Language Acquisition Theories
Two Main Second Language Acquisition Theories
1. Krashen - The Monitor Model 2. Terrell - The Natural Approach
Krashen's Five Hypotheses
1. The Acquisition - Learning Hypothesis 2. The Input Hypothesis 3. The Monitor Hypothesis 4. The Natural Order Hypothesis 5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis (First Main L2 Acquisition Theory)
The Affective Filter
Low in learners with high motivation and self-confidence High in learners with low motivation and self-confidence Does not affect the route of language development Part of Krashen's Affective Filter Hypothesis
Universal Grammar
brain is hardwired to learn and develop language Humans have inherent ability to acquire, create, and comprehend language despite differences in grammar and composition across language Children born with innate ability to understand human voice and to distinguish between different parts of language Specifically: the capacity to understand differences in phonemes (smallest elements of sound) Component of Chomsky's Innatist Theory
Sensorimotor Stage
First stage in Piaget's Cognitive Constructivism Theory Generally occurs from birth to age 2 Child's knowledge based on physical interactions and experiences; Child learns about the world by trying and testing Language is purely physical skill at this stage; babies begin to acquire language by experimenting with the various sounds their mouths can make They learn to imitate familiar sounds and may even begin mimicking them in appropriate contexts
Three Key Components in Chomsky's Innatist Theory
1. Universal Grammar 2. LAD (Language Acquisition Device) 3. Poverty of Stimulus
Three Key Theories of L1 Development
1. Behaviorist (Skinner) 2. Innatist (Chomsky) 3. Social Interactionist (Vygotsky)
Instructional Implications: Focus on... (3)
1. Error Analysis: recognizing patterns of error 2. Interlanguage: Analyzing which aspects of target language are universal 3. Developmental patterns: order in which features of a language are acquired + sequence in which specific feature is acquired
Four Stages of Piaget's Cognitive Constructivism Theory
1. Sensorimotor Stage 2. Preoperational Stage 3. Concrete Operational Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage
Acquisition vs Learning (Krashen)
Acquisition is a subconscious process of making meaning of language through repeated exposure Learning is the conscious process of developing skills through formal instruction in grammar and syntax
The Affective Filter Hypothesis
Addresses emotional risks inherent in learning new language Language acquisition can only occur when comprehensible input reaches processing facilities of the brain without being filtered - Stressors such as low self-esteem, poor motivation, and anxiety may inhibit this action SO, when learner's affective filter is low, they are free of stress and motivated to learn and acquire new information Teacher controls amount of input learner comes in contact with - and how much of that input becomes intake Learners with low filtering mechanisms likely to be more efficient in comprehending input they receive - Also because these learners more likely to interact with others without fear of making mistakes
Poverty of Stimulus
Asserts that all children are not born with enough exposure to their native languages to explain their ability to understand phonemes Therefore, this exposure cannot account for the sum of their learned language Chomsky thus believed that grammatical laws must be a constant in humans Component of Chomsky's Innatist Theory
The Natural Approach (Terrell)
Based on Krashen's monitor model Fundamental assumption: learners of any age are able to take in speech input - if most of it is comprehensible - and discover its system without having it arbitrarily broken down for them and spoon-fed Primarily based on the theory that language acquisition is a subconscious process that occurs when language is used for natural, meaningful interaction This approach supplies high amount of input made comprehensible through pictures, actions, and situational - grammatical - lexical transparency Respects initial preproduction period - expects speech to emerge not from artificial practice, but from motivated language use - progressing from early single-word responses to more coherent discourse Interpersonal and personal negotiation of meaning - rather than attention to grammatical correctness - is fostered for an extended period Learning activities designed for learner comfort and enjoyment (Second Main L2 Acquisition Theory)
Factor of Puberty in Language Development
Brain research shows that single most important factor affecting lang acquisition = onset of puberty Before puberty, person uses one area of brain for lang learning After puberty, different area of brain used Person who learns second lang before puberty will always process language learning more easily Person who learns after puberty will likely find lang learning more difficult and depend on repetition
CUP - Common Underlying Proficiency (Cummins)
CUP provides the base for development of both L1 and L2 In the course of learning a language, child acquires set of skills and implicit metalinguistic knowledge that can be drawn upon when working in another language Any expansion of CUP that takes place in one language will have a beneficial effect on the other CUP theory also serves to explain why it becomes easier and easier to learn additional languages Imagine iceberg: CUP is underwater; surface features up top
Cognitive Constructivism (Piaget)
Central interest = children's cognitive development Theorized that language simply one way that children represent their familiar words - as a reflection of thought BUT language does not contribute to development of thinking Believed cognitive development precedes language development Four Stages: 1. Sensorimotor Stage 2. Preoperational Stage 3. Concrete Operational Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage
LAD - Language Acquisition Device
Child is equipped with biological LAD and therefore plays major role in acquisition Enables you to distinguish speech from other sounds in environment Organizes data Role of social environment is minor, language used by others merely triggers LAD ---> language learning is innate Component of Chomsky's Innatist Theory
Krashen on Classroom Management
Classroom should provide safe environment, enough instruction, hands on activities Students are free to talk and learn language in a natural way Encourage high confidence, low stress, do not focus on grammatical errors
Recent Theories of Language Acquisition + Development
Contemporary critique of earlier theories - Suggest that children, their behaviors, and their attempts to understand and communicate are misunderstood when causes of lang development categorized as outside the child, or mechanistically in the child's brain Recognize that children are active learners who co-construct their worlds Children's lang developments part of holistic development - emerging from cognitive, social, and emotional interactions Language development depends on child's social and cultural env, the people in it, their interactions The way children represent these factors in their minds is fundamental to lang develop. Child's agenda and interactions generated by child promote lang learning Adult's role, actions, and speech still considered important BUT adults must mind read and adjust their side of co-construction to relate to child's understanding and interpretation
The Acquisition - Learning Hypothesis
Distinguishes between "acquisition" - a subconscious process of making meaning of language through repeated exposure - and "learning," - the conscious process of developing skills through formal instruction in grammar and syntax Learning language can only be useful after it is acquired Learning the rules of a language will not allow users to produce output Memorizing grammatical and structural rules is not authentic - therefore, it will not allow learners to become better users of language Only authentic acquisition (subconscious) will allow students to use their new language effectively
BICS and CALP (Cummins)
Distinguishes between the two (BICS) Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills: the surface skills that language students acquire quickly Children acquire BICS in 1-2 years of immersion in target language (CALP) Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency: skills needed to perform in an academic setting Children need between 5-7 years to develop
Connectionism
Evolved in response to Piaget's work Relies on several key ideas: - Language usage based on person's perception of language - Repeated linguistic input creates language patterns in learners - Language acquisition results from personal experiences - Neural mapping essential to acquisition of language Language comprehension and production abilities develop through continual engagement with language Emphasizes importance of input + how language learners generate knowledge and extract meaning - When a language learner experiences form of lingual input, neural connections created - These connections strengthened through repeated exposure to language stimuli - Eventually, as larger and larger groups of connections form, complex neural networks created, reinforcing learner understanding of language
Formal Operational Stage
Fourth stage in Piaget's Cognitive Constructivism Theory 11 years of age onward Adolescents demonstrate intelligence through logical use of symbols and their relationship to abstract concepts Capable of using both inductive and deductive reasoning; have fully developed capacity to use language for multiple purposes - including debating abstract theory, discussing philosophy, using logic
Why study theories about language development?
Help us see that conversations with babies (treating them as people who understand, share, and have intentions in sensitive interchanges), and truly listening to young children are best ways to promote their lang development
Example Comprehensible Input
Introduce past tense by revisiting and editing a present-tense paragraph that the class has already studied Because they are already familiar with the vocab, learners are free to focus on processing the new information Blending of old and new makes received input slightly more difficult - extending students' learning without making it totally out of reach
Comprehensible Input
Just beyond our competence, but not beyond our understanding Also known as "i + 1"
Social Interactionist Theory (Vygotsky)
L1 Development Theory Linguistic focus on conversations between child + caregiver; focus on caregiver speech Process of acquisition emerges from communication - acts as scaffolding from caregiver Child's role important in interaction and in taking more control as language acquisition advances Role of social environment - interaction in early years when caregivers modify input and carry much of conversational load Central focus = relationship between development of thought and language; interested in how different languages affect a person's thinking Views language first as social communication, which gradually promotes both language itself and cognition
Behaviorist Theory (BF Skinner)
L1 Development Theory Repeated exposure to stimuli can create learning The more frequently behavior performed, more quickly it becomes habit Theory suggests that the same holds true with language: more frequent exposure, more readily grasp and adopt language Use of rewards and repetition crucial The child's role is secondary imitator and responder to environmental shaping Role of social environment: parental modeling and reinforcement Language development partially contingent upon conditioning
Innatist Theory (Chomsky)
L1 Development Theory Theory supposes that the ability to learn language is innate - that nature is more important than nurture - that experience using language necessary only to activate the LAD (Language Acquisition Device) Child is equipped with biological LAD; it therefore plays major role in acquisition - Enables you to distinguish speech from other sounds in environment - Organizes data Linguistic focus is child's syntax Role of social environment is minor, language used by others merely triggers LAD ---> language learning is innate Universal Grammar: brain is hardwired to learn and develop language Theory also known as nativism
Language Instinct Theory (Pinker)
Language develops in a child spontaneously without conscious effort or formal expression; innate capacity for language Language is an instinct - basic organization of grammar wired into brains through biological evolution; believes language is universal, but all languages are complex and follow rules Claims language created by evolution to solve communication problems among social hunter-gatherers Believes specific structures in the brain are active during a critical period of childhood - after which, they are disassembled, allowing the brain to use this energy for other purposes Does not think that language and thought are the same - rather, believes they are separate (both in the genes and the mind) from other instincts that comprise the human mind
The Monitor Hypothesis
Learner uses internal monitor to edit "learned" language production Knowledge gained through formal learning is useful in certain situations (such as written work or self-correcting) This practice allows students to solidify their understanding of new language Conditions must include: sufficient time, focus on form (not meaning), knowledge of grammar rule (drawbacks on separate flashcard)
Piaget vs. Vygotsky on Child's Speech
Piaget discussed child's egocentric speech ---> Vygotsky sees this as private speech - the child's way of using words to think about something, which progressed from social speech to thinking in words
The Natural Order Hypothesis
Posits that language is attained in foreseeable pattern by all learners Claims grammatical structures acquired in a predictable order Order of acquisition does not rely on the grammatical features of the language - and therefore cannot be altered through direct teaching methods Learner must be ready to gain new knowledge of language in order to do so Krashen states that much of language learner and teacher frustration results from students being presented with information they are not yet prepared to learn
Before Chomsky...
Prior to Chomsky, language learning theories primarily viewed children as blank slates I.e., they have no natural inclinations toward language but are instead entirely reliant on their experiences to build their language skills Most behaviorists believed that children learned language by listening to people speak, practicing their own speech, and receiving rewards for their efforts Because of Chomsky, it is now commonly accepted that there is an innate genetic component to the human capacity to learn language
Preoperational Stage
Second stage in Piaget's Cognitive Constructivism Theory Occurs from two to seven years of age Child's intelligence progressively demonstrated through use of symbols Children begin to talk constantly, but may be with little purpose or meaning - much of their speech is essentially thinking out loud Children show no awareness of other viewpoints; highly egocentric
Limits of Krashen's Theory
Some of the hypotheses in this model have been disproven: mainly that formal grammar instruction is actually necessary Contemporary research shows that language acquisition capabilities of adolescents and adults limited compared to young children Thus, mere exposure insufficient; formal grammar instruction should be integrated into ESOL classrooms
ZPD - Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky)
The difference between what the child can do with help and what they can do without guidance - on their own versus with teacher In between what a learner can do independently + what a learner cannot do Vygotsky argues that child follows adults example and gradually develops the ability to do certain tasks without help or assistance Social interaction intertwined; construction of meaning is individual
The Input Hypothesis
The only way we can acquire language is by receiving comprehensible input Allows students to utilize current knowledge while simultaneously gaining exposure to new language Based on this theory, comprehensible input is enough to lead to language acquisition When used correctly, comprehensible input provides students with enough known language that they can use their knowledge to interpret the unknown
Concrete Operational Stage
Third stage in Piaget's Cognitive Constructivism Theory Occurs from seven to eleven years of age Children demonstrate increased intelligence through logical and organized methods of thinking Able to use inductive reasoning to apply specific examples to general principles; less egocentric - can see other perspectives At this stage, language used to refer only to specific facts and concrete ideas - not abstract concepts; some people may remain in this stage for the rest of their lives, never reaching height of cognitive maturation
Significance and Limitations of Chomsky
Work shows that children's language development more complex than behaviorist theory, which asserts that children learn language merely by being rewarded for imitating BUT Chomp underestimates influence that thought (cognition) and language have on each other's development
Drawbacks of the Monitor Hypothesis (according to Krashen)
monitoring one's own language output has drawbacks: - Conversation often leaves little time for this practice - Self-correcting can be very difficult, even when learners have strong grasp of language - Focusing on one element of speech can distract learners from their main purpose - conveying meaning
Interactionism
theoretical view that children have some innate knowledge of the structures of language but also require meaningful interaction with others The structures which get acquired are exactly those that were able to convey meaning Suggests student-centered methods important - give more opportunity to interact
