John Arthos P155 Oral Communication
Inherency/Inherent Issues
Issues that an audience needs or wants to have answered when you make a claim for they are essential/unavoidable
Enthymeme
Leave out inference you want the audience to make - more powerful if they figure it out on their own
Agency
1. Situation, audience, speaker, "power" 2. Capacity, condition, or state of exerting power 3. Exercising one's own will
Possible and Probable
"An invitational speech operates in the boundaries of the possible and the probable"
Vicious relativism
"If everybody's point is valid, how will anybody ever know what is right?"
Claim
"To call or cry out to someone about something" 1. Form of a declarative sentence 2. Tightly focused - NO loaded language 3. Audience and constraint appropriate
"Situation" vs. Rhetorical Situation
"When something is the matter about something that matters." Almost like the situation is the question, and rhetoric is the answer
Speech Event/Eventfulness of speech
"kairos" - the right time; speech at the right time in the right manner is very effective
Strengths and weakness of argument from example
+ Vividness is good - Insufficient sample is bad
Counterpublics
1. "Not merely an alternative idiom, but one that in the other contexts would be regarded with hostility" 2. Exists if a state excludes another public
Constraints
1. "Resources of invention" 2. Must address a pubic controversy 3. Situation adds constraints as does audience with how you say the message 4. Meet requirements established by the situation 5. Obstacles that must be overcome in order to facilitate both the persuasive and practical effects desired by speaker
Analogy (Type of Inference)
1. A:B as C:D 2. Clarify an unfamiliar subject by comparing an unknown relationship with a known relationship
Condensation symbol
1. Able to stand for symbols we want - absorbs the meaning we put into it 2. Can bridge people of different views
Tests of Sign
1. Alternate explanation? 2. Can the sign be found without the thing it stands for? 3. Is the sign a part of a pattern or unusual cause
Structure of motives
1. Ethos - respect for speaker 2. Pathos - emotion 3. Logos - logic and reason - Motives include belief, value, feeling, emotion, habit, desire
Components of a good claim
1. Form of a declarative sentence 2. Tightly focused - NO loaded language 3. Audience and constraint appropriate
Proof
1. Like a mathematical or scientific proof 2. Not absolute or infallible - rather, revisable/flexible 3. Social matters of value/belief/judgment that require agreement between citizens
Topic
1. Public controversy topic 2. Phrase 3. Theme 4. NO bias
Tests of Cause
1. Sign rather then a cause? 2. Hidden cause? 3. Multiple causes? 4. Alternative cause? 5. Casual relation apparent?
Sign (Type of Inference)
1. Something you can see that leads to an inference 2. To predict something seen/known from something seen/known 3. Something that stands for something else
Particular vs. general
A particular instance that allows people to talk more about a general, more overlaying topic; one situation vs. big idea of entire country
Consensus
Agreement
Cause (Type of Inference)
Answers to why something happened
Exigence
Any outstanding aspect of our environment that makes us feel a combination of concern, uncertainty, and urgency
Public Sphere Model of Communication
Audience is actively shaping the meaning - context, interests, values, and differences change the message. Focus on the role of public speaking in a democratic society
Rightness-of-fit
Balance, measure, the sweet spot
Degrees of Support
Claim, Supporting Material, and Reasoning
Narrative (Type of Inference)
Comes into play when a speaker tells a story - a story is often more powerful then other ways of developing an idea
Audience
Consists only of those people who are capable of being influenced and creating change; have agency to rectify the exigence
Antithesis
Contrasting phrases to balance out a statement
Tropes
Creative turnings of words and phrases to achieve vividness
Dissensus
Disagreement
Social Intelligence
Distinctive human art of representation robots can't replace this some can manipulate it with the 7 temptations: deception, manipulation, seduction, propaganda, trickery etc
Degrees of adherence
Each audience member will relate to your argument in a different degree; bringing an audience closer to your side
Rhetorical proof
Established through interaction with speaker and audience; does not ensure that a conclusion is correct, but it offers support for a conclusion; JUSTIFIES a claim
Scopus theory
Everybody has a different view - to overcome, use: 1. Conditioning 2. Composite Audience 3. Finding stasis 4. Speaking to audience/occasion
Adaptation and rightness of fit
Extemp. is best for these things; allows adaption in the situation
Audience centered approach
Govern speech in accordance with audience; considers the needs of the audience both during and after preparation and delivery
Community
Group who is tied together through relationships from a common interest; trying to build a community through rhetoric
Salience
How strong emotion is towards something
Propaganda
Hypodermic needle model - insert ideas into our heads without thinking where they come from
Transmission Model
Linear; shows whether listeners receive a message BUT does not show how they understand/interpret the message; sender who transmits a message through a channel to a receiver
Syllogism
Major premise + minor premise = conclusion
Sophistry
Manipulation, deception, pandering; "trying to be everybody's everybody"
Polisyndeton
Many conjunctions to achieve an overwhelming effect
Inference
Mental leap from supporting material to claim
Exemplars
More then an example but less then a template
Composite audience
More then one type of issue in the audience's head
Schemas
Ordering of phrases and sentences in the composition of thought and emotion
Discursive Identity
Our social identities are grounded in our histories and are shaped by our ongoing responses to situations
Stasis
Point in argument where all various perspectives have been sorted, etc. and when everything is taken away, all that remains is the REAL CONTROVERSY; "Clarifying moment"
Eloquence
Power and beauty of language; make people listen
Criterion of the Reasonable
Proof is reasonable if it would be taken seriously by a broad and diverse group of listeners; standard is relative to the community
"the public"
Realm as a commons; "everyone's eyes" addresses and audience addresses common interests
Public Sphere or realm
Relationship of strangers struggling for the right balance of privileges and obligations for maintaining a free common space environmental/ecosystem -context=available language resources (doxa- popular opinions, sayings) - speech events constantly shape the context
Anaphora
Repeated words or phrases to stir an audience
Climax
Repetition of the elements arranged in order of increasing importance
Orientation
Represents how we stand in relationship to another thing
"Communication is constitutive"
Rhetoric is creating us - rhetoric is constitutive
Rhetoric as adaptation
Rhetoric is the adaptation of people to ideas and ideas to people
Loci Communes/Starting Points/Topoi
Shared places you establish the grounds of your argument
Invention
Shifting rhetoric; new words, new understandings
Contingency
Some unexpected obstacle, perplexity, or problem
Discourse community
Speaker and audience
Example (Type of Inference)
Specific instance used to illustrate a more general claim
Occasion
Specific setting shared by speaker and audience whose circumstances determine the genre, purpose, and standards of appropriateness of what is said
Testimony (Type of Inference)
Statement from another person, but this is unreliable
Society
Strangers with minimal amount of things in common
Habitus
Sum of character attributes and propensities inculcated through education; habits you create based on experiences you have
Practical judgment
The act of defining a particular person, object or event for the purposes of making a practical decision
Public Oral Communication
The power of speech "to achieve the common good with and for others in just institutions."
Conditioning
Use of pathos to PREP your audience for being more receptive to your appeals; helping audience see something from your view
Simile
Uses "like" or "as"
Copia
Varying expression in order to amplify an idea fully; developing a point beyond average
Rhetorical situation
When a situation demands speech/occurs when public contingencies generate concern
Heteronormative language
Words and phrases that assume that everyone's romantic partner is of the opposite sex
Entailments
You have to address certain issues; feeling of necessity or compulsion that arises out of the claim you make to an audience; "Questions that follow a claim"
Circulation
constant and unpredictable flow of messages among diverse speakers and audiences; defining feature of the contemporary public sphere
Convention
norms, traditions, habits, culture