Research

systematic sampling

Every nth item in the target population is selected after a random start.

Explanation research

Explain why something occurs, identify the source of social behaviours, beliefs, conditions and events- qualitative and quantitative

Exploration Research

Explore area, usually to formulate precise questions- typically qualitative; Is there something to research?

historical design

Focuses on the identification, location, evaluation, and synthesis of data or evidence from the past to confirm or reject a hypothesis; suited for trend analysis; uses secondary sources

Research Ethics

Participation must be voluntary, No harm to the participants, Participants must be ensured anonymity and confidentiality, Researcher must identify self ro participants, Researcher must make study's shortcomings and failures known to the readers ​

nominal level of measurement

Qualitative data only Categorized using names, labels, or qualities No mathematical computations can be made (gender, eye color, blood type)

ordinal level of measurement

Qualitative or quantitative. Data at this level can be arranged in order, or ranked, but differences between data entries are not meaningful. categories are in a logical sequence (low income, middle income and high income--extreme dislike, dislike, neutral, like, extreme like)

quasi-experimental design

Research method similar to an experimental design except that it makes use of naturally occurring groups rather than randomly assigning subjects to groups;

Evaluation research

Research undertaken for the purpose of determining the impact of some social intervention, such as a program aimed at solving a social problem. Includes exploration, description, and explanation.

randomization (random assignment)

A sampling selection procedure in which each person or element in a population has an equal chance of being selected to either the experimental group or the control group.

cross-sectional study

A study in which a representative cross section of the population is tested or surveyed at one specific time.

social desirability bias

A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.

pretest-posttest control group design

A true experimental design in which the experimental group is exposed to the treatment but the control group is not. Pretest and posttest measures are taken on both groups. Test units are randomly assigned. R O X O R O O

panel study

A type of longitudinal study, in which data are collected from the same set of people (the sample or panel) at several points in time; has problems with panel attrition.

stratified sampling

A type of probability sampling in which the population is divided into groups with a common attribute and a random sample is chosen within each group; method of organizing before choosing the sample.

time series designs

A type of quasi-experimental design in which only one group receives the intervention; an outcome is measured repeatedly over time. It does not require a comparison group. OOOOOXOOOOO

probability sampling

A type of random sampling in which every element in the population being studied has a known chance of being selected for study

control variable

A variable that is kept constant during a controlled experiment.

multiple baseline

ABA or ABAB Baseline is determined (A), treatment is given (B), treatment is taken away to examine baseline again (A)

one-group pretest-posttest design

An preexperiment in which a researcher recruits one group of participants; measures them on a pretest; exposes them to a treatment, intervention, or change; and then measures them on a posttest. OXO

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Exploratory sequential mixed methods

The researcher first begins by exploring with qualitative data and analysis and then uses the findings in a second quantitative phase.

Right to Receive Services during Research

The solution to not providing service, which would be the ideal control in Research, is to offer the routine set of services to those in the control group. Or they can be put on a waiting list to receive the new service.

predictive validity

The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior; will the tests predict what they are supposed to?

concordance rates

likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait

Solomon four-group design

pretest-posttest design with two sets of nonequivalent groups, one set that takes the pretest and posttest and one set that takes only the posttest. R O X O R O X O R O R O

convergent validity

responses on one test measure up with responses on a similar test; shows constructs are related

availability sampling

sampling in which elements are selected on the basis of convenience; runs risk of being biased.

theoretical sampling

selecting sample members based on earlier interviews that suggest that particular types of participants will help researchers better understand the research topic

homogeneous sampling

selects all similar cases (or similar programs, etc) in order to describe some subgroup in depth

interrater reliability

the amount of agreement in the observations of different raters who witness the same behavior

sampling ratio

the number of cases in the sample divided by the number of cases in the population or the sampling frame, or the proportion of the population in the sample

ratio level of measurement

the numbers indicating a variable's values represent fixed measuring units and an absolute zero point. For example, 0 lbs does mean it weighs nothing.

internal validity

trustworthy cause and effect relationship between treatment and outcome

social justice mixed methods design

Uses various methods based on a social justice theory, with goal of call for action

positive relationship

an association between two variables in which they increase or decrease together

sampling error

an error that occurs when a sample somehow does not represent the target population; the larger the sample, the better it represents the population and the less errors involved.

random error

an error that occurs when the selected sample is an imperfect representation of the overall population; no consistent pattern; our measures keep coming up with different results.

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events; helps us to see and make sense of patterns.

experimental designs

designs involving random assignment to groups and manipulation of the independent variable; have a control group that is compared to the experimental group

sampling interval

distance between items chosen

social constructivist

emphasizes the social contexts of learning and that knowledge is mutually built and constructed; everything is subjective and it is difficult to be objective. Like qualitative flexibility.

systematic error

error resulting from some imperfect aspect of the research design that causes respondent error or from a mistake in the execution of the research

simple random sampling

every member of the population has an equal probability of being selected for the sample

external validity

extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings

variables

factors that can change in an experiment

threats to internal validity

history, maturation or passage of time, testing, instrumentation, statistical regression (scores fluctuate due to having a bad day or other factors) , selection bias (the groups have to truly be comparable), ambiguity of what causes what (does the independent variable cause the dependent or vice versa)

concurrent validity

how well the test compares to other instruments that are intended for the same purpose or comparing two groups that are tested at the same time; or comparing two different groups that took the same test

acquiescence response set

a bias in which people are more likely to agree than disagree with anything that is asked of them to make themselves look good.

purposive sampling

a biased sampling technique in which only certain kinds of people are included in a sample

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study; how we determine what to look at; a scale based on observations

nominal definition

a dictionary-like definition that uses a set of words to help us understand what a term means, but does not tell us what indicators to use in observing the term in a research study

consent form

a form provided to the participants at the beginning of a research study to obtain their consent for the study and to explain the study's purpose and risks, and the participants' rights as participants

sampling frame

a list of individuals from whom the sample is drawn; Ex. class roster

test-retest reliability

a method for determining the reliability of a test by comparing a test taker's scores on the same test taken on separate occasions; test is taken over and over again to determine consistency of the measure

paradigm

a model; an example; philosophical assumption of the nature of reality

purposive sampling

a nonprobability sampling method in which elements are selected for a purpose, usually because of their unique position; We use our judgment to pick the best people for the study.

Single baseline

A (Baseline) B (Treatment)

assent form

A brief consent form that a child can understand and sign before participating in a study.

Institutional Review Board

A committee at each institution where research is conducted to review every experiment for ethics and methodology. Looks at: Voluntary participation and informed consent, No harm to participants, Anonymity and confidentiality, Deceiving participants (justifiable and harmless?)

cohort study

A longitudinal study following a subset of a population over a lifetime and how it changes.

quota sampling

A nonprobability sampling technique in which researchers divide the population into groups and then arbitrarily choose participants from each group

cluster sampling

A probability sampling technique in which clusters of participants within the population of interest are selected at random, followed by data collection from all individuals in each cluster.

intensity sampling

A qualitative sampling technique similar to deviant case sampling in which cases are selected that are more or less intense than usual, but not so unusual that they would be called deviant.

nonequivalent comparison groups design

A quasi-experimental design in which the researcher finds an existing group that it can compare to the experimental group. Participants are not assigned randomly. OXO O O

spurious relationship

A relationship between two variables that are no longer related when a third variable is controlled.

critical social science

A research paradigm distinguished by its focus on oppression and its commitment to using research procedures to empower oppressed groups.

feminist paradigm

A research paradigm, like the critical social science paradigm, distinguished by its commitment to using research procedures to address issues of concern to women and to empower women.

interval level of measurement

Applies to data that can be arranged in order. In addition, differences between data values are meaningful. (IQ, Fahrenheit temperature) No zero point. A change in 20 to 25 degrees is the same increase as 120 to 125. 0 degrees does not mean an absence of temperature.

convergent mixed methods

Both qualitative and quantitative data are collected, analyzed separately, and then compared to understand if the results and the findings confirm or disconfirm each other. The key assumption is that the two approaches provide different kinds of information, but together they yield results that should converge.

Quantitative description research

Characteristics of a population-- Easily quantifiable data such as age, income, size, etc.

Qualitative description research

Digs deeper for meaning-- what it's like to walk in another person's shoes.

face validity

Measures whether a test looks like it tests what it is supposed to test.

intervention mixed methods design

Merging a qualitative inquiry with a quantitative evaluation of an intervention's outcome

mulitphase mixed methods design

Several mixed methods are implemented in multiple phases over time in a longitudinal study. Multiple projects focus on a common objective.

content validity

The degree to which the content of a test is representative of the domain it's supposed to cover; test measures all relevant parts of a subject it is examining. If it is thorough, it has good content

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

contemporary positivism

a paradigm that emphasizes the pursuit of objectivity in our quest to observe and understand reality

one-shot case study

a pre-experimental design in which a single group of test units is exposed to a treatment "X", and then a single measurement "O" on the dependent variable is taken

posttest-only design with nonequivalent groups

a preexperimental design in which one group of research participants is administered a treatment and is then compared, on the dependent variable, with another group of research participants that did not receive the experimental treatment. XO O

inductive method

a process of making numerous observations until one feels confident in drawing generalizations and predictions from them

negative relationship

a relationship between variables characterized by an increase in one variable that occurs with a decrease in the other variable

curvilinear relationship

a relationship in which changes in the values of the first variable are accompanied by both increases and decreases in the values of another variable

random sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

disproportionate stratified sampling

a sampling method in which elements are selected from strata in different proportions from those that appear in the population; A stratum could be large supermarkets, but they only account for 20% of all grocery stores even though they account for 80% of grocery sales.

maximum variation sampling

a sampling method that selects study participants that represent a wide range of characteristics that are present in the population and are of interest to the research

disproportionate stratified sampling

a sampling procedure in which strata are sampled disproportionately to population composition

proportionate stratified sampling

a sampling procedure in which strata are sampled proportionately to population composition

mixed methods research

a single study collects both qualitative and quantitative data and integrates the data into the research process to improve understanding.

Hypothesis

a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables

posttest-only control group design

a true experimental design in which the experimental group is exposed to the treatment but the control group is not and no pretest measure is taken. Posttest measures are taken on both groups. Test units are randomly assigned R X O R O

trend study

a type of longitudinal study in which a given characteristic of some population is monitored over time; study changes in a population

deviant case sampling

a type of purposive sampling that focuses on unusual or very specific cases

internal consistency reliability

assesses whether the items on a test are related to one another; hiw well items measure certain characteristics

evidence based practice

clinical decision making that integrates the best research evidence, practitioner expertise, and client attributes.

parallel forms reliability

consistency between/among alternate versions of the same instrument; e.g. creating 2 parallel forms of a questionnaire (with difficult questions) and both tests show correlation; two versions of the same test--how consistent they measure

Reliability

consistency of measurement; does not ensure accuracy

discriminant validity

measure of the lack of association among constructs that are supposed to be different; validates two outcomes' difference

hereditability estimates

measure the extent to which individual differences in complex traits in a specific population are due to genetic factors; compares characteristics between family members

Explanatory sequential mixed methods

one in which the researcher first conducts quantitative research, analyzes the results, and then builds on the results to explain them in more detail with qualitative research.

mediating variable

one which explains the relationship between two other variables; What is actually causing the outcome. This variable changes when the independent variable changes. Aging leads to wisdom which leads to better driving. Wisdom is causing the outcome. ​

single subject research

participants are compared with themselves rather than with members of a control group; observe change in client's behavior; small number of participants; poor external validity

deductive reasoning

reasoning from general to specific; Start with a theory, sets a hypothesis, and then observes and tests it.

snowball sampling

recruitment of participants based on word of mouth or referrals from other participants

Atheoretical approach

relies on clinical descriptions and symptoms rather than theories of etiology; describes rather than explains.

Description Research

research in which social phenomena are defined and described; How things are.

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period; Lots of info provided but expensive in time and money.

Quantitative Research

research that collects and reports data primarily in numerical form; surveys, questionnaires

Qualitative Research

research that relies on what is seen in field or naturalistic settings more than on statistical data; interviews, observation, focus groups; time consuming; smaller samples

Interpretivism

values subjectivity; Cannot rely on purely objective measurements and standardization to understand people.

moderating variable

variable that changes the nature of the relationship between two other variables; This variable does not change. Ex. Gender may affect resting heart rate after exercising.

anchor points

various places you may be able to find a participant.