no longer support them 2. Coalescence= initial cloud water droplets are of different sizes the bigger ones fall faster capturing the smaller ones on the way First tow aren't the most common 3. Clouds extend to supercooled water droplets which can exist below freezing

Thunderstorm Stages

1. Cumulus- Lots of updraft, no moisture usually 2. Mature- Starting to see lighting (up and down drafts, precipitation) 3. Dissipating- Storm done building, nature begins to break down (winds start to break it down)- Recommended to stay at least 40NM away from thunderstorm

Emergency Gear Extension

- emergency landing gear system is available in the airplane. The most common kinds you will see are the 1. hand crank= The crank is employed to turn the gears that operate the actuators manually instead of through the electric motor 2. hydraulic hand pump= to extend the gear when the primary pump fails. You supply the necessary hydraulic fluid pressure to the actuator cylinders by pumping a hand pump 3. free fall= method of gear extension used on airplanes that have hydraulic gear systems. A control lever is used to open a valve that releases the system pressure. Hydraulic pressure equalizes on both sides of the gear actuators and allows the landing gear to fall into position through the force of gravity and aerodynamic loads 4. carbon dioxide (CO2) pressurized systems= compressed gas is used to apply the pressure to extend the gear if the hydraulic part of a gear system fails - designed for emergency gear extension not retraction

Left Turning Tendencies

1. P-Factor (in incline, downward blade experiences higher airspeed, meaning downward moving blade generates more thrust) 2. Gyroscopic Procession (when nose rotates downward) 3. Corkscrewing slipstream/propwash striking right side of vertical stabilizer/rudder 4. Torque reaction- think of newtons third law with the propellor

Forecast Winds and Temperature Aloft

- found on www.aviationweather.gov - Can select the altitude, time frame for your forecast (6, 12, 24) - The system draws wind direction arrows that depict the direction at each station

Abbreviated IFR Departure Clearance

- helps to decrease radio congestion and ATC workload - When you hear the term "cleared as filed" it means to fly the IFR route from your flight plan - When ATC wants to change the flight plan they will issue a new full clearance

Magnometer

- magnetometer used in integrated avionics displays senses the earth's magnetic field to function as a magnetic compass, but without some of the errors associated with a conventional compass. - magnetometer uses a flux valve or flux gate, which is an electronic means of sensing magnetic lines of force.

Door Opening in Flight

- maintain control of the aircraft and get to a safe altitude if your taking off once you level off try and close it and if you cant return for landing

Course Reversals

- maximum speed in a course reversal is 200 knots - depicted either as a procedure turn, holding pattern or teardrop procedure - NO PT means no course reversal

Risk Management (5 P's)

1. Pilot 2. Passengers 3. Plane 4. Programming 5. Plan

Mountain Wave Turbulence

1. Strong Winds blowing perpendicular to a mountain range 2. Form standing waves 3. Turbulence can be in clouds or clear air 4. Clouds best way to determine if turbulence present

High Lift Devices

1. Trailing Edge Flaps 2. Fowler Flaps 3. Slats 4. Leading Edge Flaps

Short Field Landing

- possibly fly wider than normal traffic pattern (not mandatory but recommended) - Try to go for longer downwind and approach) - land with full flaps - remember pitch for airspeed power for altitude - You'll to need to have a slightly steeper approach on final - Once obstacle is clear pull power to idle (recommended for lighter airplanes) - Be sure to flair over 500 foot markers so you'll touch down at around the 1000 foot markers - Once you touch touchdown to maximum aerodynamic braking and pull elevator all the way back and solid rudder braking until you get safe taxi speed to exit runway - Must pick out for landing point to the instructor

Cold Weather Operations

- remove frost, ice, or snow from the airplane - preheat the airplane if possible - follow the POH cold starting procedures

Preform A Flight Overview

- steps in planning the flight (checking the charts, looking at weather - After flight is feasible plan out the route with E6B

Load Factor

- the ratio of the load supported by the airplane's wings to the actual weight of the aircraft and its contents - has to do with G Forces

Climb Performance Charts

- two types of climb performance charts: 1. maximum rate of climb chart= takes your V(y) speed and gives you the best rate you can climb 2. time, fuel, and distance to climb chart= depicts the time, fuel, and distance required to climb from one altitude to another based on temperature, airplane weight, and the altitudes concerned

Risk Management

- using strategies to reduce the amount of risk (the degree of likelihood that a person will become ill upon exposure to a toxin or pathogen). - use the 5 p's checklist

Frontal Turbulence

1. caused by warm air lifted by cold front 2. most severe in fast moving fronts (no turbulence in warm front - no lifting) - Updrafts can reach 1000ft per minute

Touchdown Zone Lighting (TDZL)

1. starting at 100ft from the threshold ~ 3,000ft ( or midpoint) 2. consist of two rows of transverse light bars on either side of runway

Chart Symbology (legend)

- your tool for deciphering symbols and decoding aeronautical chart information. Divided into seven categories, the legend describes symbology for airports, airport data, radio aids to navigation and communication boxes, airport traffic service and airspace information, obstructions, topographic information, and miscellaneous data

Requirements

-17 years of age - able to write, understand, and be profficent in english - at least 3rd class medical certificate - pass written flight exam - Meet and log all aeronautical flight experience - have all required endorsements - Pass practical flight exam

Holding Pattern (Parallel)

-After crossing the holding fix, turn the airplane to a heading that parallels the inbound course and begin timing for one minute - Then begin a turn to re-intercept the inbound course and proceeding to the holding fix

Convective Outlook Chart

-Display foretasted risk of severe thunderstorm activity -Updated 5 times a day, foretasted for day 1,2, or 3 -Green=general risk, yellow= light risk, orange, moderate risk, red is high risk of sever thunderstorm

Automated Weather Sensor System (AWSS)

-Is a newer system with the same capabilities as ASOS, but is operated by the FAA rather than the NWS

Convective SIGMETS

-Issued as required -Moderate to severe thunderstorms covering 40% of the area -Thunderstorm lines at least 60 miles long -Embedded thunderstorms -Tornadoes -Hail over 3/4'' -Surface winds greater than 50 kts

Surface Analysis Chart

-Observed, AGL -Metar shown over a map, fronts, high/low pressure -Very cluttered -Updated every 3 hours, 8 times a day

Minimum Enroute Altitude (MEA)

-Provides obstacle clearance of 1,000' (2,000' in mountainous terrain), and adequate navigation signal coverage along a victor airway. - Note that an MEA change to a higher altitude after crossing a fix presumes a climb beginning at crossing, and maintaining a minimum climb gradient of 120'/n.m.

Radar

A ground-based synchronized radio transmitter and receiver emits and detects radio waves using a rotating antenna. When the radio waves strike your airplane, some of the waves reflect back to the antenna it is used in addition with ADSB

Holding Patterns

A method of delaying airborne aircraft to help maintain separation and provide a smooth flow of traffic. When the volume of traffic becomes overwhelming, or in the event of a radar failure, the need for holding patterns increases

Instrument Departure Procedures

A preplanned IFR procedure published in a graphic or textual format to provide obstruction clearance from the terminal area to the enroute structure

Terminal Arrival Area (TAA)

A procedure to provide a new transition method for arriving aircraft equipped with FMS and/or GPS navigational equipment. The TAA contains a "T" structure that normally provides a NoPT for aircraft using the approach.

Constant Speed Propellor

A propeller that is designed to automatically change its blade pitch to allow it to maintain a constant RPM, irrespective of the amount of engine torque being produced or the airspeed or altitude at which the aircraft is flying

Maximum Authorized Altitude (MAA)

A published altitude representing the maximum usable altitude or flight level for an airspace structure or route segment. - Has MAA in front of it

Sectional Chart

Aeronautical chart showing topographical features that are important to aviators, such as terrain elevations, ground features identifiable from altitude and ground features useful to pilots. Also shows information on airspace classes, ground-based navigation aids, radio frequencies, longitude and latitude, navigation waypoints, and navigation routes. - Updated every 6 months

Runway Markings

Aim Point Marking Touchdown zone marking Side stripe Threshold Marking

Air Route Surveillance Radar (ARSR)

Air route traffic control center (ARTCC) radar used primarily to detect and display an aircraft's position while en route between terminal areas. (used for IFR traffic)

RNAV Routes

Airway in USA that can be navigated using GPS, or other RNAV navigation equipment. Low altitude RNAV routes are designated with a 'T', while high altitude RNAV routes are designated with a 'Q'.

Airspace

Already covered this

Other Airspace Areas

Already covered this

Electrical System

Alternator- helps to charge the battery and provide a charge to the busbar which distributes charges to other electrical system Battery- Main purpose is to start the engine can be used as a back up for radios and emergencies in case of an alternator failure Ammeter= shows if the alternator is providing an adequate charge to the battery Master Switch- controls the entire electrical system, except for the ignition system which is independent of the main electrical system (cant start the engine unless its on because the masters switch powers the starter) Circuit Breakers- Helps to protect various components from overloads (pop out once can pop back in, if it happens again leave it be)

Airport Security

Always comply with security procedures and if you see any suspicious activities report it to the authorities

Airmass

An airmass is a large body of air with fairly uniform temperature and moisture content. It usually forms where air remains stationary or nearly stationary for at least several days - Takes on the properties of the underlying surface - Air Mass going over a warmer surface causes air to rise, makes instability and thunderstorms etc. - Air Mass going over a colder surafce causes air to come down causes greater stability and fog low hanging clouds etc.

Controlled Airport

An airport with an operating control tower

Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS)

An augmented GPS instrument approach system which provides guidance equivalent to an ILS. GBAS uses local corrections and is more accurate than WAAS. However it is only used within a small range of the airport

Runway Incursion Avoidance

Any occurrence at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle or person on the protected area of a surface designated for the landing and takeoff of aircraft

Airfoils

Any surface, such as a wing, that provides aerodynamic force when it interacts with a moving stream of air. - Explain Bernoulli's principle

Ground Effect

As an airplane nears the ground, the flow over the wing cannot be deflected as far downward as it can in flight away from the ground. The result is that the lift is increased and the induced drag is decreased. (with less induced drag less lift is required for flight)

Wind Shear

A sudden, drastic shift in wind speed and/or direction that may occur at any altitude in a vertical or horizontal plane

Selecting A Departure Method

Ask yourself if - Does an ODP exist? - Does it go along my route? - Can I depart VFR? - Any obstacles to stay aware of?

Phonetic Alphabet

Assigns a world for each letter of the alphabet to help prevent confusion on whats being said

Terms Describing The Loaded Airplane

A. Ramp Weight= term used to describe the airplane loaded for flight prior to engine start B. Takeoff Weight=This is the weight of the airplane just before you release the brakes to begin the takeoff roll C. Landing Weight= the takeoff weight minus the fuel burned en-route D. Useful Load= you must subtract the basic empty weight from ramp weight or takeoff weight respectively E. Payload= the term used for the weight of only the passengers, baggage, and cargo F. Maximum Ramp Weight= which is the maximum allowed for ground operations, such as taxiing G. Maximum Takeoff Weight= The difference allows for the weight of fuel used in engine start, taxiing to the runway, and run-up checks H. Maximum Landing Weight= determined by the manufacturer and is based on the amount of stress the aircraft's structure can withstand during landing I. Usable Fuel= The fuel available during your flight

Weight And Balance Terms

A. Reference Datum= This is an imaginary vertical plane from which all horizontal distances are measured for balance purposes B. Basic Empty Weight= Includes the weight of the standard airplane, optional equipment, unusable fuel, and full operating fluids including full engine oil C. Unusable Fuel= Is the small amount of fuel in the tanks that cannot be safely used in flight or drained on the ground D. Licensed Empty Weight= Similar to basic empty weight except that it does not include full engine oil. Instead, it only counts the weight of undrainable oil. You can obtain basic empty weight by simply adding the weight of the oil to the licensed empty weight E.

ASOS

Automated Surface Observing System -Gov't and privately contracted facility that provides continuous up to date weather info Play a major role in gathering of surface observations - Primary surface weather observing system in the US

ADF Navigation (come back)

Automatic direction finder (ADF) navigation is an older form of radio navigation that uses signals from ground stations, called non-directional beacons (NDBs). ADF navigation is not widely used today due to GPS and VOR

METAR

Aviation routine weather report (METAR): two types - routine (every hour) and selected special weather report (SPECI) given at any time to update METAR for rapidly changing weather conditions, aircraft mishaps, or other critical info.

Visual Scanning

Best technique is to take short regularly spaced intervals at the sky to allow time for your eyes to focus

Elements of an IFR Clearance

C= Clearance limit R= Route A= Altitude F= Departure Frequency T= Transponder

Category and Class

Category= Airplane, rotorcraft, lighter than airClass= Airplane multi engine land (AMEL), Airplane Single Engine Land (ASEL), AirplaneSingle Engine Sea (ASES)Type= C-172, Boeing 747 (typically reserved for larger aircraft)

Runway Centerline System

Centerline lights are white from the threshold until the last 3,000 feet of the runway. From the 3,000-foot point to the 1,000-foot point, alternating red and white lights appear, with the last 1,000 feet of lights changing to red only. This system helps instrument pilots determine the amount of runway remaining in very low visibility situations

Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT)

Collision with terrain or water with no prior awareness by the pilot that the crash is imminent Usually happens to pilots who have lost communication, unfamiliar environment, un-standard procedures To avoid plan your flight, use current charts and procedures, monitor terrain awareness, determine aircraft performance

Step Down Fixes

Commonly used along approach segments to enable you to descend to a lower altitude after you overfly obstacles, or in conjunction with the design of local ATC procedures

Supercharger

Compresses the incoming air using a pump driven by the engine. Although effective some engine power must be used to drive the supercharger reducing the net power increase

Airport Symbols

Control Tower Airport- Blue Non-Controlled Tower- Magenta H= helipad etc.

Airspace Classifications (controlled vs uncontrolled)

Controlled Airspace: A general term that covers five of the six classes of airspace; Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E. While operating in controlled airspace, you are subject to certain operating rules, as well as pilot qualification and aircraft equipment requirements. Uncontrolled Airspace: Class G is considered uncontrolled - Primary reason for controlled airspace designation has to do with VFR and IFR separation

Automation Management

Determines whether your equipment provides a benefit or a distraction. If you over-rely on the avionics, you might be tempted to operate outside your personal or the environmental limits believing the equipment will compensate for any shortcomings you might have in flying instrument procedures. You must still maintain proficiency in hand-flying maneuvers and procedures to meet the requirements of the PTS

Temperature-Dewpoint Spread

Difference between the air temperature and the dewpoint

Random RNAV Routes

Direct routes, based on area navigation capability, between waypoints defined in terms of latitude/longitude coordinates, degree-distance fixes, or offsets from established routes/airways at a specified distance and direction.

Control and Performance Method

Divides the instruments into three groups: control, performance, and navigation. The control and performance method is based on the idea that if you accurately establish a specific attitude and power setting using the control instruments, the airplane will perform as expected. - The performance instruments indicate how the airplane responds to changes in attitude and power. - The navigation instruments indicate the position of the airplane relative to a facility or fix

Obstacle Departure Procedure

Done for obstacles only and can be done without ATC clearance

Descending Flight

During a descent the weight increases and airspeed increases if the power was unchanged and if the aircraft stabilizes then then the 4 forces go back to equilibrium

File The Flight Plan

Either on the phone or through fore-flight

Airport Data

Elevation, runway length, AWOS, etc.

Trend Forecast

Employs the assumption that weather systems that are moving in one direction and speed will continue to do so in the absence of any other intervening circumstances

Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) official guide to basic flight information and Air Traffic Control (ATC) procedures.

Propellor

Fixed pitch= cannot change the angle of attack Cruise Propellor= optimized for high speed cruise and high level flight Climb Propellor= provides the best performance for takeoff and climb Constant Speed= can vary the angle of attack of the blade

Upslope Fog

Fog formed as moist, stable air flows upward over a topographic barrier

Special Use Airspace

M= MOA (Military Operating Area) - Used to separate IFR traffic from military training traffic - No clearance required C= Controlled Firing Area - Not shown on sectional and will generally stop firing if they see you (their shells couldn't reach you anyway) - Activities could be harmful to nonparticipating aircraft P= Prohibited Area (Can never be flown through for any reason) - Ex the white house R= Restricted Area (can fly through but recommended you don't)=possible dangerous military activity A= Alert Area (can fly through but be aware its a busy airspace) W= Warning Area (uncontrolled airspace found off coast 3 miles)= possible hazardous activity like air to air intercepts and naval exercises N= NSA (National Security Area)= recommended you don't fly through for national security reasons and shouldn't fly through under specific altitude

Special Use Airspace

MC PRAWN - Military Operations - Controlled Firing - Prohibited - Restricted - Alert - Warning - National Security

Airport Signs

Mandatory signs Runway distance remaining taxiway location sign

Spins

May be defined as an aggravated stall, which results in the airplane descending in a helical, or corkscrew, path.

Yellow X

Means that the runway is undergoing maintenance or has been abandoned not safe for landing

Task Management

Means you are not fixating on one task to the exclusion of others. Planning and prioritizing are critical to managing the tasks associated with performing instrument procedures

Special VFR

Must request a special VFR from atc, which gives you 1 mile visibility and clear of clouds.

Pilotage

Navigation by visual reference to landmarks.

False Horizon illusion

Occurs when the aviator confuses cloud formations with the horizon or the ground. This illusion occurs when an aviator subconsciously chooses the only reference point available for orientation

Abnormal Combustion

Occurs when the flame does NOT spread evenly and smoothly through the combustion chamber. Two types of abnormal operation are: 1. Detonation- an uncontrolled, explosive ignition of the fuel air mixture within the cylinders combustion chamber. Causes excessive temperature and pressure which can lead to the failure of the piston 2. Preignition- Occurs when the fuel air mixture is ignited in advance of the normal timed ignition. caused by a residual hot spot in the cylinder, such as a small carbon deposit on the cylinder - Both may happen at the same time so if you suspect this problem lower the engine temperatures by reducing throttle, enriching mixture, and lowering the AOA

Spatial Disorientation

Occurs when there is a conflict between the signals relayed by your central vision and information provided by your peripheral vision. Spatial disorientation is more likely when you are in IFR conditions, as your peripheral vision has practically none of the references needed to establish orientation

Low Level Turbulence

Often defined as turbulence below 15,000 feet MSL, most low-level turbulence originates due to surface heating or friction within a few thousand feet of the ground

Dew

On cool, still nights, surface features and objects may cool to a temperature below the dewpoint of the surrounding air. Water vapor then condenses out of the air in the form of dew

Other Ice Control Systems

Other ice protection systems include heating of the pitot tube and static port openings, fuel vents, and stall warning sensors. These systems typically contain electric heating elements - Be sure to do a thorough preflight of the ice control systems and avoid ice environments whenever possible

Pressure Demand

Oxygen is supplied to the mask under pressure at cabin altitudes above 34,000' MSL

Spin Recovery

PARE Model P= Power Off A= Ailerons Neutral R= Rudder Opposite E= Elevator Full forward or Neutral (depends on type)

Situational Awareness

Perception of the surrounding environment, and the ability to anticipate future events.

ILS Approach With a Course Reversal

Some Airports with ILS approaches don't have vectors and you have to preform a reversal

Flight (Pre-departure, climb and initial cruise, enroute, diversion, descent, before approach and landing, postflight)

Plan out flight well and have good situation management

Preflight Weather Sources

Preflight weather sources include Flight Service, the Direct User Access Terminal System, the NOAA/NWS Aviation Weather Center, and a variety of commercial vendors

Lateral Stability

Stability about the airplane's longitudinal axis; rolling tendency. (imagine a pole going through one wing through the cockpit to the other wing)

Directional Stability

Stability about the airplane's vertical axis; yawing tendency.

Directional Stability/ Vertical Stability

Stability about the airplane's vertical axis; yawing tendency. (imagine a pole going straight through the cockpit

Types of Briefings

Standard Abbreviated Outlook Inflight

PFD

Primary Flight Display that displays your traditional steam gauge 6 pack

Constant Rate Descents

Primary is VSI and airspeed indicator Supporting is monitoring pitch instruments until they are stable

Constant Airspeed Descents

Primary is attitude indicator and airspeed indicator Supporting is airspeed indicator, altimeter and vsi

ATC Facilites

Procedure for typical flight: - Contact clearance and get flight flowing or pick up IFR flight plan - Contact ground to get taxi clearance - After taxiing you'll be asked to short short of runway (can also request progressive taxi if need be) - You give the control tower a call and tell them you're holding short and waiting for takeoff - After takeoff contact departure and give them your altitude you're currently at and altitude you're climbing to (they will say radar contact once they have identified you on their radar surveillance system) - Once you're within proximity of the airport - Listen to the ATIS and contact approach control while still outside of Class B or C airspace - Follow all instructions in a time critical manner and if you don't feel comfortable with the instructions tell ATC unable

Advisory Circulars

Provide non-regulatory guidance and information in a variety of subject areas. ACs also explain methods for complying with the FARs. Unless incorporated into a regulation by reference, the contents of an AC are not binding

Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR)

Provides a standard way to funnel traffic from the enroute phase to the terminal phase of flight. Uses the same symbolism as low-enroute charts. Note that in order to fly the MEAs listed on a STAR, the aircraft must be given a "descend via" clearance. - Essentially like a reverse SID and the procedure ends at an approach fix

Winds and Temperatures Aloft (FB)

Provides an estimate of wind direction in relation to true north, wind speed in knots, and the temperature in degrees Celsius for selected altitudes. Depending on the station elevation, winds and temperatures are usually forecast for nine levels between 3,000 and 39,000 feet

Flight Management System (FMS)

Provides pilot and crew with highly accurate and automatic long-range navigation capability, blending available inputs from long- and short-range sensors.

Radar Service for VFR Aircraft

Provides safety alerts, traffic advisories, limited vectoring, and sequencing for VFR aircraft at certain locations also weather updates

Diluter Demand

Supplies oxygen only when the user inhales through the mask

The Ignition System

Supplies the spark that ignites the fuel air mixture in the cylinders (made up of magnetos, spark plugs, interconnecting wires, ignition switch)

Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM)

Systematic mental approach to consistently determine the best course of action in a given situation.

Tri-Color VASI

Red-below Amber-Above Green-on flight path

Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM)

Reduces the vertical separation between flight levels (FL) 290 and 410 from 2,000 feet to 1,000 feet, and makes six additional FLs available for operation. Also see DRVSM.

Parachute Jump Operations

Represents actual parachute jumping operations found on the sectional

Drag

Resistance of the air (technically a fluid) against the forward movement of an airplane.

Standard Holding Pattern

Right hand turns Timing inbound 0 - 14,000' 1 minute 14,001' - above 1 ½ minutes

ARTCC Traffic Separation

Separates IFR traffic from VFR aircraft and provides advisories to VFR aircraft on a workload-permitting basis. The elimination of traffic conflicts begins when you file your IFR flight plan

Flight Service

Service provided to pilot for weather planning, NOTAMS, 1-800 WXBrief, file a flight plan by phone

Data Link Weather

Services are often included with GPS and EFB cockpit or tablet display systems. The weather information displayed using a data link is near real-time but should not be thought of as instantaneous, up-to-date information

Hand signals

Signals used by line men to coordinate planes

Automation Management

Skill determines whether the equipment provides a benefit or a distraction. In addition, if you rely too heavily on your advanced avionics, you might be tempted to operate outside your personal limitations, and you might spend too much time "head down" instead of looking outside the airplane. It is critical that you maintain proficiency in hand-flying the airplane to the airman certification standards

Weight

The force of gravity that acts through the center of the airplane toward the center of the earth. The weight of the airplane is not a constant. It varies with the equipment installed, passengers, cargo, and fuel load.

Landing Minimums

For an RNAV Approach you must select the proper mode whether LNAV or VNAV and if your GPS has WAAS capability that will play a big factor as well

Frost

Forms when water vapor changes directly to ice on a surface that is below freezing

Components of Airplane (Fuselage, Wing, Empennage, Trim Devices, Landing Gear, The Power Plant, POH, Airworthiness Requirements)

Fuselage- houses the cabin and cockpit (controls, passengers, cargo) Wings- can have high, middle, or low position (ailerons on the outside, flaps on the inside) Empennage- the tail which contains the vertical, horizontal stabilizer, and elevator Trim Tab- located on back of the elevator help with pressure free flight Landing Gear- different variations tricycle nose landing gear, tail wheel (oleo nose gear strut, side steel struts) Powerplant- includes both engine and propellor, engine helps to turn propellor and firewall protects passenger from the engine POH- allows pilots to find particular infomration about certain models of planes etc. Airworthiness Requirements- the aircraft meets its design and manufacturing standards

Obtain A Weather Briefing

Good Questions to ask: "Any adverse conditions on your route. - A synopsis of the weather systems or air masses that affect the flight. - Current weather conditions, including PIREPs. - Departure, enroute and destination forecasts. - Winds aloft forecast for the time period you are flying. - NOTAMs

Radar Summary Chart

Graphically-depicted collection of radar weather reports. Displays areas of precipitation and information regarding the characteristics of the precipitation.

Military Training Routes

Grey lines 3-digit = above 1500' AGL 4-digit = below 1500' AGL VR= VFR IR= IFR

Airspeed Limitations

Have both maximum gear extended speeds (the maximum speed at which you can fly the airplane with the landing gear extended) maximum landing gear operating speeds (is the highest speed at which you may operate the landing gear through its cycle)

Instrument Interpretation

Help your scan. If you understand the limitations of an instrument, you know what other instruments to cross check to get the complete picture - example turning uses attitude indicator, turning coordinator, and heading indicator

Respiration

Inhalation of oxygen and exhalation of carbon dioxide.

Air Mass

Is a large body of air with fairly uniform temperature and moisture content. It may be several hundred miles across and usually forms where air remains stationary, or nearly so, for at least several days

Vertical Speed Indicator

Is found on the altimeter and and has a black tape that goes up and down to show differences in altitude

Notice to Airmen (NOTAM)

Issued when there's aeronautical information that could affect a pilot's decision to make a flight. It includes such information as airport or aerodrome primary runway closures, taxiways, ramps, obstructions, communications, airspace, and changes in the status of navigational aids, to name a few. Time-critical and either of a temporary nature or not sufficiently known in advance to permit publication on aeronautical charts or in other operational publications.

PAPI

It has two or four lights installed in a single row instead of far and near bars

Situational Awareness

Knowledge and understanding of your surroundings and situation and the risk they potentially pose to your safety or the safety of the EMS team.

ILS Localizer

Localizer symbols are used to show ILS, LDA, and SDF facilities. Ones that are back course will be labeled

LLWAS

Low-Level Wind Shear System. Measures differences in wind speed/velocity between sensors on the field. Its considered wind-shear if it's more than 15 knots difference

Relative Humidity

The percentage of water vapor in the air compared to the maximum amount of water vapor that air can contain at a particular temperature

Change Over Point

The point at which an aircraft navigating on an ATS route segment defined by reference to very high frequency omnidirectional radio ranges is expected to transfer its primary navigational reference from the facility behind the aircraft to the next facility ahead of the aircraft.

Lapse Rate

The rate at which temperature decreases with an increase in altitude. (average is 2 degrees celsius per thousand feet)

Safety Switches

The safety switch, sometimes referred to as a squat switch, is usually installed on one of the main gear struts and locks the gear in place so you don't accidentally pull it while you're on the ground

Thunderstorms

Three conditions needed to create a thunderstorm - Unstable atmoshere - Lifting action - relatively high moisture content - three stages of a thunderstorm are cumulus, mature and disipating stage - Single, cell, multi cell, squall line, embedded thunderstorms - Can encounter lighting, hail, tornadoes, turbulence - Stay at least 20 miles away (fly on the upwind)

Alert Severe Weather Watch (AWW)

To alert forecasters and weather briefers that a severe weather watch bulletin is being issued, a preliminary message called an ___ is sent; numbered sequentially beginning with the first of January each year

Wake Turbulence

Turbulent air behind an aircraft caused by any of the following: (a) wing-tip vortices; (b) rotor-tip vortices; (c) jet-engine thrust stream or jet blast; (d) rotor downwash; (e) prop wash.

Mechanical Turbulence

Turbulent eddy motions caused by obstructions, such as trees, buildings, mountains, and so on.

Automation Management

Typically applies to an airplane with an advanced avionics system that includes digital displays, GPS equipment, a moving map, and an integrated autopilot

Medical Certificate

Under 40: - Class 1= 12 months with privileges: PIC, ATP - Class 2= 12 months with privileges: Commercial Pilot, SIC, ATP - Class 3= 60 Calendar months with privileges RL, PPL, CFI Over 40: - Class 1= 6 months with privileges: PIC, ATP- Class 2= 12 months with privileges: Commercial Pilot, SIC, ATP - Class 3= 24 Calendar months with privileges: RL, PPL, CFI - If 1st class expires then you go down to a 3rd class (Have 48 remaining months with actual medical)- Same with 2nd

Class B Airspace

Up to 10,000ft - 30 NM radius, Mode C Veil, and the blue rings tailored for class B airspace (Mode C veil means you must have transponder) - Visibility Requirements= 3 SM and clear of clouds (coc)- Equipment Requirements= Mode C Transponder and Two Way Radio - Requirement= Private Pilots License, or student pilot with proper endorsement Entry= ATC Clearance that you're "clear inside the bravo" must be said with your tail number

PAPI

Uses lights similar to VASI, but the lights are installed in a single row of two- or four-light units. PAPI normally is located on the left side of the runway

Pilot Nav Sid

Usually contains an initial set of instructions that apply to all aircraft, and might also show one or more transition routes to navigate to the appropriate fix within the en-route structure (has both a textual and graphical format)

Airborne Equipment

VOR: - Cone of Confusion - Tracking= When tracking, you maintain the selected course by keeping the CDI centered

Navigation Aids

VORS, Flight Service, NDB's

Airport Lighting

Very similar from one airport to the next

Vestibular Disorientation

Vestibular system, located in your inner ear, consists of the vestibule and three semicircular canals. The utricle and saccule organs within the vestibule are responsible for the perception of gravity and linear acceleration

AIRMET

WA- AIRMET= Issued every 6 hours (mostly tailored toward lighter aircraft - Shows meterological weather conditions including moderate icing, moderate turbulence, winds of 30 knots or greater and IFR conditions, extensive mountain obscuration - Can be found on fore-flight and aviationweather.gov - 3 types of AIRMETS: 1. Sierra: IFR Conditions and MTN. obscuration 2. Tanga: Turbulence 3. Zulu: Icing/Freezing

AIRMETS and SIGMETS

WA- AIRMET= Issued every 6 hours (mostly tailored toward lighter aircraft - Shows meterological weather conditions including moderate icing, moderate turbulence, winds of 30 knots or greater and IFR conditions, extensive mountain obscuration - can be found on fore-flight and aviationweather.gov - 3 types of AIRMETS: 1. Sierra: IFR Conditions and MTN. obscuration 2. Tanga: Turbulence 3. Zulu: Icing/Freezing

SIGMET

WS- Issued whenever they're needed - Shows severe meterological weather conditions including icing, severe or extreme turbulence, clear air turbulence dust storms, volcanic ash that reduces visibility to less than 3SM, volcanic eruption - Not connected to thunderstorms - Always ask your FSS Wx briefer if any in flight Wx advisories are forecast or exist for your route of flight - Sigments presents hazards to all aircraft

Convective SIGMET

WST - Affects anybody - issued when surface winds greater than 50 knots in thunderstorm - hail greater than 3/4 of an inch - tornadoes - used to warn pilots of embedded thunderstorms and a line of thunderstorms - squall line thunderstorms - Thunderstorms greater than or equal to VIP level 4 affecting 40% or more of an area of at least 3000 sq. miles

Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF)

Weather report established for the five statute mile radius around an airport and usually provided for larger airports. Valid for up to a 30-hour time period and updated four times a day.

Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS)

Weather reporting system that consists of various sensors, a processor, a computer-generated voice subsystem, and a transmitter to broadcast weather data on a minute-by-minute basis.

Stall

When the critical angle of attack is exceeded on the wing (power on, power off, accelerated, cross controlled)

NTSB 830 (come back)

accident(s); incident(s)

Collision Avoidance

actions taken to avoid mid-air collision. exterior lights, radio transmissions, air traffic control services, and pilot ability to SEE other aircraft

Drag

acts opposite the direction of flight, opposes the forward-acting component of thrust, and limits the forward speed of the airplane (maybe come back and talk about types of drag)

Class G Airspace (uncontrolled)

already covered

VFR terminal area charts

are helpful when flying in or near Class B airspace

Hold Lines

are stripes across Taxiway intersections to Runways. ( S T O P - D o NOT Proceed Without CLEARANCE )

Adiabatic Cooling and Heating

as air rises it expands due to less pressure and therefore less density. As it expands it cools. When cool air sinks pressure is increased and therefore density, sinking air is being heated.

Perform Preflight Tasks

asses plane and airworthiness

Taxiway Lights

blue lights installed at taxiway edges

Standard Instrument Departure Procedure

can help to reduce pilot workload, expedite flow, etc. also provides obstacle clearance - Can determine climb rate mathmatically by taking the (ground speed/60)Xclimb gradient

Steam Fog

condensation of water vapor that results when cool dry air moves over warm water

Radiation Fog

created when air near the surface cools by heat loss (radiation) at night

Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)

describes landing and then holding short of an intersecting runway, taxiway, or predetermined point

Blastpad/Stopway Marking

different from the area preceding a displaced threshold because it cannot be used for landing, takeoff, or taxiing. The pavement strength can support the weight of an airplane in an emergency, but might not be strong enough for continuous operations

Pilot Controlled Lighting

is a system that can be activated by keying the aircraft microphone on a specified radio frequency Timer normally provides approximately 15minutes of illumination Key Mic 7 times max, 5 times med, 3 times low intensity lighting

Taxiing in Wind

proper use of aileron and elevator controls will help maintain control of the airplane QUARTERING HEADWIND -Windward aileron UP,Elev Neutral QUARTERING TAILWIND - Windward aileron Down+Elevator DOWN

Stall Recognition and Recovery

stall recognition: a. stall warning light or horn b. reed type horn in the wing c. buffeting or shaking of the entire airframe d. controls feel mushy e. noise of air over the wing spreads away stall recovery: a. lower the noise b. add power

Wake Turbulence

stay at or above flight path, land beyond the jet touchdown point, take off past jet rotation point, greatest vortex strength on climb out when jet is slow, clean, and heavy.

Numerical Weather Prediction

technique used to forecast weather using numerical models designed to represent atmospheric processes (uses loads of computer and complex software to predict the weather)

TFR's

temporary flight restrictions which temporarily restricts certain aircraft from entering the airspace in order to protect people on the ground.- Done during mass gatherings or sporting events or high government officials- Must get permission to fly VFR through beforehand

Ramp Area

the area where aircraft are parked and tied down

Thrust

the forward-acting force that opposes drag and propels the airplane. In most general aviation airplanes, this force is provided when the engine turns the propeller.

Dewpoint

the temperature at which the water vapour in the air becomes saturated and condensation begins (it reaches the saturation point )

Layers Of The Atmosphere

troposphere- surface to 36,000ft stratosphere- 36,000ft-160,000ft similar composition of troposphere mesosphere- have little influence over the weather thermosphere- have little influence over the weather

Taxiway Markings

yellow markings on the links between runways

Advection Fog

a fog formed when warm, moist air is blown over a cool surface

Occluded Front

a front where a warm air mass is caught between two colder air masses and brings cool temperatures and large amounts of rain and snow (just say combination of both the warm front and the cold front)

Warm Front

a front where warm air moves over cold air and brings drizzly rain and then are followed by warm and clear weather

Cold Fronts

a rapidly moving cold air mass runs into a slowly moving warm air mass can cause cumulonimbus clouds

Microburst

a sudden, powerful, localized air current, especially a downdraft.

Turbocharger

a supercharger driven by a turbine powered by the engine's exhaust gases usually deemed more efficient than a straight supercharger

Standard Rate Turns

- Apply more pitch back pressure during turn - altimeter is primary for turn followed by attitude indicator and VSI - If airspeed is trying to be maintained watch the airspeed indicator followed by RPM gauge as supporting

Preparing For The Approach

- Approach Overview - Approach Briefing - Initial Approach Segment - Final Approach Segment - Missed Approach

Preparing For The Approach

- Approach Overview - Approach Briefing - Initial Approach Segment - Intermediate Approach Segment - Final Approach Segment - Missed Approach Segment

ARTCC

- Air Route Traffic Control Center - Are the facilities that provide flight following. The primary purpose of ARTCCs is to manage IFR traffic. However, depending on workload, these centers may also provide services to VFR pilots - Can also help if a pilot becomes lost or disorientated

The Cooling System

- Air and Oil help with cooling for the engine - Cowl Flaps help take hot engine air and let it exit the engine compartment outside

Engine Monitoring

- Aircraft with higher performance engines have cylinder head temperatures, and exhaust gas temperature gauges to help monitor engine performance - Older engines may only have one gauge on one cylinder to monitor the temperature (newer ones can show each cylinder)

Three Axels of Flight

- Airplanes moves in a 3 dimensional environment and moves along 3 axis (longitudinal, lateral, and vertical axis)

Interpreting Traffic Advisories

- Alert you to air traffic relevant to your flight, but you are still responsible for collision avoidance - Inform the controller that you are "looking for traffic," "negative contact" or "traffic in sight" as the case may be. - Maintain visual contact until the traffic is no longer a factor - Will tell you the position of the aircraft via a visual clock reference (4 O Clock)

Land and Hold Short Operations (LASHO)

- Allow planes to land at the same time on intersecting runways - Can find LASHO instructions in AFD - The pilot must accept the request if the pilot says unable ATC will come up with new plan

Clearance Delivery

- Allows you to a. receive IFR clearance b. receive an ATC clearance for VFR pilots in class B and C airports c. receive flight following for VFR pilot

Clearance Read-back

- Although you are not required to read it back most controllers expect it and its good to review

Accidents vs Incidents

- An aircraft accident is an occurrence in which any person on board suffers death or serious injury, or in which the aircraft receives substantial damage. - An incident is an occurrence other than an accident that affects the safety of operations - The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) is an independent Federal agency that is responsible for investigating every U.S. civil aviation accident and issuing safety recommendations aimed at preventing future accidents - These incidents tend to have a poor judgement chain as opposed to one single mistake

Tower Enroute Control Clearances

- An alternative IFR procedure that permits you to fly short, low altitude routes between terminal areas - Done for non-turbo jet airplanes flying below 10,000ft - Found in the chart supplement and jeppesen airway manual service - Can request TEC in the flight plan if you want them

Emergency Procedures

- An emergency can be a distress or an urgency - Distress as a condition of being threatened by serious or imminent danger and requiring immediate assistance, such as fire, mechanical failure, or structural failure. - Urgency situation the moment you become doubtful about your position, fuel endurance, weather, or any other condition that could adversely affect flight safety -If you become apprehensive about your safety for any reason, you should request assistance immediately. Do not wait until the situation has developed into a distress condition. - Use 121.5 from emergency situations (guarded by military and civil towers when you say "Mayday" or "Pan Pan" it requires immediate silence from others - Squawking 7700 lets ATC know you're experiencing an emergency

Disorientation

- An incorrect mental image of your position, attitude, or movement in relation to what is actually happening to your aircraft - Kinesthetic sense is the term used to describe an awareness of position obtained from the nerves in your skin, joints, and muscles. Using this sense is sometimes called "flying by the seat of your pants," and this is literally what you are doing. Kinesthetic sense is unreliable, however

Approach Overview

- An initial review of the chart for the expected approach procedure so you can form a general picture of the procedure and to determine if there are any factors that might affect your ability to perform the approach. Landing- minimums, terrain and obstacles, unique procedure features, and airport information are elements you should include in an approach overview

Range Information

- An outer maker marks the point where you intercept the glide slope

Importance Of Weight

- An overweight plane can result in longer takeoff run, higher takeoff speed, reduced angle and rate of climb, reduced cruising speed and can even cause structural damage - Aircraft manufactures do extensive testing to find the safe limits for aircraft loading

Center Weather Advisory

- An unscheduled weather advisory issued by an ARTCC to alert pilots of existing or anticipated adverse weather conditions within the next two hours

Constant Pressure Analysis Chart

- An upper air weather map that is referenced to a specific pressure level. The use of pressure levels is suitable for high-altitude weather analysis because pilots use pressure altitude rather than true altitude when operating above 18,000 feet MSL -

ADSB System

- System incorporates GPS, aircraft transmitters and receivers, and ground stations to provide pilots and ATC with specific data about the position and speed of aircraft - ADSB Out- signals travel line of sight from transmitting aircraft to ATC ground receivers and aircraft receivers." - ADSB In- ability to receive the signal and display traffic information in your aircraft

Briefing A Departure

- Take time before taking off to brief the departure thoroughly which help reduce workload during the flight also good to establish as a routine

Instrument Cross Check

- Technique of scanning the most important instruments (attitude indicator by far the most important) - The radial cross-check is a scan pattern during which you spend 80 to 90 percent of flight time looking at the attitude indicator and taking only quick glances at the other flight instruments (works great with a glass cockpit since all the instruments are on one screen) watch for the erros fixation omission and emphasis

TAF

- Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (town around airport)- Gives potential forecast for the future (main difference between TAFS and METARS) - Comes out every 6 hours (4 times a day) starting at 0000Z - Contains: station, time, date, winds, visibility, clouds, vertical visibility, expected changes - Valid from 24-30 hours depending on terminal

TRACON

- Terminal Radar Approach Control - Provides services in the terminal area of airports typically in Class B, C, or TRSA Airspace - Uses ADSB and radar equipment to provide services to VFR and IFR aircraft

Different Types of VOR

- Terminal VOR= Is normally located on an airport and is designed to be used within 25 NM and below 12,000 feet AGL - Low Altitude VOR= Reliably up to 40 NM from the station at altitudes between 1,000 and 18,000 feet AGL - High Altitude VOR= Offers a reception range of 40 NM up to 14,500 feet, and 100 NM between 14,500 feet and 18,000 feet. The HVOR's maximum range of 130 NM is available between 18,000 feet and FL450. Between FL450 and FL600, the reception range decreases to 100 NM

Time and Speed Table Table and Rate of Climb/Descent Table

- That indicates elapsed times to the MAP based on groundspeed - A separate Rate of Climb/Descent table contained in each Terminal Procedures Publication provides the recommended rate of descent to maintain a specific angle of descent

Universal Time Coordinator (UTC)

- The 24-hour clock eliminates the need for a.m. and p.m. designations because the 24 hours of the day are numbered consecutively. For instance, 9 a.m. becomes 0900 hours; 1 p.m. becomes 1300 hours, and so on. - Referred to as Zulu time in aviation, places the entire world on one time standard. When a time is expressed in UTC, or Zulu, it is the time at the 0° line of longitude, which passes through Greenwich, England

ASRS (Aviation Safety Reporting System)

- The ASRS program allows pilots to confidentially report safety issues, without fear of enforcement actions against them, so that other pilots can learn from their mistakes or become familiar with additional issues that can lead to an incident

Runway Information

- The Jeppesen airport chart shows runway and lighting data on the plan view as well as in the additional runway information section. Jeppesen and the FAA both provide information regarding runway incursion hotspots

Weather Radar Services

- The NWS operates a nationwide network of weather radar sites that provides real-time information for textual and graphic weather products -

Runway Conditions

- The POH bases the runway on a smooth flat surface with zero wind which is rarely accurate - Can either have a positive gradient (upslope) or a negative gradient (downslope) - Rough runway surfaces such as dirt will increase your takeoff roll (some POH's have different graphs for different surfaces) - For landing braking effectiveness can be a major concern especially for water and ice on the runway

Situational Awareness

- The accurate perception of all the operational and environmental factors that affect flight safety before, during, and after the flight. At any period of time, you should be able to accurately assess the current and future status of the flight

Aircraft Control

- The action that you take as a result of cross checking and interpreting the flight instruments. Based on the information you receive from the instruments, adjust the pitch, bank, and power to achieve a desired flight path - Trimmed aircraft helps too

Airport Sketch

- The airport sketch enhances situational awareness by providing runway and airport environment information including identifying approach and lighting systems. The airport sketch uses a coded symbol placed adjacent to the runway to indicate the type of lighting system

Humidity

- The amount of water vapor in the air

Attitude Indicator

- digital attitude indicator has blue and brown background also has bank indication and a slip/slip indicator

Induction System (Carburetor)

- When the air that is part of the fuel air mixture usually comes in through the air filter normally at the front of the airplane to the carburetor while the fuel comes from the wing and is also directed down to the carburetor - The Carburetor is where the fuel and the air are mixed together before entering the cylinder chamber. The fuel is kept in a fuel chamber waiting to be used while next to it is a venture where the air passes through - As the air passes through the venture it causes the velocity of the air to increase creating a low pressure system, at the bottom of the venture is a fuel discharge nozzle near the low pressure which draws fuel out from the air of the float chamber out to the nozzle and fixes it with the air Just passed the venture is a throttle valve which controls how much of the fuel air mixture is going to the cylinder chambers - Carb ice can occur in the venturi with temperatures as as high as 70 degrees 80 percent humidity, as high 100 degrees 50 percent humidity

Normal Starts

- When the engine is cool and the air is mild to warm use the normal start technique (the engine shouldn't need much priming) - Good idea to read the starting engine checklist before to flow through it quicker

Convection

- When the sun hits the earth it tends to produce more heat at the equator than the poles (due to the distance) - When air is heated the molecules expand causing the air to become less dense and lighter than the surrounding air - When air is cooled the molecules become more closely packed air becomes more dense and replaces the warmer air - Simplified example as if the earth was standing still

Navigation Data

- When you are navigating along your route, the desired track between your previous waypoint and the waypoint you are navigating to is the active leg all the guidance information is based on the active leg

Hydraulic Gear Systems

- When you move the gear switch to the retract position, hydraulic fluid, like that used in brake systems, is pressurized and directed into the gear-up line. The fluid flows through sequence valves and downlocks to the nose gear and main gear actuating cylinders - The pump that pressurizes the fluid in the system can be either engine driven or electrically powered

Turns

- When you roll the airplane into a bank, some of the lift of the wings is directed to the side, and it is this horizontal component of lift that causes the airplane to turn - Must increase the angle of attack to maintain altitude because you are giving up some lift in a turn

Factors Affecting Performance

- Wind and weight of the airplane

Landing Gear Operating Procedures

- You can prevent many potential gear system problems with a thorough preflight inspection of the landing gear - As a general rule in a single-engine airplane, retract the gear after you no longer have usable runway left on which to land after takeoff. On a long runway, if an engine failure occurs with runway remaining, having the gear already down reduces the risk of landing gear up and damaging the airplane - Better to bring landing gear up when there is no remaining runway for potential engine failure due to the increased performance - Be familiar with aircraft so you don't bring flaps up rather than landing gear - Be sure if the gear fails to come up the first thing you should check is the circuit breaker - For cold weather operations if ice gets on the landing gear cycle it through several times so theres no ice buildup also if the gear doesn't come up after takeoff come back land and have the equipment deiced

Weight and Balance Computations

- You can think of the moment as a torque or twisting force that is applied about a fulcrum. Moment is usually expressed in pound-inches - For weight and balance purposes, an arm is the horizontal distance in inches that an item is located away from the reference datum - Moment indexes. To simplify computations the actual moment value is divided by a standard reduction factor. For example, when the manufacturer uses a reduction factor of 1,000 in weight and balance tables and graphs, a moment of 130,000 pound-inches has a moment index of 130

Self Assessment

- You must ensure that you are current and prepared to act as pilot in command - Personal minimums and limitations on a risk management checklist to help determine if you are prepared for a particular flight

Missed Approach Segment

- You perform the missed approach segment to navigate from the missed approach point to a point where you can attempt another approach or continue to another airport - For precision approaches its called the decision altitude and for non-precision approaches its called the missed approach point

Profile View

- You review the profile view to orient yourself to the vertical flight path that you fly during the approach procedure. - The profile view shows the approach from the side and displays the flight path and facilities, as well as minimum altitudes in feet MSL - Contains missed approach instructions and position information such as directions and altitude

Chart Presentations

- You should only use the POH for the specific model of plane you intend to fly - In order to get as close to accurate as possible you must follow the conditions at the top of the chart - The charts require you use some amount of interpolation as the numbers wont be 100% accurate

Flying a VOR/DME Approach

- You track specific radials to and from VORs, use DME to identify fixes along the approach course, and, at times, fly a DME arc to intercept the final approach course

LNAV/VNAV

- approach procedure that provides both lateral navigation guidance (LNAV) and vertical navigation guidance (VNAV) - Can incorporate Baro-Vnav or WAAS certified equipment

Types Of Structural Icing

1. Clear Ice= Water droplets cools as it glides (hard to see) 2. RIME Ice= Droplets of water freeze on contact (interrupt flow of air and case rough snow) 3. Mixed Ice= Combination of both4. Frost= When the dew point is below freezing (when air freezes on plane the surface may be colder than the air creating frost) and disrupts airflow which can cause danger

Chandelles

1. Clearing turn 2. Mixture rich 3. Full throttle 4. 30 degree bank 5. Increasing back pressure 6. 90 degree point reducing bank and holding pitch 7. 180 degree point rolling wings level just above stall speed 8. Whatever altitude at level off that altitude Tip: Bank first then back pressure first 90 degrees constant bank changing pitch vice versa for next 90 degrees ACS- Maintain +/- 10 knots above stall speed

Radar Weather Reports

A textual product derived automatically from weather radar data without human intervention. The reports can be up to 80 minutes old, and they provide only a general idea of the location of precipitation, however, these reports can be a good resource in the absence of other radar information

Displaced Threshold

A threshold that is located at a point on the runway other than the designated beginning of the runway.

Minimum Safe Altitudes

ANYWHERE glide with undue hazard CONGESTED 1000' highest obstacle 2000' horizontal radius of the aircraft OTHER 500'

Uncontrolled Airport

ATC does not control VFR traffic. Although you are not required to have a two-way radio, most pilots use radios to transmit their intentions to other pilots. You also are responsible for determining the active runway and correctly entering and exiting the traffic pattern

Departure Restrictions

ATC may issue: - A release time which is the earliest time when you may depart - Hold for release which is when you may not depart until you receive a release time or you are given additional instructions - Clearance void= must be in the air by a certain time and let ATC know if not off 30 minutes after time void time - Ground communication outlet= provides a remotely controlled ground to ground communication facility that allows you to obtain an instrument clearance or close a VFR or IFR flight plan

Air Data Computer (ADC)

An aircraft computer that receives and processes pitot pressure, static pressure, and temperature to calculate very precise altitude, indicated airspeed, true airspeed, and air temperature.

Longitudinal Stability

An aircraft's initial tendency relative to its lateral axis after being disturbed, its designed quality to return to its trimmed angle of attack after being disrupted due to a wind gust or other factor.

Longitudinal Stability

An aircraft's initial tendency relative to its lateral axis after being disturbed, its designed quality to return to its trimmed angle of attack after being disrupted due to a wind gust or other factor. (imagine a pole going straight thorough the nose to the tail)

Automation Management

Applies to airplanes woth an advanced avionics systems, digital displays, gps equipment, moving map, integrated autopilot

Clouds

As air cools to its saturation point, condensation changes invisible water vapor into a visible state. Most commonly, this visible moisture takes the form of clouds or fog

Constant Airspeed Climbs

Establish - Primary is attitude indicator - Supporting is VSI, altimeter, and airspeed Maintain - Primary is airspeed indicator - Supporting is Attitude indicator, VSI, and altimeter

ADIZ

Established to facilitate identification of all aircraft entering domestic U.S. airspace from outside the country.

Vector SID

Identifies the procedure as a vector SID, meaning ATC provides ATC surveillance navigational guidance to filed or assigned route, or to a fix depicted on the applicable SID chart as a reference for navigation until ATC commences vectoring

Compulsory Reporting Points

In a non-radar environment, you are required to make a position report when you pass over this point

Types of Altitude

Indicated altitude: altitude actually displayed on the indicator True altitude: height of the aircraft above sea level (MSL) Absolute altitude: height above ground level (AGL) Pressure altitude: pre-calibrated altitude with a standard atmosphere setting of 29.92 inches of Hg.. Density altitude: is pressure altitude modified for a nonstandard temperature

Volcanic Ash

Sand-sized particles of igneous rock that form when a spray of liquid magma is blown from a volcanic vent by escaping gas.

Maximum Holding Speed

Sea Level - 6,000 = 200 knots 6,001 - 14,000 = 230 knots 14,001 - Above = 265 knots

Task Management

Task management helps ensure that required procedures are accomplished correctly and at the right time. As pilot in command, you must learn how to manage workload and sequence tasks to achieve this goal

Task Management

Task management involves planning and prioritizing tasks to avoid work overload, identifying and using resources to accomplish tasks, and managing distractions. When you are effectively managing tasks, you avoid fixating on one task to the exclusion of others and maintain positive control of the airplane

Flicker Vertigo

Technically NOT an illusion; may be created by helicopter rotors blades or airplane propellers interrupting direct sunlight at a rate of 4 to 20 cycles per second can cause convulsions, nausea, or unconsciousness

TRSA

Terminal Radar Service Area. Voluntary system that separates traffic to and from the primary airport. Provides radar services to Class D.

Victor Airways

The V in Victor airways stands for VHF, because these airways connect VOR, VORTAC, and VOR/DME stations

Mountain Breeze

The movement of air caused by cool air sinking and moving down the slope of a mountain.

Valley Breeze

The movement of air created by warm air rising and flowing up the slope of a mountain. (creates a breeze upward)

Minimum Reception Altitude (MRA)

The lowest altitude at which an intersection can be determined.

Facility Information

This provides you with the name, frequency, and identifier of navigation aids