Judaism Midterm 1 Terms

Essenes

*Sect - small, well-organized group that breaks away from a larger community in the belief that it alone embodies the ideals of that community "Sect" definition fits this group of people Special rules of admission, and often lived together in tightly organized communities bound together by the shared ownership of property and ritualized communal meals Believed in immortality of soul, but did not make same allowance for free will Common ownership of property that nullified difference between poor and rich Exclusion of wives, no slaves, daily prayer, etc....pg 79

Herod

-Descendant of Idumeans who had converted to Judaism under during the Hasmonean period -Went on to rule Judea from 37 BCE to 4 BCE Worked hard to have a good relationship with the Romans -Built Caesarea in honor of Augustus -The Romans in turn depended on Herod to keep the peace in Judea -He kept tight control over the priesthood and the Sanhedrin Best known for his rebuilding of the temple and his role in the story of Jesus -Ruthlessly suppressed rivals -He had many rivals, including the rest of the Hasmoneans -Herodians were able to rule for over a century, due to Roman support

Jubilees

A pseudographical text that is the retelling of the Pentateuch, but it does not have any signs of greek influence. -Originally written in Hebrew -Rejects any sort of foreign influence on jewish religious life -References jewish embrace of non jewish practices, and highlights these as wrong

Allegorical biblical interpretation

A reading technique borrowed from Greek scholars to find insights into the universe -The assumption that the Bible has two levels of meaning, the surface meaning and the implicit meaning which has coded symbols for abstract concepts.

Yohanan ben Zakkai

A sage who was one of the founding figures of rabbinic Judaism Lived in Jerusalem in the time of the Jewish Revolt but known for influence in Yavneh (coastal town) → becomes the first center of rabbinic learning and judicial authority after the Second Temple's destruction His story revolves around how he got from Jerusalem to Yavneh: escaped the rebels who trapped him and his disciples in Jerusalem. He escaped by hiding in a coffin that his disciples carried out of the city. Yohanan went to Vespasian (roman general), and predicted correctly that his general would become a ruler → he was correct so he was granted a wish → permission to move to Yavneh with his disciples Illustrates the challenge of reconstructing rabbinic history → interpreted so many times eventually becomes legend. Truth is hard to find

Admida

A sequence of nineteen petitionary prayers uttered while standing Literally translates as "standing"

Toledot Yeshu

A work that showcased anti-Christian polemical literature or parodied Christianity Jews developed own hatred towards Christians in medieval Christian culture due to anti-Jewish strain derogatory history of Jesus that inverts the Christian practice of using Jewish sources against the Jews by using the New Testament against Christians.

Conversos

After 1492 in Spain and 1497 in Portugal, many Jews were forced to convert to Christianity Conversos are Jews living under the guise of Christianity Ultimately converted to Christian society, but a large number continued to adhere to their Jewish identity and some Jewish practices secretly This maintained an entire subculture of clandestine Judaism First collective of Jews for whom "Jewishness" held an ethnic meaning rather than a religious meaning Jewish became a matter of choice rather than an accident of birth, created a new Jewish predicament.

Bar Kochba Revolt

After Diaspora Revolt, in 132 CE,another major Jewish uprising exploded in Judea Little literary evidence explaining the events that took place during his revolt → do not know the cause Provoked terrible backlash Leader of the revolt → Simon bar Kosiba (Bar Kochba) = "Son of a Star" Recognized as a messianic figure Rebels goal was maybe to initiate the messianic age (as well as assert their independence from Rome) Had position known as nasi → president, prince etc

Ptolemaic kingdom

Alexander's ptolemy secured this control over Egypt until the Romans conquered in 30 BCE. Ruled Judea until 200 BCE Refer to Seleucid kingdom for more info, very similar ideals.

Tanak/Tanakh

An acronym constructed from the first letters of Torah, Nevi'im = Prophets, and Ktuvim = the Writings

Masoretic Bible/Masoretes

Jewish Bible in use today named for the group of scribes, the Masoretes, who copied this particular version of the biblical text → not only copied the Bible, but also developed a variety of techniques to help Jews read it - developed vowel signs authoritative Hebrew text of the Tanakh for Rabbinic Judaism organizes the Canon into 3 sections → the Torah, the Prophets, and the Writings

Mattathias

Jewish priest and an important leader in the town of Modi'in. Antiochus demanded that he be the first to offer the sacrifice, but Mattathias openly defied them With his sons, started a kind of guerilla war against the Seleucids ensuing uprising Slightly involved in/took part in uprising of Maccabean revolt

theology of the dual Torah

One is a well-known written Torah, the Pentateuch. The other was not written down, it was given orally to Moses, who passed it down orally through a chain of transmission that continues with the Rabbis. Because it also comes from God, the oral Torah has equal authority to the written Torah. Oral Torah is more focused on how we should live our lives day to day.

New Christians

Recent Jewish converts Many never fully integrated into their new culture Conversos were still living among other conversos and doing business with each other Religious differences often divided families

the Talmud

Refers to Babylonian Talmud Rabbinic interpretation or discussion of Mishnah Collection of Mishnah and gemara using midrash as the method of interpretation

Palestine/Palestina

Region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River It is sometimes considered to include adjoining territories. The name was used by Ancient Greek writers, and was later used for the Roman province Syria Palaestina, the Byzantine Palaestina Prima and the Umayyad and Abbasid province of Jund Filastin. The region is also known as the Land of Israel, the Holy Land or Promised Land, and historically has been known as the Southern portion of wider regional designations such as the Levant, Canaan, Syria and as-Sham. Named Palestine to undermine Israel as a Jewish land.

Palestinian Talmud/Talmud of the Land of Israel/Jerusalem Talmud

Their communities developed its own interpretive response to the Mishnah in this Also known as the Jerusalem Talmud, completed by the fourth or early fifth century CE Earlier of the two talmuds Writen in Hebrew and a Galilean dialect of Aramaic Basic organization tied to Mishnah Tells about status of the Mishnah at this time period: it had become the focus of rabbinic activity

Passover, Shavuot, Sukkot

Three annual festivals that Jews assembled together at the Jerusalem Temple became pilgrimage holidays that required Jews to travel to Jerusalem to worship in the Temple (during the period of the Second Temple) Emulates the importance of the Temple to Jewish religion & traditions Shows importance of Priests, priesthood

Judah, the Maccabee

Took command of the kind of "guerilla war" that Mattathias started after he died From Judah's nickname, The Maccabee or The Hammer, that the Maccabees and the Maccabean Revolt get their name

Written Torah

Torah had been revealed to Moses in two forms...Written and Oral The Torah that is written - preserved in the Bible

Sura and Pumbedita

Two most important rabbinic academies in Babylonia that were headed by Geonim

Aggadah

Type of midrash Much looser category that encompasses stories, wisdom, and other nonlegal teachings Addresses nonlegal sections of the Torah like the stories of Genesis and seeks to draw nonlegal conclusions from its interpretation Halakha and aggadah use similar creativity and interpretive techniques to draw implications

Halakha

Type of midrash Study of law and custom Focuses on legal sections of the Torah or on sections from which one can derive legal conclusions Halakha and aggadah use similar creativity and interpretive techniques to draw implications

arenda system

Unique feature of Polish Jewish economy Leasing of large estates by Polish lords to Jews who, in return for paying rent to the nobleman, were granted the monopoly on a host of commodities and methods of raising revenue. Jewish lessees earned income from tax and toll collection and sales of grain, salt, and grain alcohols (one of the most important sources of income for at least one-third of Poland's Jews in the 18th century

Betteljuden/"beggar Jews"

Vast majority of Jews in the 18th century were in poverty, called beggar jews The sephardim and the ashkenazim were living in poverty, a reversal of their successes in the 17th century Jews become increasingly marginalized as international shipping become more prominent They had been very involved in commerce before this Jewish poverty was linked to criminality, giving Jews a bad reputation

Maccabean revolt

War between the Jews of Judea and Seleucids After Menelaus took over; political situation began to deteriorate. Jason and Menelaus (Jewish leaders=priests) fought, creating a disturbance which Antiochus took to be a revolt, and he tried to suppress → sparked the revolt Similar to a civil war than a rebellion against foreign rule, with the Maccabees initially targeting Jewish collaborators rather than the Seleucids themselves.

Rabbinic Judaism

What Judaism is called today Rabbis influenced Judaism dramatically Pirkei Avot or Chapters of the Fathers, found in the Mishnah, shows that Rabbinic Judaism comes from the Second Temple period. In Rabbinic Judaism, formed after the destruction of the second temple, Rabbis took the place of priests. Scholars took over, and their place in Jewish society was determined by intellectual merit and their studies and interpretations of the Torah, rather than on coming from a particular family line or performing rituals in the Temple. rabbinic literature justifies the role of rabbis in Jewish society by aligning it with the Temple and its priesthood, the king, and the prophet also casts the rabbi as their replacement

John the Baptist

a popular prophet executed by Herod in 28 or 29 CE, whom the Gospels associate with Jesus the Nazareth facilitated the baptism of Jesus baptism, developed out of earlier Jewish use of immersion as a form of purification

deicide

death of a God Christians blamed the Jews for deicide in their murder of Jesus

Ottoman Empire

greatest Islamic empire of the early modern period in the eastern Mediterranean Origins go back to around 1300 survived after World War I in this vast empire, many Spanish or Sephardi Jews found a new refuge many arrived in the major cities of this empire after expulsion from Spain in 1492 established new and thriving center of Jewish life under the protection of the Ottoman sultans

Ein-sof

in Kabbalah, is understood as God prior to his self-manifestation in the production of any spiritual Realm, probably derived from Ibn Gabirol's term, "the Endless One." Pools of divine energy infinite god evolving, not static

ghetto

in response to the growing influx of Jews into Venice, the authorities ordered in 1516 the strict confinement of the Jews to a part of the city called "Ghetto Nuovo" the term ghetto, a Venetian word meaning "foundry," came to denote segregated Jewish quarters established in other European cities in the 16th and 17th centuries

kavanah

intense concetration Hasidism emphasized mystical prayer as an efficacious way of connecting with God directly and taught that by praying with this such intense concentration one could attain a state of ecstatic joy Hasidic prayer was an extremely physical and raucous act, with overt gesticulations, swaying to and fro, hand clapping, foot stamping, singing and dancing

raison d'etat

interest of the state, balancing religious prejudice, popular resentment against Jews, and the fear of competition among the Christian "middle class"

Edict of Toleration

issued under the assumption that Jews were morally and aesthetically defective and required re-education fostering educational, occupational and linguistic changes tried to reform and "turn the Jews into worthy and virtuous citizens" created German-language Jewish schools to try to "educate" the Jews Policy that was designed to change Jewish culture

Apocrypha

texts of dubious origin and authority not always clear why some texts did not make it into the Bible while others did not some of the "biblical-like" works (as in Pseudepigrapha) are now part of certain Christian biblical canons - books like the Wisdom of Solomon that are part of what Catholics refer to as the Deuteroncanonical books → Protestants refer to these as the given name

Archaeology

the retrieval and interpretation of physical evidence generated by the activities of earlier humans. Used in corroboration with the written testimony to provide additional evidence in search

Pale of Settlement

the western border region of imperial Russia to which the state, beginning with Catherine the Great in 1791, tried to confine Jews by the end of the 19th century, it was home to more than 5 million Jews and covered 386,100 square miles the Pale was abolished with the February Revolution of 1917

cantonists

underage Jewish recruits taken from their families between 1827 and 1855, on average at the age of 14, for a preparatory period before their 25-year service in the Russian army 50,000 Jewish boys were forcibly recruited in this way

huppah

wedding ceremony took place under this wedding canopy

agunah

wife left behind by traveling husband if the husband failed to return home, but there was no evidence that he was dead, she was tied to him without any possibility of remarrying or of collecting the money guaranteed her in her marriage contract widespread practice among both Muslims and Jews that the husband would grant his wife a conditional divorce before setting out on a long-distance trip, freeing his wife from any obligation if he did not return within a specified period of time says this in the Cairo Genizah

tzaddik

Formulated by Ya'akov Yosef Means righteous man "emissaries of God" capable of "sustaining the entire world" Power to transform divine judgement into divine mercy Hasidic teaching Derives authority from what were believed to be his divine powers

Alexandria

Founded by Alexander the Great -Known for architectural excellence and its library -Many cities were organized in the same way as it, including Jerusalem -The spread of Greek city states spread Greek forms of education and literature(Homer, Plato, etc..)

Augustine

Founding father of Western Christianity Codified the dominant attitude towards the Jews - had an important role within Jewish society and had to be tolerated Jew served as witnesses to the truth of Christianity They testified to the antiquity of the biblical prophecy, which Christians needed as the foretelling of the coming of Jesus Served as foil for Christianity, punished for their rejection of Jesus

Polis

Greek style cities, whose citizens ran their own affairs -Difference between classical greek polis and Alexander's polis because Alexander and the people of Macedonia were thought to be barbaric, so the city states were not completely independent.

rebbe

Hasidic term referring to tzaddik tzaddki is sometimes referred to as the head or eyes of the body, with the Jewish people as the feet; only their unity represents cosmic completeness Hasidism open celebrates this codependency between rabbinic leadership and the masses Hasidic version of rabbi

Shekinah

Hassidic Judaism regards the Kabbalah, in which the Shekinah has special significance, as having scriptural authority.The word Matronit is also employed to represent this usage "the dwelling" The majestic presence or manifestation of God which has descended to "dwell" among men

Dead Sea Scrolls

Set of scrolls found near the Dead Sea written by a sect (Essenes). So importance because they include the earliest known copies of biblical texts that date from as early as the second century BCE. Many of the manuscripts are different from the Hebrew Bible as it is known today, preserving forms of books such as Samuel and Jeremiah at an earlier stage in their literary development. Provide before and after snapshots of the biblical text as it is developed.

tzitzit

Some Jewish man distinguished themselves by adding tzitzit, or fringes, to their mantles in fulfillment of another biblical command Jewish men and women wore basically the same thing as non-Jewish men and women, but they wore distinctive things to marked their distinct identity, such as tzitzit

first Jewish revolt against Rome

Started in Judea, and then spread to the rest of Palestine Josephus participated in this war Triggered by a conflict between the Jewish and Greek people in Caesaria There had been widespread religious, economic, and social grievances that had been taking root in Judean society since Pompey's invasion in 63 BCE, which led to support from every corner of Jewish society. Titus (Roman) achieved victory within the year

Hellenistic Age/Hellenistic

Started with the conquest of the Persian Empire by Alexander -Lasted until the Roman conquest of the Ancient Near East in the first century BCE -Dialect of greek, koine, became widely used -Greek-style cities were established in the Near East, these cities were recognized by their distinctively greek notion of citizenship.

Ashkenazi

"Ashkenaz" appears in three biblical books (Genesis, Chronicles, and Jeremiah) In middle ages, the term was applied to the Rhineland, and by early modern period, it included the Yiddish-speaking communities of western, central, and Eastern Europe Demographic and cultural epicenter of the term was moved to Poland and Lithuania from France and Germany by 16 and 17th century The term and Sephardi were applied to describe the different liturgic and religious-legal traditions that developed in Spain and the Middle East (and northern and eastern Europe) Ashkenazi tradition transmitted from Palestine through Italy to northern Europe

Prophets

"Elite" figures that were the messengers of God; High figures consulted in prophets when they want to discern the will of God and are never depicted in the Bible readings the laws of Moses Section in Jewish Bible that includes the historicla narratives of Joshua, Judges, 1-2 Samuel, and 1-2 Kings;

Vilna Gaon

"Eliyahu ben Shlomo Zalman" Sage of Vilna never held office, but was a revered figure earned a prodigious reputation as a man of deep piety & iconic among European Jews at 18, entered a period of "exile", during which he visited Jewish communities throughout Poland and Germany remembered for many achievements astounding memory could recite Torah by heart concentrated on halakhic or legalistic dimension of rabbinic literature also mastered literary component of the corpus in in the form of Midrash and Aggadah wrote many commentaries committed to solitary study somewhat of an innovation in Judaism placed emphasis on the individual and his capacity for movement led a revolution in the way that Jews studied shift from focus on codes of Jewish law → Talmud Hasidism - enemies considered it a Jewish heresy - sought its eradication seized and burned their texts issuance of a writ of excommunication (herem) against his Hasidic enemies

dhimmis

"Protected people" Jews and Christians were granted protection of life and religious freedom in exchange for a special poll tax (the jizya) Conditions defining the relationship between the Muslims and the Dhimmis were laid out in the Pact of Umar Occupied a clearly defined and legally secured, but inferior, position

Pharisees

"Separatist" Hasmoneans often aligned themselves with them because of popularity Hard to determine if they can be called a "sect" - maybe more of a political faction Larger group than Essenes and less marginal - not separating themselves from politics, but exerting significant influence over it Believed in immortality of soul Simplified lifestyle, supportive, deferential to their leaders

Zohar

"The Zohar in a work of sacred fantasy" → "the secret innerlife of God" Main book of Kabbalah. The foundational work in the literature of Jewish mystical thought known as Kabbalah.[1] It is a group of books including commentary on the mystical aspects of the Torah (the five books of Moses) and scriptural interpretations as well as material on mysticism, mythical cosmogony, and mystical psychology. The Zohar contains a discussion of the nature of God, the origin and structure of the universe, the nature of souls, redemption, the relationship of Ego to Darkness and "true self" to "The Light of God", and the relationship between the "universal energy" and man teaches that human beings can affect God for good and for bad they can create harmony or disharmony

Kiddush Ha-Shem

"glorifying of God's reputation" deaths remembered as acts of heroic martyrdom execution of Rabbi Akiba and nine other sages became legendary executed were thought to have bravely submitted to torture and death rather than betray their allegiance to God

kiddush ha-shem

"sanctification of God's name" the engravement of the image and ideal of martyrdom into the collective memory of Ashkenazi Jewry describes the acts of self-sacrifice, especially those that occurred during the First Crusade of 1096, seen as a glorification of God

Shulhan Arukh

"the set table" main Jewish legal code even today for Orthodox Jews written in Safed printed for the first time in Venice in 1565 soon gained wide acceptance and authority throughout the Sephardi Diaspora and beyond, the Asheknazi rabbis of Poland-Lithuania eventually became almost universally accepted digest of Jewish law at first very controversial

Joseph Karo

1488-1575 born in either Spain or Portugal made his way to Safed most well known for his compendium of Jewish law, the Shulhan Arukh (first printed in Venice 1565), which for Orthodox Jews, remains the main Jewish legal code even today one of many scholars attracted to 16th century Safed

Merneptah stele

A piece of stone (monument) written by Egyptian pharaoh, Merneptah, that lists the people who he conquered in a conquest (taking over more land); First written reference to Israel/first historical citing Proves at that time (1200 BCE), Israel existed Evidence outside of the bible.

Judeophobia

A "better" description, a fear of the Jews bc antisemitism falsely suggest continuity between ancient hostility towards the Jews. Another term for anti-Jewish attitude

Galut

A Hebrew term that translates as "exile"; Description that implies that Jews living outside the land are not at home, and that their residence abroad is a kind of punishment imposed on them against their will. This exile refers to the Babylonian exile; different to diaspora

Manetho

A Hellenized Egyptian priest that wrote a history of Egypt (anti-Jewish literature) His works consisted of anti-Exodus story that, while it never mentions Jews direction, clearly written to ridicule them Significance: Anti-Jewish resentment was real, portion of Egyptian/Greek/Roman population that resented the Jewish presence. Stirred a pot, within higher society (Egyptian King) that eventually sacrificed the relatively good relation between Egyptians and Jews → Led to an eventual uprising against them (violence)

Apocrypha

A collection of Jewish writings that the catholic church preserves in its canon. texts of dubious origin and authority not always clear why some texts did not make it into the Bible while others did not some of the "biblical-like" works (as in Pseudepigrapha) are now part of certain Christian biblical canons - books like the Wisdom of Solomon that are part of what Catholics refer to as the Deuteroncanonical books → Protestants refer to these as the "Apocrypha"

Cuneiform

A complex writing system developed in Mesopotamia → From this writing system, scholars were able to decipher and understand important texts that related to biblical literature People were reading biblical literature everywhere → The Hebrew Bible reflects the ancient Near Eastern setting in which its contents were composed

Jewish culture/Israelite culture

A culture (beliefs, practices, languages, texts, and patterns of social organization) that evolved through time from a few different influences i.e. Egyptian culture and Mesopotamian culture. It is not only a religion but now also signifies an identity

Kabbalah

A form of Jewish mysticism second area in which Nahmanides left his imprint did so in his seminal commentary of the Bible first to integrate the teaching of Kabbalah into his biblical commentary, which thus goes further than Rashi or Abraham ibn Ezra's earlier explorations literally means "tradition", something that has been "received" and refers to the mystical teachings that developed in Provence and Spain in the 12th and 13th centuries mysticism refers to a religious experience of communion with the divine, transforming the individual's consciousness and leading to the disclosure of "secret" part of Jewish tradition since antiquity

Masada

A fortress a top of a mountain Mass Suicide at Masada: remaining Jewish rebels (Sicarrii) committed mass suicide before the Romans could overtake their fortress and enslave them example of martyrdom: voluntary death Josephus' description of the Jewish Revolt in his account of the Roman siege of Masada is where the description came from

Tallit

A fringed mantle that Jews wore to distinguish themselves Is a part of the dress of religiously observant Jews today Worn under clothes throughout the day, and over clothes during prayer

Tannaim

A group of sages who were recorded in the Mishnah From Aramaic word "repeater", referring to one who studied the tradition

Masoretes

A group of scribes initially based in Tiberias that endeavored to preserve the Hebrew biblical text in what they regarded as its correct form and to insure its proper pronunciation and liturgical chanting in the synagogue Developed a complex system of vowel and punctuation signs added above and below the consonants of biblical text involving scores of signs and requiring extensive grammatical and interpretive analysis astonishing act of scholarship on a par with the production of the two Talmuds exerted a comparable level of intellectual effort for every single word in the Hebrew Bible Not clear they were rabbinic Jews

Hyksos

A group that was exiled from Egypt --> Line of Asiatic rulers, possibly the Canaan, who gained control over part of Egypt in 1800 BCE Native Egyptians rebelled against the this group and exiled them Seems to be different version of Exodus

Bible

A historic book derived from the Torah (Jewish bible) Central to Jewish culture after the Persian period. Jewish biblical canon; not single book but collection of texts deemed sacred and authoritative to Jewish community. Known as Masoretic Bible, named for group of scribes, Masoretes, who copied this version.

patriarch/nasi

A kind of national leadership based in Palestine that emerged in the 2nd or 3rd century CE Patriarch is nasi in Hebrew Claimed Davidic lineage, which elevated their status, they seem to have been wealthy and respected, and they had influence over Jews in Palestine and in the diaspora. Their status in the eyes of the Roman government are debated by scholars and their powers seems to have been limited, restricted to internal communal matters

Sanhedrin

A kind of supreme court or ruling council that played an important role in the religious and civic affairs in the city Famous for its role in the trial of Jesus

Aramaic

A language that become widespread in the Persian Empire. Portions of the Bible are written in it. This language altered Hebrew grammar and vocabulary and changed the way its alphabet was written. Significant because it shows Judahite integration into Persian empire.

Gilgamesh Epic

A narrative in Cuneiform that includes a flood story similar to that told in Genesis 6-9 Showed the important role of the Bible, found in different cultures. This story is told in the first person by the survivor of the food, a figure named Utnapishtim

Synagogue

An institution that originated as early as the third century BCE, but developed further after the destruction of the Second Temple. It is clear that synagogues were central to Jewish communal life because they were found throughout the Mediterranean and the Near East, and it is clear that there were a lot of resources invested in their construction and decoration. It served as a kind of community center, the setting for many public activites like the administration of justice, business transactions, and the freeing of slaves, but its most basic role was to connect Jews to the Bible. The synagogue evoked the Temple, it was a kind of virtual temple Scrolls of Torah were kept there, and Jews publicly read from the Torah during religious occasions such as the Sabbath. Reflect Hellenized/Roman world, the architecture and decorations of late antique synagogues often imitate elements of non-Jewish public buildings.

midrash

An interpretation technique for understanding the Written Torah. It literally means, "the seeking", but it is applied to the biblical text: God's will is to be found in the text rather than through a human intermediary. It differs from all other interpretative strategies. It is a rule-driven form of interpretation, or genre, that emerges from some basic rabbinic assumptions about the nature of biblical text. These assumptions about the nature of the text are critical to understanding it; they are premises without which it makes little sense. (pg 125).

Hellenism

Ancient Greek culture Maccabees protected Judea from the encroachments of this - worked to re-Judaize Judea after the changes introduced by Antiochus' reign Effort to alter Jewish culture seemed to provoke a backlash in Hasmonean Judea → rejection of non Jews and revival of an idealized Jewish culture as it was perceived to have existed in biblical times Hasmoneans did not reverse the process of this however - much more complex Reshaped Jewish culture in ways Jews did not always recognize Jews did not sever contacts with people influenced by this Thus had to have knowledge of Greek diplomatic etiquette; also took Greek names and took on other cultural aspects Hasmoneans, for all their effort to recover biblical Israel, exemplify the process of it, the ways in which it affected not just language, but behavior, culture, and identity *Even those Jews who were highly resistant to foreign culture and were willing to risk death to protect their ancient tradition were transformed by the encounter with this culture

Written Testimony

Another written source besides the Bible; includes inscription from Israel itself and texts from other ancient Near Eastern Cultures that refer to Israel. Used to attempt to determine/pinpoint origins of Jewish culture/Israel

Ba'al Shem Tov/ the BeSHT or BESHT

Associated with the beginning of Hasidism Known for his healing talents Kabbalist, faith healer, writer of amulets designed to ward off illness, and an exorcist Probably a scholar Attracted a following in the last 20 years of his life Lower classes were not included in his inner circle His religious teachings were not intended for mass consumption Idea that all creation contains God's divine presence. Taught importance of adopting an attitude of indifference to the material aspects of human existence.

minyan

At least ten adult jewish males are needed to perform a communal prayer outside of the synagogue. Minyan = quorum

bet midrash

Babylonia began to emerge as a major center of rabbinic activity...Rav Abba (sage) Rav studied in Palestine and returned to Babylonia Probably left because Jewish life in Palestine was growing increasingly difficult in this period Rav Abba established a bet midrash, or study house, at Sura, which became one of the most important rabbinic academies in Babylonia For later Babylonian rabbis, Rav's return to Babylonia was a turning point in their relationship with Palestine (long the center of rabbinic authority) Saw themselves as having comparable authority and were willing to act independently in developing their own distinctive brand of rabbinic literature

Alexander the Great

Born in Macedonia, conquered the Persian empire, defeating Darius III, before he was thirty. He started the Hellenistic age in the Ancient Near East, which consisted of a dialect similar to Greek

Gemara

Babylonian Gemara The Talmud, or Gemara - an Aramaic term that describes the Talmud's analysis of the Mishnah Commentary on the Mishnah Closely follows the discussion in the Mishnah, seeking to understand the reasons for what it says, to raise questions about things that are unclear, and to resolve apparent discrepancies between the Mishnah and other rabbinic traditions Talmud's topics go well beyond initial issues in Mishnah Its basic unit of organization: sugya, a kind of unified analysis launched by some issue in the Mishnah that follows a back and forth between different claims and counterclaims, with lots of digressions or apparent digressions It was in this form of rabbinic literature, that had the greatest impact on later Jewish culture *When we refer to the Talmud today we are referring to the Babylonian Talmud!!

Babylonian Talmud

Babylonian response to the Mishnah by the rabbinic community in Babylonia completed in the sixth or seventh century CE

Cyrus cylinder

Babylonian text that shows a biblical portrait of Cyrus, and his Persian rule. Account of how Cyrus was appointed by the Babylonian god Marduk to return the statues of Babylonia's gods to their shrine. Its description of Cyrus as a pious restorer of tradition parallels the positive qualities show in Deutoro-Isaiah, that God appointed. Cyrus to restore the Jerusalem temple.

People of the book: Battle

Battle of Khaybar ended with the capitulation of the Jews These jews accepted the terms the Muslims had made with them Jewish and Christian "people of the book" were granter peace and protection in exchange for paying a tribute, called Jizya to the Muslims. Set precedence for the treatment of Jews and Christians in places conquered by Muhammed Jews would be left alone as long as they acknowledged the political supremacy of the Muslims

Yiddish

Became the predominant language of the Jews in Eastern Europe Significant because Jews were speaking a language that was completely different from the language of their non-Jewish environment. Yiddish means Jewish

Hellenization

Becoming more greek. Depended on more than just geography, but also on social class because only wealthy could afford to send children to school. It offered a new range of opportunities that had not been previously available. Linked to the loss of independence and economic exploitation for many Jews.

Esther

Biblical book, probably written in the fourth century BCE. Describes an attempt made during the reign of the Persian king Ahasueres to destroy the Judahites. Assigns the blame to the King's evil advisor, Haman, he misleads the king into believing that the Judahites are unloyal. The king is married to a Judahite woman who uses her influence to persuade the kind to revoke his decree.

Deuteronomistic history

Biblical books that are believed to have been revised and expanded in the period after the Babylonian exiles. A group of books that some scholars believe were originally Together to to tell the history of Ancient Israel and how it was led astray by its rulers.

Flavius Josephus

Born in 37 CE to a family of priestly and Hasmonean descent Reports on Jewish-Roman relations in the 1st century CE Fought against the romans for the first part of his life and then aligned with them General in the Jewish army during the Jewish Revolt against the romans in 66CE In 67 CE, he and his men were pinned down in a cave and they were forced to decide between suicide or surrendering to the romans, eventually surrendered to the Romans. Served the Romans as a translator and mediator Published the "Jewish Antiquities" which is an account of Jewish history from the biblical age to the time just before the Jewish revolt and a number of other books, including an account of the revolt and an autobiography. Pro- Roman bias Significant because he is telling Jews to submit to the Romans Reflects a survival strategy that goes back to the Persian period

Hillel

Born in Babylonia around 1st century BCE Important sage in rabbinic memory Earliest list of rabbinic rules for interpreting the Torah is associated with him "If I am not for myself, who will be for me, but if I am for myself alone, what am I?" → popular saying made by him With his contemporary Shammai, remembered as founders of schools Remembered as the ancestor of the line of sages who would hold the office of the patriarch

Antiochus IV

Brother of Seleucus IV (tried to rob the Jerusalem Temple bc of desperation for money). During his reign, emerging conflct between Seleucid rule and Jews of Judea eupted into a war known as Maccabean Revolt. Revolt was response to what Jews perceived to be a threat to their ancestral a of life He was very intrusive (villain to Jews) Period of rule became period of crisis for Jews in Jerusalem, associated with the disruption of religious tradition and the violation of the Temple's sanctity Tried to supress Jewish religious tradition Period after Alexander ruled (Seleucid Kingdom starting 202-200 BCE)

Black Death

Bubonic plague in the late 1340s in Europe left as much as one third of Europe's population dead As Europe was reeling from effects of this, there was an even greater frenzy of anti-Jewish violence that erupted in Europe Unable to understand the cause of the plague, Christians immediately turned against the Jews. Accusing them of poisoning wells and whose presence among Christians was believed by many to have provoked the wrath of God Massacres from this caused more deaths than the plague itself, violence spread throughout much of western and central europe, affecting hundreds of Jewish communities single most disastrous anti-Jewish persecution that the medieval world had seen to that date. violence against Jews now remained a factor on a relatively high level, both in terms of frequency and geographic spread

Hasmoneans

By 140 BCE, the Maccabees had consolidate their control over Judea, restored the temple, and driven non-Jews from the land Simon (one of Judah's brothers) was honored for this feat by being declared high priest and ruler of the Jews "forever" which meant that his position would pass down to his descendants known as the Hasmoneans His successors controlled Judea until it came under Roman control in 63 BCE Eventually grew unpopular

Composition of the Bible/Canonization of the Bible

Canon consists of three parts: 1. Five books of Moses: Geneis (bereshit), Exodus (Shemot), Leviticus (vayikra), Numbers (bamidbar), and Deuteronomy (devarim). 2. Prophets: "Former Prophets" → texts that record an account of Israelite/Judahite history from conquest of Canaan to Babylonian Exile. "Latter Prophets" → texts that record the words of prophets from the period of Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian rule. 3. Writings: Psalms, proverbs, songs of Soloman, Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah, and other misc writings. Perceived by early jews as prophetic. (Human side of divine-human interaction) Canonization of a text means to regard it with enough significance to include it in the bible

Inquisition

Catholic monarchs attempted to eradicate the issue with conversos (ambiguous status: christian in name but still bearing stigma of Jewishness) requested authorization from Pope to establish a national inquisition Began work in 1481 not concerned with Jews but with Christians tried to root out "heresy", beliefs and practices that were seen as contrary to Church doctrine and the most important "heresy" that it was set to eliminate the secret practice of Judaism (came to be called Judaizing) Inquisition courts set up throughout Iberian peninsula The process consisted of a "grace period" (30-40 days) where people could come forward to confess their crime and be reconciled with the Church Crime or secret judaizing consisted of refraining from eating certain foods, avoiding labor on Saturdays, doing extra shopping before Jewish holidays, slaughtering animals in certain ways etc Process ended with if the person was charged guilty or not Public spectacle was so important, even if someone was found guilty of heresy after he/she had died, the Inquisition would have their body exumed, and burned in public and their property confiscated Restored the insulted honor of the Church while staging a powerful warning for all other judaizers

Sefarad/Sefardic

Christian Kingdoms of medieval Spain Frontier between Islam and Christiandom

Augustine of Hippo

Christian theologian who lived between 354 and 430 Sharp religious differences with Judaism, he believed that the Jews had misinterpreted the Bible and interpreted their suffering and dispersion as divine punishment for their rejection of Christ He did not advocate the violent opposition to the Jews that other Christian thinkers of the time did Jews should be permitted to exist, even if in a miserable state, as living testimony to the truth of Christian belief Major reason that JEws were able to survive under the Christian rule

Safed

City in the Galilee (in Ottoman empire--between Syria and Palestine) established a thriving new center of Jewish learning Main centers of Jewish life under Ottoman rule were major port cities : Constantinople (Instanbul) and Salonika (Thessaloniki) → imperial capital

targum

Collection of legal material, Aramaic translations of the Bible From Aramaic word "translation" Produced through Rabbinic era in Jewish history

Hanukkah

Commemorates the Maccabees challenging the Seleucid kingdom more directly, with Judah winning several victories that allowed him to retake Jerusalem and restore the Temple cult 8 day festival now observed with the lighting of a lamp known as a menorah - introduced by the Maccabees Seems to be based on biblical model, patterned on biblical festival of Sukkot

Rabbi

Community of scholars that became rabbis Transformed Jewish culture They developed ways of interacting with God that did not depend on the Temple Scholarly activity produced many new writings, including the Mishnah, the Midrashic literature, and the Talmud According to Rabbis, they were the successors of Moses Rabbi is directly translated as "my teacher," but in this chapter it refers to sages within a particular social network that emerged after the destruction of the second temple. These sages initiated the transformation in Jewish culture

Pseudepigrapha

Debates over books that should be included in Jewish canon there was no real way to authentic a composition as genuine work of the biblical past so authors sought to pass off certain works as biblical by imitating the style of books like Genesis and ascribing authorship to biblical figures like Moses and Solomon → yielded a strange and fascinating assortment of texts known as the Pseudepigrapha (from the Greek meaning "false writing")

Shema

Declaration of faith in God derived from the biblical books of Deuteronomy and Number

Samaritans

Descendants of the northern tribes of Israel Also saw themselves as the descendants of Israel bound by the law of Moses, but they believed that the cult it established was now located not in Jerusalem as the Jews believed but in the north, on Mount Gerezim, a mountain near the modern-day Palestinian city of Nablus The Bible places this cult in Jerusalem, claiming that it was located there by David and Solomon, but it is the Jewish Bible that makes this claim Samaritans developed different conception of biblical canon, excluding Jerusalem-centered books like Samuel and Kings In their understanding of biblical history, they were the ones to continue the covenant established by Moses, and the Jews were Israelites who had gone astray Religious authorities, charismatic teachers and prophets with different ideas about God, the Torah, and how to live one's life → competing groups developed that were bonded together not by kinship as were the priests, but by shared beliefs and practices Can maybe be called "schools of thought" or "philosophies"

halakhah vs aggadah

Despite the varied forms in which the halakhah is expressed, the rules, judgments and precedents included in talmudic literature all have one thing in common: they all categorize specific forms of behavior and well defined areas of experience in line with formal dichotomies, such as "permissible" or "forbidden," "pure" or "impure," "holy" and "profane," etc. Aggadah, on the other hand, investigates and interprets the meaning, the values, and the ideas which underlie the specific distinctions which govern religious life. In line with the accepted tendency to define aggadah as "that which is not halakhah," one could say that the relation between aggadah and halakhah is similar to the relation between theory and practice, between idea and application, and, in the area of ethics, between character and behavior

Eschatology

Developed from ideas about prophesies about a time when God will intervene in the world to save his people and punish the wicked A kind of fascination with how God will intervene in the world at the end of time Many Jews were keen to know what would happen, reading apocalyptic texts

Haggadah

During the same period of the siddur, the Haggadah was canonized Text which lays out the order (or seder) of the rabbinic Passover service: the blessings, prayers, rabbinic comments, and psalms recited during the Passover meal Although it draws on material from Mishnah, it is a Geonic creation Amram Gaon codified its contents in his siddur, and the earliest known versions come from this period Very essential to Passover!! Living proof of the impact and lasting legacy of late antique rabbinic culture

Akhnaten

Egyptian king that ruled in the 14th century BCE Famous for fathering King Tut and developing an early form of monotheism (centered around the sun god Aten Scholars think Yahweh appeared or arose under influence of him

Zionism

Establishment of the State of Israel and the regeneration of Hebrew as a daily spoken language Tendency to equate Jewish Nationalism with Zionism, but this means forgetting other forms of Jewish Nationalism Seemed utopian and radical Took a long time to become a popular option among jews Related to notion of messianic redemption and restoration of the Jewish people Yehuda Alkalai and Zvi Hirsch Kalischer called upon Jews to return to Palestine to effect the dicine salvation of the Jewish people. Entailed a rejection of traditional religious, family, and social values. Rebelled against the traditional concept of waiting for the MEssiah to usher in the reutrn of the Jews to Zion Revolt of the youth against their parents Rejection of living in the Diaspora Two essential points: 1) That all Jews, irrespective of where they lived , were part of a single nation with a common heritage and that they shared the same hopes for a national future built on a shared cultural patriarchy 2) Jewish people were to build the institutional framework through which they would develop their goal of an autonomous Jewish homeland.

Exile or diaspora

Exile implies that Jews living outside the land are not at home and their living abroad is a kind of punishment. -This is not an accurate representation, it is more correct to use the term diaspora. -This is significant because it shows how Judaism spread outside of Jerusalem, and became a more global religion.

Emancipation

France freedom extended to Jews as part of French Revolution Italy emancipated in 1797 by Napoleonic forces, but a largely traditional community still lived in ghettos but quickly embraced social and economic opportunities displayed a degree of loyalty and patriotism that set them apart from other continental Jewries in two ways neither Sephardic nor Ashkenazic, practice the Apam rite of prayer only in Italy that the nationalist leadership sided with the Jews England no formal emancipation occurred in the English-speaking world, but the story of the attainment of equal rights in England should be seen in the larger context of European Jewish emancipation allows us to see what was unique about the fate of Jewish communities in Britain and the wider Anglophone world resolution of "Jewish Question" in England - was bound up with the process of according religious "dissenters" their civic rights quest in England focused on the right to hold political office Anglo-Jewry became increasingly anglicized and materially comfortable over time, Jewish legal disabilities were lifted English Jews were never as vigorous as their continental coreligionists in demanding the lifting of legal barriers away from Europe, official decrees of emancipation were not required Jews in America were guaranteed liberty within the constitution in 1776 religious freedom Jews could practice religion in Canada, but not hold office until 1832 Australia - always free South Africa - religious and civic freedom from early 19th century Germany did not become a unified state until 1871 progress of emancipation was uneven some Jews left behind problem was twofold emancipation remained conditional challenge of emancipating a group within a society that was not yet fully emancipated Jewish emancipation in central Europe was more than a strict change in legal status...came with expectation of and desire for acculturation Ottoman Empire Turkey, parts of Balkans, and cities along the Aegean Jews (and Christians) regarded as dhimmi, protected and tolerated, yet socially and legally inferior to Muslims Reform Decree of 1856 - Jews and Christians were = still alienation of Jews not until 1909 were attitudes regarding "dhimmi" changed rise of nationalist movements Russia Statute of 1804 Concerning the Organization of Jews "the following regulations are in accord with our concern for the true happiness of the Jews and with the needs of the principal inhabitants of those provinces" little happiness came from this first basic law pertaining to Jews received a constitution in 1905 before then, Jews could not be incorporated into any citizenry as equals

Karaites

From Hebrew root qara' meaning 'to read' differed from mainstream of medieval Jewry in their rejection of the authority of the Mishnah and the Talmud Many of the Jews employed at the Fatimid court insisted that law was to be derived through the critical interpretation of the biblical text, unmediated by an "oral tradition" as in rabbinic Judaism they did not accept this nonliteral interpretation and were often denounced by their rabbinic counterparts in the middle ages as "eaters of meat with milk" Criticized the practice of rabbinic Jews who observed a second festival day on the biblical holidays of Sukkot, Passover, and Shavuot in communities outside the land of Israel Rise of Karaism is dated to the eighth century

siddur

Geonic sages developed and disseminated the first Jewish prayer book that standardized the wording and sequence of the synagogue prayer book - siddur Jewish prayer book, originated from the order of prayers as spelled out by the ninth-century Gaon Amram ben Sheshna, better known as Amram Gaon, in a responsum probably meant for Jews in Spain Contains Haggadah information

Uriel da Costa

He and Baruch were both descendants of families forced to convert to Catholicism on the Iberian Peninsula, challenged some of the most fundamental teachings of Judaism as well as the authority of the community's rabbis he and his family fled Portugal for Holland in 1617, and were never able to adjust to Judaism there, conflicted to radically with the biblical Judaism dismissed rabbinic Judaism as nothing more than a coercive system for the performance of meaningless rituals, devoid of spirituality fell afoul of the rabbis again and in 1640 was forced to submit to a humiliating public ceremony, which included the public recantation of his opinions, 39 lashes across his bare back, and being forced to lie on the threshold of Amsterdam's Spanish Portuguese synagogue so that all in his congregation could tread on him as he left wrote an autobiography, and shot himself to death

Hammurabi/Code of Hammurabi

He was a Babylonian king during 19th/18th century; He made a series of laws in effort to establish justice in his kingdom. → Copy of the laws were inscribed on an 8 ft tall stela that was discovered between 1902 and 1902. Code of Hammurabi and biblical law are not identical but very similar Significance: Clear evidence that biblical law is rooted in earlier NEar Eastern legal traditions Mesopotamian law similar to the code of Hammurabi → suggests such codes were known in the area and could have plausibly influenced the development of biblical law

Philo

He wrote on the creation of the world, the interpretation of the Torah, the stories of Genesis, the lives of the great biblical figures, and the laws and their meaning. His writing is thoroughly informed by his reading of the Torah. He saw the world and the cosmos as the best witness to God's existence. Each of his works exhibit the same unswervingly solid sense of his own Jewish identity together with a complete comfort in and facility with Hellenistic concepts and philosophy

Torah

Hebrew for teaching, eventually applied to Five Books of Moses. Judahites were fully able to restore their relationship with God through this.

The Jewish State

Herzl composed/wrote this Attempt at a modern solution of the Jewish Question three thousand copies were printed and sent to leading figures in the press and politics, and the slender volume was soon translated into several languages. People ridiculed it in Western Europe (Vienna) where it was first introduced and published claimed that "we are a people, one people" which upset those western Jews who had placed all their hopes on emancipation and being accepted as citizens of their respective countries In eastern Europe, well accepted despite the Russian censor painted a picture of what "the new state" would look like

Gaon (singular)/Geonim (plural)

Historically what follows the composition of the Talmud is the emergence in Babylonia of scholarly leaders known as the Geonim Babylonian rabbinic sages at the head of the two most important rabbinic academies in Babylonia → Sura and Pumbedita Reflected their influence even after Sasanians were defeated by Muslims Began to assert influence on Jewish communities throughout the Islamic world Probably benefitted from more favorable social and political environment that gave them an edge over their counterparts in Palestine Perhaps the single greatest factor in the success of Babylonian rabbinic Judaism is the Muslim defeat of the Sasanian Kingdom in mid-seventh century CE effect of unifying most of the territory where Jews lived, politically reconnecting Jews of Babylon with Jews in Palestine and Egypt then paper came along which was good!! Idk

Territorialism/Territorialists

ITO, Jewish Territorial Organization, was a group of people that was committed to finding a place of refuge for Jews under threat dedicated to obtaining a large tract of territory preferably within the British Empire wherein to found a Jewish Home of Refuge Members were known as territorialists of ITO men ITO considered many places like Australia Influence of ITO was greatly reduced after the issuance of the Balfour Declaration Territorialism entered a second phase with the fouding in Londin in 1935 of the Frayland-lige far Yidisher Teritoryalistisher Kolonizatsye (freeland League for Jewish Territorial Colonzation Increasingly hostile and violent anti-semitism made it urgent to find a place for threatened and endangered Jews in these deadly areas

Dead Sea Scrolls

Include documents produced by one of these communities - community described by scrolls resembles Essenes in many ways Most scholars identify Dead Sea Scrolls sect as Essene - however some weakness Some have argued for identifying it as a branch of the Sadducees Whichever sect was written about (probably after Antiochus' persecution), coalesced around a leader known as the Teacher of Righteousness Identity unknown, but likely was a priest who fell into conflict with Jewish authorities especially a figure known as the "Wicked Priest" - likely high priest at the time Not all scrolls written by this same community, however the scrolls by them seem reveal it to have been a sect as defined in this book Texts like the Community Rule and the Damascus Document lay out the rules and rituals that this community was to follow Appear to be alienated - Halakhic letter suggests there was a period in the community's history when it tried to reach out to the authorities in Jerusalem to resolve its disagreements with them - might reflect stage before community was completely alienated from Jerusalem Community preferred a purified dialect of Hebrew modeled on that of the Bible Community grew very antagonistic toward outside world almost seemed at war with it ***Tells us a lot about sectarian mind-set in this period! Reveals beliefs and also modes of biblical interpretation and self-expression, prayer, and ritual practice

the Enlightenment

Intellectual revolution of the 18th century Leaders of Enlightenment were french philosophers Proposed a refashioning of society based on reason, progress, faith in human ingenuity, and an abiding belief in the capacity of all people for improvement. Inspired by scientific revolution of the 17th century and its practive of close observation and experimentation Rejected all truths based on tradition and religious authority Wanted a society where individuals exercised their right to liberty by creating new economic, political, and social structures for the benefit of individuals and the greater good Gave rise to individualism Jews in the modern period are characterized by cultural, economic, and social integration, but also produced hostility towards the Jews New forms of Judaism formed during this time

Judahites of the Bible

Jews before jews became jews

Sasanian Babylonia

Jews of Babylonia were living outside of Roman rule, but they still faced similar challenges because they had to sustain their culture under foreign domination The political and cultural environment in Babylonia was different from that in Rome, it was much more cordial Zoroastrian efforts to intervene in Jewish behavior was sporadic and they never accused the Jews of betraying or killing God, and never persecuted the Jews. Jewish sources are more positively inclined towards Sasanian rule than Roman rule

Elephantine

Judahite (or Jewish) community found in small island situated in the middle of the Nile River (now southern Egypt) Elephantine Papyri is the ancient document that gives us information about this community. People referred to themselves as Yehudiyin, or Jews Worshipped Yahweh and celebrated the Sabbath and the Passover. Jerusalem was not seen as the only legitimate source of sacrifice. They likely worshipped others gods as well as Yahweh.

Ladino

Judeo-Spanish Language that Jews in the Ottoman Balkans and Turkey were speaking. Significant because Jews again, had their own language, completely different from the one being spoken in the non-Jewish environments that they were living in

the Bund

Key movement in the founding of Jewish socialism 1897 in Vilna Short for General Association of Jewish Workers in Russia, Poland, and Lithuania Many of the early leaders were revolutionaries estranged from their Jewish roots Under the leadership of Aleksandr Kremer, the Bund did not consider itself as a seperate political party, but rather a part of the Russian Social Democratic Party Believed Jewish workers suffer not only as workers but also as Jews A nationalist organization soeaking the language of international revolution Characterized as National Jewish Party Influence grew quickly among Jewish workers in early 1900s Sought to address a variety of cultural issues that related specifically to the needs of the Jewish worker. First Jewish political organization to encourage the idea that Jews should take up arms to protect Jewish life and property.

exilarch

Key to the more positive relationship between Jews and Zoroastrians was the Jewish leadership that traced back to the Babylonian exile, but really emerged in the 3rd century CE. Semi-royal representatives of the Jewish people that claimed Davidic descent. Exercised some level of control over the Jewish court system and served as an intermediary between the foreign government that ruled over the Jews Exerted a diplomatic and judicial rule, as well as an economic power. Helped to maintain good relations with the Sasanian state, for the most part. Continued into the 15th century, so it was quite durable

Sicarii

Large group of rebels (around 960) these rebels withstood a Roman siege until 73 CE at the fortress on top of Masada When they saw that the ROmans were about to capture the fortress, they decided to commit suicide rather than become slaves (i.e. Mass Suicide at Masada)

Amarna Letters

Letters sent from the rulers of Canaanite city-states (Tyre, Shechem, and Jerusalem) to the Egyptian king that describe life in Canaan indicate that ruling Canaan was difficult

Martyr/Martyrdom

Martyr=person who willingly submits to death, allowing others to kill him/her; or even taking his or her own life, out of a sense of commitment to God or relgioius principle Martyrdom seen as an exemplary way to express one's commitment to God and a way to emulate Jesus' death (Christianity) Martyrdom rooted in earlier Jewish culture In 2 Maccabees, martyrdom is an act of resistance, a refusal to betray God's laws under any circumstance, an attempt to preserve a measure of Jewish self-determination in a context where Jews found their lives controlled by others. Jews could not control their political destiny under foreign rule, but martyrdom gave them a way of controlling something

Letter of Aristeas

Mentions the story of how the Septuagint came to be translated composed in Alexandria (2nd/1st Century BCE) According to this letter, the Septuagint was an initiative of Ptolemy II who commissioned a translation of the laws of the Jews as part of his effor tto expand the number of books in the library of Alexandria. Septuagint: Greek translation of Torah by Alexandrian Jews. Derives from greek word Seventy=seventy translators worked on it. Represents the integration of Jewish and Greek identity (bc of diaspora and exile, many Jews were exposed to other cultures, sometimes even before Jewish culture) The letter assigns the role of the Septuagint providing bridge between Jews and Greeks

Sadducees

More of a social class than sect Name connects them to Zadok, legendary priest, and they may have consisted mostly of wealthy priests Denied immortality of the soul and governance of fate Believe humans have free choice between good and evil

aggadah

Most midrash explores ethical ideas, biblical characters, or narrative moments, and is known as midrash aggadah. (Aggadah literally means "telling" or story.) When Jews use the colloquial "it says in the midrash," they are usually referring to teachings of midrash aggadah, generally those found in a corpus of classical Jewish texts compiled between about 200 and 1000 C.E.

Saadya Gaon

Most prominent representative of the Jewish culture thriving in Baghdad Presided over the academy of Sura from 928 until his death Born in Egypt, the first outsider to be appointed head of one of the two babylonian Yeshivot Translated most of the Bible into Arabic and made major contributions to the study of Hebrew Philology, Jewish liturgy, and rabbinic law Wrote "Book of Beliefs and Opinions" There could be no contradiction between reason and faith for Saadya

Socialist Zionism

Nahman Syrkin and Ber Borochov Syrkin founder of labor Zionism, sought to combine utopian or prophetic socialism and Jewish nationalism differed from Bundists who believed that the "Jewish Problem" would be solved when the general social revolution took place also maintained that the only viable socialist solution for Jews was the establishment of a socialist Jewish state in Palestine 1897 - led Socialist Zionist faction at the First Zionist Congress called for establishment of cooperative settlement of the Jewish masses in Palestine attentive to needs of the Diaspora, urging the organization of self-defense among Russian Jews facing pogroms critic of Zionism spawned a more radical wing of Marxist Zionists, whose great theoretician was Ber Borochov attempted to interpret Marxism in accordance with Jewish nationalism did not regard antisemitism as the impetus for Zionism, nor did he see Zionism as the principal motivation or means for spiritual renewal sought to usher Jews out of abnormal socioeconomic condition of the Diaspora, which he considered the cause of Jewish economic and political powerlessness one of the founders of Poalei Tsiyon became first socialist Zionist political party and had branches across eastern and central Europe, Britain, and the US

Assembly of Jewish Notables

Napoleon convened this on July 29, 1806 a body of 112 distinguished lay and clerical Jewish leaders from France and French-controlled Italy Napoleon created this to affect the integration of Jews into the life of the nation and to assert greater control over them reflected the atmosphere of mistrust

Ashkenaz/Ashkenazic

Northern France and the German Empire Remote back quarter of Jewish life Jewish presence grew, by 14th century, about 100,000 Jews spread around the empire

Diaspora Revolt

One of the many rebellions after the First Jewish Revolt series of interconnected Jewish uprisings that occurred in 115-117 CE during the reign of Emperor Trajan Provoked extreme backlash (from Romans) Alexandrian Jewish Community (that produced Septuagint, Philo etc) comes to an end at this time revolt serious enough to cause a level of hysteria within the non-Jewish population Many accounts from different cultures believed the Jews resulted to atrocities like cannibalism (ate flesh of victims)

Zealots

One of the militant groups active during the Jewish revolt -Zeal in a biblical context refers to a commitment to protect one's God and people -When the government decided to surrender to the Romans, the Zealots killed the high priest and executed others they suspected of treason.

Rashi/Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac

One of the most important scholars of medieval Ashkenaz and medieval Judaism Studied at the rabbinic academies in Mainz and Worms in Germany Established his own school His studies had a great impact on the study of the Bible and the Talmud throughout Jewish world Commentary on the Talmud and the Bible Combined midrashic interpretation with an exploration of the plain meaning

HasidismHasid/Hasidim (pl.)

One of the most profound developments in Judaism Originating in the 1750s from small, elite groups of Torah scholards and Kabbalists An expression of religious revival based on charismatic leadership, stamped by mystical teachings and practices Never had a central authority A term used to denote a highly deverse number of groups, that had a lot of things in common, but were also distinct from one another on ideological and cultural grounds Beginnings associated with Israel ben Eliezer and Ba'al Shem Tov

Jew

One who believes and acts in certain ways. The origins of Jew as opposed to Judahite are unknown. Worship Yahweh. Celebrate passover and the Sabbath.

Unwritten Torah

Oral Torah, transmitted by the sages Now preserved in written form -- the Mishnah and Talmudic commentary it inspired Pharisees venerated an unwritten, and the Oral Torah may represent a later offshoot of that tradition, but for the rabbis of the Talmud, this tradition was more than just ancestral inheritance - it was Torah itself, part of what had been revealed to Moses at Mt Sinai Must study to Oral Torah to fully understand God's revelation at Sinai It is paradoxical The two Torahs are interdependent Rabbis said it was necessary because it filled in gaps in the Written Torah

Writings

Part of Bible that includes Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Chronicales, Ezra-Nehemiah and a variety of other writings. Jewish Bible divided into Torah, Prophets and Writings = Tanak

"false messiahs"

People (usually of Davidic descent) who claimed to be the messiah messianic movements (during medieval times) seem to focus on a charismatic individual→ fake messiah Many Jews in the Middle Ages continued to harbor messianic expectation often heightened by tumultuous events Serenus (one of earliest false messiahs in middle ages) illustrates the threat such movements sometimes posed to the Jewish community, advocating not only subversive ideas but the suspension of Jewish law as well Jews go "astray" after people who believe they are all-powerful

"Old" Christians

People with no Jewish ancestry Faced competition in all areas of life from 'new christians' This new situation resulted in an attack on the conversos in Toledo A new law was made to make a distinction between the old Christians and conversos.

Cyrus

Persian king that defeated the neo-Babylonian empire in 539 BCE. Founder of the Achaemenid dynasty, which dominated the Ancient Near East for the following two centuries. Persia's impact on Judah was less dramatic than the Greek influence, thought of as an age of peace and restoration. Cyrus is a hero in the Bible, this was God's way of restoring his people, God gave Cyrus the empire so that the people of Judah could return to their home and rebuild their temple.

Siddur

Prayer book created during the Geonic period Compiled by Amram, earliest systematic ordering of the prayers Established that prayers were to be recited throughout the year on weekdays, Sabbaths, the new moon, and special fast days and festivals Another siddur was developed about a century later

Anti-semitism

Prejudice against the Jews that stereotypes and ridicules them, ascribes to them malevolent motivations, suggests something wrong and harmful about their practices and believes, and sometimes manifests itself in violence against Jews and their communal institutions.

Christian Wilhelm Dohm

Prussian beuracrat (1751-1820) published On the Civic Improvement of the Jews argued that the Jews be emancipated, for it would make them "happier, better people, more useful members for society" remedy was typical of the German solution to the problem he wished to remove economic restrictions on Jews to encourage them to farm and to pursue arts and science but also wished to limit petty trade among them because he considered t corrupting and insisted that Jewish access to government service jobs be restricted until such time as they had demonstrated that they had changed. Jews under constant inspection for measurable improvement

midrash

Rabbi's way of interpreting the Hebrew Bible Deriving from a Hebrew root meaning "to seek" or "to investigate", "midrash is not an easy term to define" (k sick) can refer to collections of rabbinic interpretations of the Bible, but it also describes the mode of interpretation reflected in these collections (collections are from Palestine; in Babylonian rabbinic Judaism, midrash is incorporated into the Talmud) midrashic interpretation is particularly preoccupied with details commentary triggered by small gaps and redundancies in the text even small deviations in how a word is spelled may hint at a story or message that the rabbi aims to draw out through interpretation

Amoraim

Rabbinic sages living after Judah to 500 CE known as this From Aramaic word "speaker", referring to one who repeated the words of a sage aloud as a kind of spokesperson or translator. Role: to stand by the teacher when he taught, receive the master's words and then try to make them clear to a larger audience Receive the teaching of their Tannaitic teachers (the Mishnah) and then explain it to others Thought to have an authority subordinate to that of the Tannaim→ shows Mishnah's significance as a turning point in post-Mishnaic rabbinic culture

Zoroastrianism

Religion that the Sasanians identified with Its history is traced back to an Ancient Iranian prophet named Zarathustra who taught about a supreme God named Ahura Mazda and his battle with an evil spirit named Angra Mainyu Zoroastrian priests were very zealous in defense of their religion Their royal allies are sometimes mentioned as prohibiting certain Jewish religious practices and persecuting the Jews Fire was a very sacred symbol for the Zoroastrians, so Jews had to careful not to let them see their candles during Hanukkah .

Frankism

Religious experience emerged among Polish Jews The leader was Jacob Leibowitz, called himself Yakov Frenk Originally a derogatory term directed at the Frank's followers, who converted to catholism and attempted to conceal their Jewish backgrounds Frank engaged in a lot of practices that were in deep conflict with judaism Including the rejecting of the Talmud and rabbinic authority and acceptance of the new testament and belief in the kabbilistic notion of "purification through sin which means... Sexual orgies!!! Originally thought of themselves as a branch of Judaism but eventually came to see themselves as a separate religious group- largely independent from Christianity and Judaism

Hasidei Ashkenaz/Ashkenazi Pietists

Religious movement Associated with three descendents of the Kalonymus family, Samuel, Judah, and Eleazar. Wrote Sefer Hasidim (Book of the Pious): Collection of 2000 moralizing stories and exegetical vignettes presents ideals and virtues of Ashkenazi Pietists Uncompromised desire to fulfill the will of the Creator, beyond the requirements of religious law itself.

Sephardi

Represented the majority of the World Jewish population until around 1700 Word appears in the biblical book, Obadiah The Jews of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) and their descendants After expulsion from Spain and Portugal in 1492, the Sephardi Jews established communities in the Ottoman Empire, North Africa, in northwestern Europe, and the Americas.

mikveh

Ritual bath (later the act of immersing in mikveh=baptism) Purity played large role =important to Jews Relieved/erased impurities of that person when fully immersed in the mikveh

70CE

Romans destroyed the temple When Titus's army broke through Jerusalem's walls and destroyed the temple This day is commemorated to this day in Jewish culture Thousands of Jews were massacred, and Jerusalem was ruined

Pontius Pilate

Romans sent this official more directly on its behalf after the rule of Archelaus Official of Rome in Judea (prefect) between 26 and 37 CE Known today for his role in Jesus' trial Notorious among Jews of the time because of his bribes, insults, robberies, and executions without trial His disrespect for Jewish tradition provoked major confrontations with the Jews

Seleucid kingdom

Ruled Judea until the first few decades of the first century BCE -Promoted the establishment of greek style cities, but not completely independent city states, unlike the Athenians. -These kingdoms had status because of rulers who expected loyalty, taxes, and military support in return. -Rulers of these kingdoms were interconnected with the culture of the Near East (intermarried, aligning themselves with local tradition)

Constantine the Great

Ruled from 324-337 CE Established a new capital of the empire known as Constantinople (present day Istanbul) On the eve of a battle, he had a divine vision that convinced him to become a defender of christianity He and all of his successors used imperial power and other instruments of the state to support Christianity and undercut the status and influence of Jews.

Marranos

Same thing as conversos, but derogatory literally translates as "swine"

the Shema

Scriptural passage from Deuteronomy 6:4-9 that Jews recite every day, morning and evening, as an affirmation of their faith to God. To fulfill this law, one has to know when the evening begins and ends Supports the purpose of the Mishnah being not to simply establish or clarify the law but to preserve and convey the differing views of the multiple sages

modernity

State of conscious recognition that the present is unique, original, and meaningfully different from previous eras Saw the rise of entirely new cultural and intellectual sensibilites that were conditioned by tangible changes in the economic, political, and social environment. Took place in monumental historical devepopments such as Enlightenment, the rise of modern science, the decline of aristocracy and absolute monarchy, and the emergence of political and economic power in the middle class 18th-19th century

Limpieza de sangre

Statues of "purity of blood" new legislation that introduced an entirely new concept that ran counter to established church law and, more generally, against medieval sensibilities. Stated that conversos (previous Jews/perverse Jewish ancestors) were barred from holding a public office...could not hold authority over "true" Christians Went against another major law previously made : code of Castile--explicitly prohibited reminding a Jew or muslim converting to Christianity of his or her pre-conversion background Racial definition of Jewishness was passed into law for the first time eventually adopted by Spain and Portugal in the 16th century → anti-semitism that was racial not religious

minhag

Systematic collection of the religious customs of the medieval Ashkenazi Jews

Diaspora

Term used to refer to the exile of the Jews after the destruction of the Temple in 587 BCE, and then to Jews living outside the Land of Israel. -Believed that Jews living in diasporic settings like Egypt were more susceptible to Hellenistic influence.

Talmud Torah

The "Study" of the entire Tanak that was broadly defined to include not just memorization but also painstaking interpretation. Seen not as a diachronic development within Jewish history but as a Greco-Roman phenomenon, it looks suspiciously and surprisingly like philosophy as it was understood at that time. The Rabbis saw this study of texts, accompanied by rigorous training of both mind and body, as a path to personal development and perfection. (pg 121)

Prophets

The "chosen people" by God They took on a new role in Israelite and Judahite society in offering consolation, envisioning a post-conquest future

Exodus

The Israelites escape from Egyptian oppression. [Egyptians began to become fearful of the Israelites in their community as this group started growing. Moses (an Israelite) emerged to rescue the Israelites from Egyptian rule and cruelty. He inflicted ten plagues on the Egyptians which caused the Egyptians to release the Israelites. The Israelites then left for Canaan, by crossing the Red Sea (which God opened for them and then closed to drown Egyptian pursuers).] From Greek word meaning "Going out"

Yehudi

The biblical term that Jew comes from. It implies a different kind of identity in biblical context then the more modern term Jewish implies. Refers to a person from the tribe of Judah, the fourth of Jacob's twelve sons, or to a subject of the kingdom of David. By 1st century CE, the term signified a person committed to distinctive laws and customs different from those of other peoples like the Greeks.

Theodor Herzl

The chief architect of Zionism Born and raised in Budapest and then moved to Vienna Devoted himself to playwriting and journalism Searched solition to the Jewish Problem Envisioned a mass conversion of Jews to Catholisism, unlikely candidate for leading Zionism Antisemitism in Vienna was getting worse, began to question his commitment to assimilation Sought out wealthy philanthropists to support the establishment of a Jewish National Homeland Wrote "The Jewish State: Attempt at a Modern Solution of the Jewish Question" three thousand copies printed Seen as a messianic figure

Mishnah

The earliest existing rabbinic document. Literally called the "repetition". It is organized by legal topic rather than the order of the biblical text and containing few justifications for its legal opinions, it asserts an authority independent of Scripture. Implicitly is makes a theological claim that the rabbis would make explicit a few decades later: God gave two Torahs on Mount Sinai. Oral Torah not only substantively supplements the lacunae-laden Written Torah, which by definition is seen as a static text, Oral Torah evolves and unfolds, continuing to reveal the will of God as latently disclosed to Moses and Israel at the primal moment at Sinai. It is a snapshot of the Oral Torah at one moment in time. It appears to be intended as some kind of legal guide or textbook, a starting rather than ending point for discussion. Organized into sex orders including, "Seeds," "Festivals", "Women", "Damages", "Purities", and "Holy Things". (pg 123)

myth of Yavneh

The great Rabbinic academy that arose out of the ashes of the Temple. This is myth, not history. There are different mythical interpretations. One being that it reflects a later rabbinic self-perception as peaceful inhabitants of a non-Jewish empire, who are perpetuators of tradition and experts in Torah, who become Israel's new spiritual leaders. In other writings of the Rabbis, Yavneh appears as a bustling, vibrant rabbinic community, a new Jerusalem centered around Torah and its study instead of the Temple and its sacrifices, with Rabbis firmly in charge and priests rarely to be found. However, historically these interpretations do not add up. There were no rabbis in the Second Temple period. Some rabbis may have gathered at Yavneh in the aftermath of the Temple to start something new, but it would have been a small study circle instead of an institution.

Purim

The holiday that Judahites are supposed to celebrate to commemorate Ahasueres revoking his decree. Important because Judahites are supposed to be celebrating a Persian King because he is not the hostile power, he is attempting to help the Judahites.

Responsa

The most important way in which a Gaon exerted his authority across a great geographical expanse A method of justice-by-correspondence, where a Gaon wrote out a judicial opinion in response to a specific legal inquiry and thereby established a legal precedence to which subsequent legal scholars might refer Important component of Jewish law Connection between the most remote Jewish communities

Cairo Genizah

The number (multiple) of texts found in this storage room in Cairo implications for understanding Jewish history dwarf the more famous discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, but most pertain to Middle Ages, not antiquity Substantial fragments of the original Hebrew (text known as the Wisdom of Ben Sira = rare glimpse into experience of a Jewish intellectual) Some detection of how life in Judea had been changed by contact with Hellenistic rule and culture → changing Jewish identity/culture

kahal

The organized governing structure of many medieval, early modern, and modern Jewish communities. In medieval Spain it was also known as aljama or alhama. officers of the communal council including executive officers, assistants to the executives, treasurers, auditors, committee-heads, judges and tax assessors councils maintained religious institutions and courts, gave some support to schools, and provided charity, welfare, and loans they were responsible for the appointment of rabbis, the regulation of social and economic behavior, and dealing with the Polish authorities

Sefarad

The period of Islamic rule in Spain remembered as a "Golden Age" in Jewish history Muslim Spain in the 10/11th century emerged as a major center of Jewish culture in its own right

Amoraim

The period which began in the mid-third century CE and extended to around the fifth or early sixth century. The rabbis were commentators to the tannaitic traditions. It acknowledged the authority of the tannaitic traditions and they sought to explain, clarify, and interpret them.

Tannaim

The rabbis wo lived before around 250 BCE. The word means "repeater" or "teacher". They were memorizers and repeaters of the oral traditions of their teachers

halakhah

The term is usually translated as "Jewish Law," although a more literal (and more appropriate) translation might be "the path that one walks." It encompasses the rules and practices that affect every aspect of life: what you do when you wake up in the morning, what you can and cannot eat, what you can and cannot wear, how to groom yourself, how to conduct business, who you can marry, how to observe the holidays and Shabbat, and perhaps most important, how to treat G-d, other people, and animals

Canaanite Origins Theory

The theory/hypothesis that Israelite culture originated from within Canaan itself as an offshoot of the indigenous culture that had existed there in preceding centuries.

Ezrah-Nehemiah

Work(s) that seem to come from Judahites living in exile. Most of the Hebrew Bible was composed in Judah or by exiled Judahites, preserving very little of the literature and culture of the northern kingdom of Israel. Tells about the emergence of a proto-biblical canon in this period References "the book of law" or "the law of Moses" Critical to the post-exilic community's efforts to revitalize itself according to this According to the book, neither the Temple's reconstruction nor the appearance of prophets among the people were enough to restore Judah's relationship with God.

Yiddishkayt

Yiddish cultural identity The Bund tapped into this Informed the sensibilities of Eastern Europe Jewry by celebrating all things Yiddish Language spoken by the majority of Jews well into the 20th century

Khazars

a Turkic people on the northern shore of the Black Sea Joseph (King of Khazars) whose leading families had embraced Judaism Hasdai (caliph) was intrigued by notion of a sovereign Jewish state in Khazaria, and he made sure to inquire whether the King of Khazars had any info regarding the coming of the messiah Judaism was a neutral position for a state wretched between the Muslim and Byzantine zones of influence

YHWH/Yahweh

a deity/God frequently referred to in Canaanite religion Mentioned in letters, prayers, blessings, and other texts known from inscriptions is incorporated into many personal names in Israel and Judah. Shortened=Yahu The relationship with this deity linked to how people defined their identity (because used in many names) Appeared suddenly in texts, no true/factual origin

rabbi

a general term of respect in Jewish antiquity, applied to various sages, judges, and teachers, including Jesus more specifically, a sage within the particular social network that emerged after the destruction of the Second Temple, and produced the Mishnah and the Palestinian and Babylonian Talmuds the title "rabbi" is also used today to refer to religious authorities trained and ordained in the legal tradition established by the earlier texts Elisha!! one of the consequences of this transformation was the emergence in Jewish culture of a new religious authority - rabbi! teacher, who derived his authority from his knowledge of the Torah and his pious religious observance possibly emerging out of the Pharisees or other Second Temple period groups formed kind of scholarly network of teachers and disciples defined by distinctive attitude toward Jewish tradition and religious practice very interested in Temple and its rituals, but part of what distinguishes them from earlier Jewish scholars of the Second Temple period is that they say the act of study itself, rather than the Temple cult, as the most important form of interaction with God - a kind of substitute for the Temple cult helped reconceptualize Jewish religious tradition in ways that insured its continued vitality in an age without temples and sacrifices

Habiru

a group of people that are often known to be people who occupy impermanent and socially marginal positions as laborers, mercenaries, runaways, and rebels. (outcast) Mentioned in the Amarna Letters as fugitives, Canaanites living beyond the control of Canaan's kings/the Egyptians.

Ark of the Covenant

a kind of footstool for God, served such a purpose in the temple, signaling the divine presence but leaving God himself unseen. Israelites believed their God was actually resident in the sanctuary, manifest in cult symbols that signaled the God's presence indirectly rather than in fully visible form

Neo-Platonism

a philosophical tradition that shaped medieval Jewish philosophy a reading of Plato's philosophy that developed into late antiquity exerted great influence on Christian and Muslim mystics in the medieval period and, at least indirectly, on Jewish Kabbalah in this view, all existence can be understood as the result of a process of "emanation" or "radiation" that has its origins in a pure, unqualified, spiritual "first principle" further removed from its origin, the less spiritual and the more material does existence become, down to the material world that we inhabit

mellah

a term that denotes the Jewish quarters of ghettos that were established in various cities throughout Morocco in the early modern period same Moroccan ruler who moved Jews from Old Fez into Jewish mellah, Sultan Abd al-Haqq ibn Abi Sa'id, also appointed a Jew, Aaron ben Batash, to the office of vizier during the last few years of his reign the decree moving the Jews of Fez out of mixed neighborhoods and into the Jewish mellah came a response to anti-Jewish disturbances second mellah established in the city of Marrakesh, in southern Morocco, in the mid-1500s slowly, such separate Jewish quarters extended throughout the country, and in 1900, the Jews of most Moroccan towns lived in a mellah process not always linked to a desire to protect the Jews, or else as a restrictive measure to punish them mellah never became an exclusively Jewish space

Septuagint

a term that originally referred to a Greek translation of the Torah but here is used loosely to describe the Greek translation of the Jewish Bible in its entirety preserves a form of the biblical canon from a much earlier period than the Masoretic Bible organized in a different way than Masoretic Bible and includes a number of books not found at all in the Masoretic version may reflect alternative version of the Bible before its text and ordering were fixed in the form that would become today's Jewish Bible

Septuagint/LXX

a term that originally referred to a Greek translation of the Torah but here is used loosely to describe the Greek translation of the Jewish Bible in its entirety preserves a form of the biblical canon from a much earlier period than the Masoretic Bible organized in a different way than Masoretic Bible and includes a number of books not found at all in the Masoretic version may reflect alternative version of the Bible before its text and ordering were fixed in the form that would become today's Jewish Bible

Covenant

a voluntary pact binding God and the people of Israel in a relationship of mutual obligation goes back to Noah and Abraham, who establish a covenant with God → God made a covenant with Abraham and promised him descendants "as numerous as the stars"...Abraham gave hope that one day the world could return to the way it was originally most of the Torah focuses on the covenant that God establishes with the Israelites at Mount Sinai through the mediation of Moses laws in Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy are stipulations of the covenant, the terms that Israel must abide by in its relationship with God

Kaddish

a well known part of the service (prayer) is a largely Aramaic recitation said at the close of individual sections of the service and at its conclusion The one at the end (Mourner's Kaddish) is recited by part of the Jewish mourning process in the Middle Ages; the service also includes a public Torah reading on three days of the week, including the Sabbath

Eschatological age

an age at the end of time when God intervenes in reality in some dramatic way to punish his foes and restore his people → saves Israelites, restores what they lost, and renews his covenant future where Judah and Israel will be restored restoration not necessarily foreordained: prophetic literature calls on audience to change its ways, to turn from wickedness to righteousness → not enough for Israelites to wait for God's plan to unfold; they must make a change in their behavior to create a future for themselves beyond the misfortunes of the present the Torah is what keeps the possibility of self-correction open

negation of the Diaspora

an ideology of "shlilat ha-Golah" promoted by the most extreme Hebrew writers and Zionist ideologues used to justify the denial of the feasibility of Jewish emancipation in the Diaspora. Life in the Diaspora would either lead to discrimination and persecution or to national decadence and assimilation A more moderate formulation says that the Jews as a people have no future without a "spiritual center" in the Land of Israel

Qumran

ancient settlement in the Harsh Judean desert of the western coast of the Dead Sea a short distance from Jerusalem. Settled around 150 BCE, at the beginning of the Hasmonean dynasty

Tisha B-Av [9th day of Av]

anniversary of the destruction of the First Temple; commemorates the loss of the second temple Seen as a disaster, Jews mourn this loss with this day every year involves fasting in modern celebration

blood libel/ritual murder

arose from the accusation that the jews of Fulda (german town) murdered a christian child and used his blood for ritual purposes blood libel: ritual murders that involved using blood Jews throughout Europe found themselves exposed to outlandish accusations on dozens of occasions ritual murder--what Jews were falsely accused of committing against some Christians Lead to popular violence against the Jewish community that stood accused Anti-Jewish accusations

Mishnah

associated with Gamliel II (who composed it) Rabbinic interpretation of the Torah Foundational document of rabbinic Judaism → very different from the Bible Compilation of mostly legal traditions attributed to various sages from the end of the Second Temple period through to the beginning of the third century Organized into six divisions known as orders Its emergence represents the important step in the consolidation of rabbinic Judaism

Zion

biblical synonym of Jerusalem Zionism: the modern movement to establish a sovereign homeland for the Jews

Jesus

born between 4 BCE and 6 BCE Central to Christian belief and history as Christ (Greek for the Hebrew phrase "anointed one.") An itinerant Jewish teacher and wonder worker whose Hebrew name seems to have been Yehoshua (Joshua) Put to death in Jerusalem under the administration of the Roman prefect, Pontius Pilate 12 disciples were all Jews and saw themselves as continuing the tradition started by Abraham and Moses Christianity's origins are part of the story of Jewish culture in this period outgrowth of Jewish culture in the Roman period saw himself as a Jew, spent his life amidst other Jews in Galilee and Judea, and drew on earlier Jewish tradition in what he taught and how he behaved important figures mentioned in the Gospels: Herod, Pontius Pilate, and even Caiaphas, the high priest at the time of Jesus' death early Christians bear close resemblance to Pharisees, and in some respects, the Essenes

Judah ha-Levi

born in Christian Spain, but spent most of his life in Muslim al-Andalus until he left the Iberian Peninsula to move to the Land of Israel in 1140 was troubled by the implications of rational philosophy for rabbinic Judaism therefore, wrote, in Arabic, a treatise entitled The Book of Argument and Proof in Defense of the Despised Faith translated into Hebrew and became known as the Sefer ha-Kuzari, or "book of the Khazar [king]" framed his defense of Judaism against Christianity, Islam, the Karaites, but above all against rational philosophy, as a dialogue between the king of the Khazars and a rabbi Khazar king has a dream in which he is told by an angel that his intentions are praiseworthy but his actions are not king summons a philosopher, a Christian, and a Muslim, but is unconvinced by all of them until he invites a rabbi, who lays out the principles of Judaism Converts to Judaism!!! Story is fictional, but it appears that the Khazar class actually did convert to Judaism sets Judaism against philosophy unlike Saada Gaon, who had maintained that there could be no contradiction between rational philosophy and revealed religion said gentiles are not = to Jews born into Jewish descent modern readers have been disturbed by his ethnocentric understanding of the Jewish identity

Maimonides/Moshe ben Maimon/the Rambam

born in Cordoba and he and his family were forced to leave Spain during the Almohad persecution eventually settled in Cairo, where he became a physician in the service of the Fatimid court and rose to power within the Egyptian Jewish community shaped Jewish culture in several important ways one of the most accomplished philosophers laying out his philosophical worldview in a book he wrote in Arabic, the Guide to the Perplexed authored a work, in Hebrew, that became a classic in the study of Jewish law - a comprehensive law code, called Mishneh Torah was an important political leader within his community, establishing what became essentially a dynasty of leadership for the Egyptian Jewish community that lasted several generations

Isaac Luria

born to an Ashkenazi father and a Sephardi mother in Jerusalem father died when he was a small child mother took him to Egypt where he grew up until emigrating to Safed in 1570 teachings and religious practices ascribed to him and his disciples transformed Jewish religious life in subsequent generations Safed had been center of Kabbalah before Luria's arrival there scholars such as Moses Cordovero and others had created a culture of ascetic mystical practice and study did not put any of his highly imaginative teachings into writing Lurianic Kabbalah one of his disciples = Haim Vital, saw himself as Luria's preeminent student lurianic teachings - everything depends on religious actions of Jewish people

Synagogue

central meeting place for Jewish communities throughout the Mediterranean and Near East, a place of communal worship and other community activities. In Ptolematic Egypt, 3rd Century BCE (first evidence of this institution) Many theories of "how" it arose Allowed the Jews of Egypt a way to sustain a religious life different than that of Egyptians and Greeks.

Davidic messiah

developed especially in 1st century Jewish eschatology, this figure was represented as a kingly figure from the line of David, who would deliver Israel from its enemies widely assumed by Jews that God would come to their rescue at the end, but differed in how the eschatological age would play out - He is one example of this - God intervenes through his angels or other supernatural beings/ special humans Dead Sea Scrolls community seems to have anticipated these two messiahs working in stages (Davidic and priestly - alternative savior from line of Aaron) underlying these ideas is the assumption that the present was a transition between the biblical past and an idealized future and the progress from one to the next had been determined in advance - following script of events the script was a secret but God had revealed it to certain special humans JESUS is the Davidic messiah hence importance of associating him with Bethlehem - the city of David's birth

Christian anti-Judaism

developed from rival between Jews and the Christians, a people with its own way of worshipping God, own understanding of the Bible, and own claim to the status of God's people Christian's inherited some Judeophobia blamed Jews for the death of Jesus and rejection of his status as the messiah and son of God

sefirot

different "names/ essences" of God. The essence flows through all of these sefirot, and when a Jew sins, he disrupts the flow

Cairo genizah

document repository for any writings that contain the name of God (Genizah) documents in this are the most important source of information for the economic and social lives of the Jews in the Middle Ages Cairo genizah is very large (boasted by its cairo synagogue) Scholar named Abraham Firkovitch searched for particular books and documents→ took back to Russia with him revolutionized medieval Jewish history but also the history of the region in general, by virtue of their astounding wealth of information about daily life, commerce, marriage, and muslim-jewish relations

Barukh/Benedict de Spinoza

embraced rationalist critique of Judaism, which led to his rejection of all revealed religion denied idea of Divine Providence and the immortality of the soul, and held that the Torah was not literally given by God to the Jews believed that the ceremonial laws of Judaism were the articles of the constitution of a now-defunct state: ancient Israel was excommunicated in 1656 abandoned Judaism, but did not convert to Christianity Spinoza embraced what would later become one of many alternative forms of Jewishness that included rejecting Judaism without the formal adoption of another religion it is in this stance that has led many to refer to Spinoza as he first modern Jew

Moses Maimonides

famous medieval scholar served as the head of Egyptian Jewry in the 1170s and again about 1195 until his death in 1204. 12-15 century--position of ra'is al-yahud in Egypt was held by descendents of Maimonides held a function similar to the patriarch of the Coptic church, and represented the Jewish community to the Muslim authorities position held by Jews who also served the caliphs as court physicians

Kibbutz/kibbutzim

first agricultural collective - kvutza inhabitants in expansion of such settlements, considered themselves an extended family "an organization for settlement which maintains a collective society of members organized on the basis of general ownership of possessions aims are self labor, equality, and cooperation in all areas of production, consumption and education eventually - different characteristics after WWI, began to develop important - ideology that informed them and in turn was employed to define the new nation

host desecration

follows similar trajectory as blood libel and ritual murders related anti-jewish accusation precipitant for this kind of accusation was the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215, which officially recognized the belief that the wafer used in the Catholic ceremony of the Eucharist, the host, actually became the body of Christ during the ceremony, a doctrine known as transubstantiation Some christians maintained that Jews, believing in this doctrine themselves, stabbed and mutilated the host in a kind of reenactment of the crucifixion of Christ allegedly causing it to shed blood Two consequences: a cult would be established on the site of the desecration, and the community would seek retaliation against the local Jewish community

Apocalypse

from the Greek for "the lifting of the veil" Used to describe the end of days or texts that forecast the end of days

tikkun

key concept of Lurianic mysticism mystical mending of the world the "restoration" or "mending" of the world purpose of which is not only to entangle the sacred sparks of divine light trapped in the material world but to restore the original unity of the "male" and "female" aspects of the Godhead as it had existed prior to Creation the ultimate purpose of every religious act, whether it is a prayer, mitzvah (performance of religious commandment), or study of the texts of Jewish tradition, is to advance the process of tikkun as a result of Adam's sins, the "sparks" of all future souls also fell into and were trapped by the material world part of the process of tikkun is the liberation of these soul-sparks

gilgul

key concept of Lurianic mysticism reincarnation liberation of these soul-sparks occurs through gilgul → transmigration of souls soul-sparks must be "reassembled" through their various transmigrations until they are reconstituted to their original form and can be reunited with their divine root not mentioned in Talmud Safed Kabbalists developed idea further

Paul

known as Saul before becoming a disciple of Jesus, he was Jesus's most influential follower. To reach out to various Christian communities, he composed letters now preserved in the New Testament- these letters give non-Jews a much greater role in the Christian community; helped organized Christian communities said Jesus was sent to extend the possibility of salvation beyond the Jews to the rest of the peoples said it was possible for non-Jews to join in this new relationship with God, "new covenant" salvation was no longer a matter of being Jewish or adhering to Mosaic law, but of faith in Christ he and his writings had a major impact on the development of Christian belief and biblical interpretation. Died between 64-67 CE identified with Pharisees before converting to Christianity Paul's theology allowed non-Jews to bypass Judaism and all its laws in order to pursue a relationship with God left open the possibility of Christianized Judaism

Shammai

lived around 1st century BCE different school from Hillel difference in legal issues ranging from how to recite certain blessings to what took for a non-Jew to convert to Judaism Frequently linked to Hillel

ketubbah

marriage constituted a promise between two parties, which took the form of the marriage contract called the ketubbah obligated the husband and wife to bear responsibility for one another's well-being many of the medieval ketubbot are formulaic and essential the same as those used in a traditional Jewish wedding ceremony today, others, especially ones drawn up by Karaites were often much more personalized and detailed

Ahad Ha-Am

means "one of the people" refers to Asher Ginsberg imagined something very different from Herzl Democratic Faction was inspired by him and led by the first president of the State of Israel sought to place greater emphasis than Herzl had done on Jewish culture cultural mission became central to the zionist enterprise thereafter became spokesperson for cultural Zionism dedicated to spiritual welfare as opposed to Herzl's concert with protection of physical safety of the Jews rejected the state-building effors of Herzl, insisting that nation building efforts of Herzl According to him, new Hebrew culture would radiate out to the Jewish world to invigorate a moribund and decadent Diaspora Jewry fierce critic of Jewish settlement efforts in Palestine

Aristotelianism

more influential than Neo-Platonism dominated medieval Jewish philosophy from 12th century onward and well into the early modern period Abraham ibn Daud of Spain first criticized the Neo-Platonic view of Solomon ibn Gabirol in his book Emunah Rabah and developed a Jewish engagement with Aristotelian philosophy instead posited clear boundary between philosophical and prophetic knowledge philosophy had to operate without any regard to the revealed truths of the Bible and the prophets question of creation was one that preoccupied Jewish Aristotelians

Haskalah

movement that began in Berlin in the 1740s, with the intention of promoting among Jews Enlightenment values, including philosophical rationalism, religious modernization, and the introduction of secular subject matter into the Jewish school curriculum following its German phase, the Haskalah evolved in a different direction taking after it took root in Galicia and Russia the overall impact of the Haskalah was to transform the Jewish people as it led down a path toward increased secularism and greater participation of Jews in European culture and involvement in politics, informing those who crafted Jewish political responses to the social condition of European Jews "Jewish Enlightenment"

Radhanites

one great merchant family traded in silk fabrics, slaves, furs, and swords and had dealings that extended to Europe and China medieval Islamic world stood at the very center of global commerce and Jewish merchants played an important role Islamic rule did much to facilitate kind of wide-ranging trade by introducing new, safer forms vessels and building additional lighthouses while uniting a territory stretching from the Atlantic seaboard all the way to India most Jewish merchants conducted their business on a more modest scale than the Radhanites

Misnagdism/Mitnagdism

opponents of Hasidim crystalized into this identifiable group, meaning "opponents" battle was motivated by two principal grievances the first involved matters of faith while the second was political early disputes centered on the Hasidic introduction of Kabbalah into the daily life of the masses. Traditional authorities disliked this Theological disagreements could also have social and economic consequences created again much tension

Christ/Christos

other name by which Jesus is known, did not originate as a personal name but rather as a title, christos, a Greek rendering of the Hebrew word "anointed one", applied to Jesus by his followers to signal his status as a royal figure in the line of David

Russification

policy of Alexander III Russification was designed to take the sting out of those who wanted to reform Russia and to bind all the Russian people around one person - the tsar. Russification was first formulated in 1770 by Uvarov. He defined three areas of Russification - autocracy, orthodoxy and 'Russian-ness'. Of the three, Russian-ness was the most important Alexander III changed this...he believed that all cultures and nationalities within the empire should be wiped out (though not physically) and that all the people within the empire should become 'Great Russians'. Russification had no time for small ethnic groups that were more concerned about their culture at the expense of Russia's as a whole

Uganda Proposal

political development that went directly to the heart of the problem besetting political zionism and its relation to the question of Jewish culture in any possible Jewish state emerged during the controversy over Uganda British government offered parts of Uganda to the Zionist movement for the purpose of Jewish autonomous settlement Herzl suggested Uganda as a temporary refuge for Russian Jews Herzl's name for Uganda as a "night asylum" met with strenuous opposition, especially from Eastern European Jews Zionist movement eventually rejected the plan 1905

Midrash

practiced by rabbis form of biblical interpretation that was distinctive in many ways biblical text could support more than one interpretation

Moses de Leon

rabbi from Spain wrote Zohar, but denied his authorship and claimed he had found the book and it was written by Simon Gar Yochai → make it seem more important, older was a Spanish rabbi and Kabbalist who is thought of as the composer or redactor of the Zohar. It is a matter of controversy if the Zohar is his own work, or that he committed traditions going back to Rabbi Shimon bar Yohaiin writing

Kabbalat Shabbat

ritual developed among Safed mystics, practices and developed by Luria himself, is the welcoming of the Sabbath "queen," known in Hebrew as Kabbalat Shabbat practice involved going to the outskirts of the city on the Sabbath eve, turning one's face toward the west as the sun sets, and welcoming the "Sabbath Queen" today, a common feature of Friday night synagogue services, which involves a recitation of a number of psalms and a hymn welcoming the "Sabbath Queen" Lurianic Kabbalah has been influential for subsequent generations of Jews, whether or not they cared or knew about some of the more esoteric aspects of Luria's teachings

Mishneh Torah

written by Maimonides argued that all divine commandments can ultimately be derived through reason warned that a law "for which he finds no reason and understands no cause should not be trivial in his eyes" comprehensive code that became a classic in Jewish law written in clear Hebrew modeled on the language of the Mishnah rather than biblical Hebrew or the Aramaic of the Talmud-in order to address wide audience rearranged vast amount of material that he culled from classical rabbinic literature into organized chapters forewent the ambiguity and back and forth of the argument that is typical of Talmudic writing instead was very concise

Guide to the Perplexed

written by Maimonides dealt with all the common themes that preoccupied medieval philosophers: the relation between reason and philosophy, the question of creation, the rationale of the religious commandments, man's free will vs. God's foreknowledge of all human action, the existence of evil, and the nature of God discusses what God is not God remains impersonal