John Arthos P155 Oral Communication

Inherency/Inherent Issues

Issues that an audience needs or wants to have answered when you make a claim for they are essential/unavoidable

Enthymeme

Leave out inference you want the audience to make - more powerful if they figure it out on their own

Agency

1. Situation, audience, speaker, "power" 2. Capacity, condition, or state of exerting power 3. Exercising one's own will

Possible and Probable

"An invitational speech operates in the boundaries of the possible and the probable"

Vicious relativism

"If everybody's point is valid, how will anybody ever know what is right?"

Claim

"To call or cry out to someone about something" 1. Form of a declarative sentence 2. Tightly focused - NO loaded language 3. Audience and constraint appropriate

"Situation" vs. Rhetorical Situation

"When something is the matter about something that matters." Almost like the situation is the question, and rhetoric is the answer

Speech Event/Eventfulness of speech

"kairos" - the right time; speech at the right time in the right manner is very effective

Strengths and weakness of argument from example

+ Vividness is good - Insufficient sample is bad

Counterpublics

1. "Not merely an alternative idiom, but one that in the other contexts would be regarded with hostility" 2. Exists if a state excludes another public

Constraints

1. "Resources of invention" 2. Must address a pubic controversy 3. Situation adds constraints as does audience with how you say the message 4. Meet requirements established by the situation 5. Obstacles that must be overcome in order to facilitate both the persuasive and practical effects desired by speaker

Analogy (Type of Inference)

1. A:B as C:D 2. Clarify an unfamiliar subject by comparing an unknown relationship with a known relationship

Condensation symbol

1. Able to stand for symbols we want - absorbs the meaning we put into it 2. Can bridge people of different views

Tests of Sign

1. Alternate explanation? 2. Can the sign be found without the thing it stands for? 3. Is the sign a part of a pattern or unusual cause

Structure of motives

1. Ethos - respect for speaker 2. Pathos - emotion 3. Logos - logic and reason - Motives include belief, value, feeling, emotion, habit, desire

Components of a good claim

1. Form of a declarative sentence 2. Tightly focused - NO loaded language 3. Audience and constraint appropriate

Proof

1. Like a mathematical or scientific proof 2. Not absolute or infallible - rather, revisable/flexible 3. Social matters of value/belief/judgment that require agreement between citizens

Topic

1. Public controversy topic 2. Phrase 3. Theme 4. NO bias

Tests of Cause

1. Sign rather then a cause? 2. Hidden cause? 3. Multiple causes? 4. Alternative cause? 5. Casual relation apparent?

Sign (Type of Inference)

1. Something you can see that leads to an inference 2. To predict something seen/known from something seen/known 3. Something that stands for something else

Particular vs. general

A particular instance that allows people to talk more about a general, more overlaying topic; one situation vs. big idea of entire country

Consensus

Agreement

Cause (Type of Inference)

Answers to why something happened

Exigence

Any outstanding aspect of our environment that makes us feel a combination of concern, uncertainty, and urgency

Public Sphere Model of Communication

Audience is actively shaping the meaning - context, interests, values, and differences change the message. Focus on the role of public speaking in a democratic society

Rightness-of-fit

Balance, measure, the sweet spot

Degrees of Support

Claim, Supporting Material, and Reasoning

Narrative (Type of Inference)

Comes into play when a speaker tells a story - a story is often more powerful then other ways of developing an idea

Audience

Consists only of those people who are capable of being influenced and creating change; have agency to rectify the exigence

Antithesis

Contrasting phrases to balance out a statement

Tropes

Creative turnings of words and phrases to achieve vividness

Dissensus

Disagreement

Social Intelligence

Distinctive human art of representation robots can't replace this some can manipulate it with the 7 temptations: deception, manipulation, seduction, propaganda, trickery etc

Degrees of adherence

Each audience member will relate to your argument in a different degree; bringing an audience closer to your side

Rhetorical proof

Established through interaction with speaker and audience; does not ensure that a conclusion is correct, but it offers support for a conclusion; JUSTIFIES a claim

Scopus theory

Everybody has a different view - to overcome, use: 1. Conditioning 2. Composite Audience 3. Finding stasis 4. Speaking to audience/occasion

Adaptation and rightness of fit

Extemp. is best for these things; allows adaption in the situation

Audience centered approach

Govern speech in accordance with audience; considers the needs of the audience both during and after preparation and delivery

Community

Group who is tied together through relationships from a common interest; trying to build a community through rhetoric

Salience

How strong emotion is towards something

Propaganda

Hypodermic needle model - insert ideas into our heads without thinking where they come from

Transmission Model

Linear; shows whether listeners receive a message BUT does not show how they understand/interpret the message; sender who transmits a message through a channel to a receiver

Syllogism

Major premise + minor premise = conclusion

Sophistry

Manipulation, deception, pandering; "trying to be everybody's everybody"

Polisyndeton

Many conjunctions to achieve an overwhelming effect

Inference

Mental leap from supporting material to claim

Exemplars

More then an example but less then a template

Composite audience

More then one type of issue in the audience's head

Schemas

Ordering of phrases and sentences in the composition of thought and emotion

Discursive Identity

Our social identities are grounded in our histories and are shaped by our ongoing responses to situations

Stasis

Point in argument where all various perspectives have been sorted, etc. and when everything is taken away, all that remains is the REAL CONTROVERSY; "Clarifying moment"

Eloquence

Power and beauty of language; make people listen

Criterion of the Reasonable

Proof is reasonable if it would be taken seriously by a broad and diverse group of listeners; standard is relative to the community

"the public"

Realm as a commons; "everyone's eyes" addresses and audience addresses common interests

Public Sphere or realm

Relationship of strangers struggling for the right balance of privileges and obligations for maintaining a free common space environmental/ecosystem -context=available language resources (doxa- popular opinions, sayings) - speech events constantly shape the context

Anaphora

Repeated words or phrases to stir an audience

Climax

Repetition of the elements arranged in order of increasing importance

Orientation

Represents how we stand in relationship to another thing

"Communication is constitutive"

Rhetoric is creating us - rhetoric is constitutive

Rhetoric as adaptation

Rhetoric is the adaptation of people to ideas and ideas to people

Loci Communes/Starting Points/Topoi

Shared places you establish the grounds of your argument

Invention

Shifting rhetoric; new words, new understandings

Contingency

Some unexpected obstacle, perplexity, or problem

Discourse community

Speaker and audience

Example (Type of Inference)

Specific instance used to illustrate a more general claim

Occasion

Specific setting shared by speaker and audience whose circumstances determine the genre, purpose, and standards of appropriateness of what is said

Testimony (Type of Inference)

Statement from another person, but this is unreliable

Society

Strangers with minimal amount of things in common

Habitus

Sum of character attributes and propensities inculcated through education; habits you create based on experiences you have

Practical judgment

The act of defining a particular person, object or event for the purposes of making a practical decision

Public Oral Communication

The power of speech "to achieve the common good with and for others in just institutions."

Conditioning

Use of pathos to PREP your audience for being more receptive to your appeals; helping audience see something from your view

Simile

Uses "like" or "as"

Copia

Varying expression in order to amplify an idea fully; developing a point beyond average

Rhetorical situation

When a situation demands speech/occurs when public contingencies generate concern

Heteronormative language

Words and phrases that assume that everyone's romantic partner is of the opposite sex

Entailments

You have to address certain issues; feeling of necessity or compulsion that arises out of the claim you make to an audience; "Questions that follow a claim"

Circulation

constant and unpredictable flow of messages among diverse speakers and audiences; defining feature of the contemporary public sphere

Convention

norms, traditions, habits, culture