LAST SEMESTER BIO FINAL :) HAINEY
Parathyroid Hormone
Parathyroid Gland. Calcium regulation
Viruses
Particles of nucleic acid, protein, and sometimes lipids; reproduce only by infecting living cells; and they are not alive
punctuated equilibrium,
Pattern of evolution in which long stable periods are interrupted by brief periods of more rapid change
diastole
Period of relaxation of the heart.
Chemical vs physical digestion
Physical Digestion - is the breakdown of food by physical means. - physical digestion starts when we use our knife and fork to break down large substances. - our teeth take over to grind food into small particles which can be swallowed. - physical digestion also includes peristalsis which helps move food down the digestive tract and the muscular churning of food within the stomach which helps mix food substances with digestive juices and acid. Chemical Digestion - chewing, churning, and mixing of food with digestive juices can only separate molecules from each other. These actions cannot split up molecules. Many nutrient molecules are too large to pass through cell membranes (i.e. they cannot be absorbed). - molecules of water, vitamins, and minerals are small enough to be absorbed through the intestinal wall and into the blood stream. - proteins, carbohydrates, and fat molecules are too large and must be broken down further by chemical means. This is chemical digestion.
Mechanical Isolation
Physical inability-Morphological differences prevent successful mating
Habitat
Place where an organism lives
post zygotic
Postzygotic barriers: 'After the zygote' Prevent zygotes from developing into viable, fertile adults
Vaccine
Preparation of weakened or killed pathogens that is injected into a person to produce active immunity
Prezygotic
Prezygotic barriers: 'before the zygote' Impede mating between species or hinder the ability for fertilization
coevolution
Process by which two species evolve in response to changes in each other Evolutionary change in which adaptations in one species act as a selective force on a second species, inducing adaptations that in turn act as a selective force on the first species; mutual influence on the evolution of two different interacting species.
convergent evolution,
Process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments.
lytic infection
Process in which a virus enters a cell, injects its DNA into the host DNA, makes a copy of itself, and causes the cell to burst
nitrogen fixation
Process of converting nitrogen gas into ammonia
What 2 ways do bacteria cause disease?
Producing toxins or consuming the host organism
What factors are used to identify prokaryotes?
Prokaryotes are identified by characteristics such as shape, the chemical nature of their cell walls, the way they move, and the way they obtain energy. Gram stain
interferons
Protein produced by cells in response to being infected by a virus; helps other cells resist the virus.
antibodies
Protein that is produced by lymphocytes and that attaches to a specific antigen.
radioactive dating,
Radioactive isotopes decay at a steady rate that scientists can measure and use to date fossils.
Stanley miller experiment: What are the reactants and products?
Reactants: Water (H20) Methane (CH4) Ammonia (NH3) Hydrogen (H2) Products: Amino acids
genetic reconstruction
Rebuilding the DNA of an extinct species With DNA segments from a living evolutionary relative
Renewable
Renewable-replinished at a rate equal or greater than they are used. Ex. solar, wind, ocean
What is required for speciation to occur?
Reproductive Isolation
Predation:
(similar to parasite)when an organism captures and feeds on another organism
Devo-provera shot:
(the needle) synthetic hormone injected in butt or arm, prevent ovaries from releasing egg (ovulation), no protection against STI's
7. How have scientist proved common descent occurrence?
-Comparative anatomy -Comparative embryology -Comparative genetics -Fossil Record -Molecular Clocks
How does endosymbiotic theory explain the evolution of eukaryotic cells?
-Early prokaryotic cells engulfed other Prokaryotes but DID NOT digest them -Instead, the consumed prokaryote formed a symbiotic relationship with its host -This explains why mitochondria and chloroplasts have the unique Characteristics they have.......and turned into a eukaryotic THEY WERE ONCE PROKARYOTES!
artificial selection
-Process of humans breeding organisms with desired traits -When humans select or choose which Offspring mate we artificially select Which traits are passed down
Compare relative to radioactive dating
-Relative dating: The age of a fossil can be determined by comparing its placement in a layer of rocks to that of other fossils Radioactive dating: is a technique used to date materials such as rocks or carbon, usually based on a comparison between the observed abundance of a naturally occurring radioactive isotope and its decay products, using known decay rates.
The energy in food is measured in calories which are actually
1 kilo calorie
How do fossils form?
1. An organisms remains are located at the formation of sedentary rock 2. The dead organism is buried in layers of sediment, which forms into rock 3. The pressure of sediment and chemical activity turns the organisms remains into rock
non steroid hormone
1. Nonsteroid hormone binds to receptors of the cell membrane 2. the binding of the hormone activated enzyme on the inner surface of the cell membrane 3. Enzyme activates to secondary messenger that carry the message of the hormone inside the cell 4. once revealed these secondary messenger can activate or inhibit a wide range of other cells activities
Menstrual Cycle
4 stages/ what happens at each: 1 Follicle Stage: follicles are growing, oocytes maturing; ovarian hormones are low, pituitary produces FSH and the follicle begins to form; as it grows the amount of estrogen increases; uterine lining thickens 2 Ovulation: follicle and adjacent wall of ovary rupture; pituitary produce LH which causes the follicle to rupture; egg does down oviduct 3Luteal Stage: LH stimulates transformation of follicular tissue; ruptured 4 Menstruation: release of egg cells (if the embryo is not present 2 weeks after ovulation corpus luteum decomposesestrogen and progesterone levels decrease and endometrium and egg is shed)
cladogram
: Diagrams showing the relationships among groups of organisms
relative dating
: The age of a fossil can be determined by comparing its placement in a layer of rocks to that of other fossils
half-life,
: The length of time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay
bile
??A substance produced by the liver that breaks up fat particles
pepsin
??An enzyme in the stomach that breaks down protein
Diabetes.
??Chronic metabolic disorder caused by insulin deficiency, which impairs carbohydrate usage and enhances usage of fats and proteins.
toxin,
A POISONOUS SUBSTANCE PRODUCED BY PATHOGENIC BACTERIA
osteocyte
A bone cell responsible for the maintenance and turnover of the mineral content of the surrounding bone
Global Climate change: Draw and describe
A broad term that refers to changes in the earth's climate mostly as a result of changes in temperature and precipitation.
antibiotic
A chemical secreted by a living organism that kills or reduces the reproduction rate of bacteria
genus
A classification grouping that consists of a number of similar, closely related species
cartilage
A connective tissue that is more flexible than bone and that protects the ends of bones and keeps them from rubbing together.
bacillus
A cylindrical or rod-shaped bacterium.
cancer
A disease in which some body cells grow and divide uncontrollably, damaging the parts of the body around them.
keratin
A fiber protein that is the principal component of hair, skin, and nails is:
active immunity
A form of acquired immunity in which the body produces its own antibodies against disease-causing antigens.
binary fission
A form of asexual reproduction in single-celled organisms by which one cell divides into two cells of the same size
actin
A globular protein that links into chains, two of which twist helically about each other, forming microfilaments in muscle and other contractile elements in cells.
population
A group of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area
species
A group of similar organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring.
Lysogenic Infection
A host cell makes copies of the virus many times until the cell enters the lytic cycle
myelin sheath
A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.
flagellum
A long, hairlike structure that grows out of a cell and enables the cell to move.
tumor
A mass of irregular cells
feedback inhibition
A method of metabolic control in which a product of a metabolic pathway acts as an inhibitor of an enzyme within that pathway.
virus
A piece of code that is capable of copying itself and typically has a detrimental effect, such as corrupting the system or destroying data
melanin
A pigment that gives the skin its color
gradualism
A proposed explanation in evolutionary biology stating that new species arise from the result of slight modifications (mutations and resulting phenotypic changes) over many generations.
peptidoglycan
A protein-carbohydrate compound that makes the cell walls of bacteria rigid
nonrenewable resources
A resource that can only be replenished over millions of years.
Limiting nutrient:
A single nutrient that is scarce or cycles slowly; resource is removed then population dies.
Prokaryote
A single‐celled organism that lacks a membrane‐bound nucleus and specialized organelles.
bone marrow
A soft tissue inside the bone that produces blood cells
nervous system, ,
A system of sensitive cells that respond to stimuli such as sound, touch, and taste
conjugation
A temporary union of two organisms for the purpose of DNA transfer. Causes the extensive genetic diversity seen amongst bacteria.
How does natural selection cause species to change over time?
A trait, which is successful for a certain environmental condition, will be passed on to the offspring if the parents are able to survive and reproduce -Butterflies who camouflage in their environment survive and produce more offspring than butterflies unable to camouflage
Binary Fission
A type of asexual reproduction in which an organism doubles its size and splits into two organisms. NO MITOSIS
osteoclast
A type of bone cell that removes bone tissue
myosin
A type of motor protein that associates into filaments that interact with actin filaments to cause cell contraction.
neutrophils,
A type of white blood cell that engulfs invading microbes and contributes to the nonspecific defenses of the body against disease. Most common type of white blood cell
What forces are used to transport Na+ and K+?
ATP ??K+ moves down its concentration gradient out of the cell. Na+/K+ ATPase helps to maintain the resting membrane potential.
Information birth control
Abstinence- when partners do not engage in sexual intercourse 100% effective fertility awareness method- monitor menstrual cycle withdrawal-removing penis out of vagina before ejaculating to keep sperm from meeting egg (not effective)
Epinephrine
Adrenal glands. Fight or flight response
respiration
Air enters the nose or mouth and moves to the pharynx, or throat. The pharynx serves as a passageway for both air and food. Air moves from the pharynx into the trachea, or windpipe. The epiglottis covers the entrance to the trachea when you swallow.At the top of the trachea is the larynx, which contains two elastic folds of tissue called vocal cords. Air then passes through the trachea into two large passageways in the chest cavity called bronchi. Each bronchus leads into one of the lungs. In each lung, the bronchus subdivides into smaller bronchi, and then into bronchioles. Bronchioles subdivide into millions of tiny air sacs called alveoli. Gas exchange takes place in the alveoli. Oxygen diffuses into the blood. Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood
Water Cycle:
All living things need it; most important. More water= more diversity. Cutting down forests results in: Disturbance of H2O cycle (water is carried away in streams instead of trapped by trees in the soil). Soil erodes and nitrogen cycle is effected.
Gene pool
All of the alleles in all the individuals that make up a population
pivot joint
Allows for rotation around the length of a bone, and only allows for rotation.
amylase
An enzyme that digests starch into disaccharides. Amylase is secreted by salivary glands and by the pancreas.
adaptive radiation,
An evolutionary pattern in which many species evolve from a single ancestral species that occupies a previously empty niche. For example, the ancestral finch that flew from ecuador to the galapagos islands which radiated into different forms
Consumers
An organism that obtains energy and nutrients by feeding on other organisms or their remains.
vector
An organism that transfers a pathogen between other organisms. Example: Mosquitos carrying West Nile Virus or fleas carrying the black death
epidermis
An outer layer of cells designed to provide protection
What is an ulcer? How is it caused by helicobacter pylori?
An ulcer is a sore caused by wearing down the lining of the digestive tract. Helicobacter pylori bacteria eat the outer lining of the digestive tract and cause ulcers
antigen
Any foreign molecule that is specifically recognized by lymphocytes and elicits an immune response.
malignant,
Any tumor that is cancerous and has the potential of spreading to other parts of the body
5. Compare and contrast artificial and natural selection
Artificial selection is the increase in frequency for a desired trait by humans selecting which organisms breed and produce offspring. Natural selection occurs when a natural selective pressure, such as changes in temperature or predation, select which traits increase in frequency in a gene pool.
Backbreeding
Artificially selecting for an extinct species
ligament
Attaches bone to bone
tendon
Attaches muscle to bone
How do bacteria cause disease?
Bacteria produce disease in one of two general ways; some bacteria damage the cells and tissues of the infected organism directly by breaking down the cells for food, other bacteria release toxins (poisons) that travel throughout the body interfering with the normal activity of the host
bacteriophage
Bacteriophages (or phages) are viruses that infect bacteria 1Genetic material: a. DNA/RNA 2. Capsid (protein coat) 3. Glycoproteins & Glycolipids a. How capsid attaches to host bacteria
Kidney dialysis
Blood is removed by a tube being pumped through by special tubing that acts like nephrons. Tiny pores in the tubing allows salts in small molecules to pass through --wastes fuse out of the blood into the fluid filled chamber allowing purified blood to be returned to the body
analogous structure
Body parts that share a common function, but not structure
osteoblast
Bone-forming cells
Know the life and work of Charles Darwin and his voyage on the HMS beagle
Born February 12, 1809 Naturalist and Geologist. Interested in the natural world (nature, rock formations, etc) Completed college degree In 1831, he joined the crew of the H.M.S. Beagle The ship surveyed the South America Coast Darwin joined the crew to collect and observe life around the world. Darwin noticed this diversity as he traveled He collected specimens and documented the living organisms he found The earth is millions of years old and constantly changing How are traits are passed down from one generation to another? The environment can determine which species survive and which die
what causes a heart beat?
SA node (sinoatrial node) - known as the heart's natural pacemaker The impulse starts in a small bundle of specialized cells located in the right atrium, called the SA node. The electrical activity spreads through the walls of the atria and causes them to contract. This forces blood into the ventricles. The SA node sets the rate and rhythm of your heartbeat. Normal heart rhythm is often called normal sinus rhythm because the SA (sinus) node fires regularly. AV node (atrioventricular node) The AV node is a cluster of cells in the center of the heart between the atria and ventricles, and acts like a gate that slows the electrical signal before it enters the ventricles. This delay gives the atria time to contract before the ventricles do. His-Purkinje Network This pathway of fibers sends the impulse to the muscular walls of the ventricles and causes them to contract. This forces blood out of the heart to the lungs and body. The SA node fires another impulse and the cycle begins again.
Parathyroid Gland
Secretes Parathyroid hormone, which raises calcium in the blood through osteoclast (dissolving of bone
Thyroid Gland
Secretes certain hormones and regulates metabolism, secretes thyroid hormone(metabolism), and calcitonin(lowers the calcium level in blood through osteoblast, or building of bone)
reproductive isolation
Separation of species or populations so that they cannot interbreed and produce fertile offspring
What type of cell undergoes meiosis? Why MUST these cells undergo meiosis?
Sexual cells. Because these cells will form a gamete that must be haploid in order to fuse with another gamete and make a diploid cell.
diaphragm
Sheet of skeletal muscle that causes respiration
Food Chains:
Show the one directional flow of energy from one organism to another in an ecosystem; producers (autotrophs; have the most available energy) are organism that produces energy and make up most/bottom of any food chain.
alveoli
Site of gas exhange
13. What are the five causes of evolution covered in class? Can you describe them?
Small population: the population shrinks Non-Random Mating:Desirable individuals mate more frequently Mutations:A new genotype is introduced into the gene pool Gene Flow:Transfer of alleles from one gene pool to another (immigration and emigration) Natural Selection:Natural forces indirectly select which alleles survive in the gene pool https://youtu.be/5NdMnlt2keE
Stanley miller experiment ?????What was significant about the findings of this experiment in regards to the origins of life?
Stanley miller combined the gases in earths early atmosphere and added heat (sun) and electricity (from storms) What evidence does this experiment provide for early life on earth? -Organic compounds necessary for life (amino acids) can arise from inorganic compounds The Stanley Miller experiment created atmosphere gases that found out an electric shock can turn inorganic compounds into organic compound They put in gases electrical shock and they change chemistry "gas" to organic chemistry "amino acid"
resting potential
State in which a neuron is not transmitting a nerve impulse. A neuron in this state has a net negative charge relative to its outside environment, and this state of potential energy prepares it to be activated by an impulse from an adjacent neuron.
How glucagon and insulin regulates blood sugar levels: (Negative Feedback) -
Stimulus (eating) raises blood glucose levels -Pancreas releases insulin in response to elevated blood glucose -Blood glucose decreases as it is used by the body or stored in the liver -Insulin release stops as blood glucose levels normalize
smooth muscle
Stomach Muscle. Contracts and found in most internal organs
homologous structure
Structures that develop the same but Are different when mature. Same structure, different functions.
helper T Cell
T cells Activate macrophages, B cells and T cells.
HUMANS DID NOT EVOLVE FROM PRIMATES! WE SHARE A COMMON ANCESTOR!
TRUE!!!!! SPREAD THE WORD!
humoral immune response
The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of B cells and that leads to the production of antibodies, which defend against bacteria and viruses in body fluids.
cell-mediated immune response
The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of cytotoxic T cells, which defend against infected cells.
sympatric speciation.
The condition in which there are barriers to success so interbreeding between individuals of different species in the same community
Difference between a vitamin and mineral
The difference between vitamins and minerals. Although they are all considered micronutrients, vitamins and minerals differ in basic ways. Vitamins are organic and can be broken down by heat, air, or acid. Minerals are inorganic and hold on to their chemical structure.
Compare and contrast the lytic and lysogenic cycles
The lytic cycle is a phage reproductive cycle that culminates in the death of the host cell The lytic cycle produces new phages and digests the host's cell wall, releasing the progeny viruses A phage that reproduces only by the lytic cycle is called a virulent phage The lysogenic cycle replicates the phage genome without destroying the host The viral DNA molecule is incorporated into the host cell's chromosome This integrated viral DNA is known as a prophage Every time the host divides, it copies the phage DNA and passes the copies to daughter cells
Prophase
The nuclear envelope starts to dissolve as the chromosomes and centrioles start to appear
directional selection
The phenotypic makeup of a population is shifted in one direction by favoring variants at one extreme of the distribution
29. Why do biologist use binomial nomenclature and the classification system?
The present system of binomial nomenclature identifies each species by a scientific name of two words, Latin in form and usually derived from Greek or Latin roots. The first name (capitalized) is the genus of the organism, the second (not capitalized) is its species. The scientific name of the white oak is Quercus alba, while red oak is Quercus rubra. The first name applies to all species of the genus— Quercus is the name of all oaks—but the entire binomial applies only to a single species. Many scientific names describe some characteristic of the organism ( alba = white; rubra = red); many are derived from the name of the discoverer or the geographic location of the organism.
fossils
The preserved remains of species (usually extinct)
Anaphase
The spindle fibers and centrioles a break apart the chromosomes and make them chromatids (meiosis II) or the spindle fibers pull apart tetrads into chromosomes (meiosis I)
How can bacterial growth be controlled?
There are various methods used to control bacterial growth, including sterilization, disinfectants, and food processing
natural killer (NK) cells
These cells kill cancer cells and cells infected with viruses. They bind to their targets and deliver a lethal burst of chemicals to produce holes in the target cell's membrane leading to its destruction.
How do kidneys regulate blood water and salt levels
They maintain the levels of salt and water in the blood, therefore maintaining homeostasis. When the kidneys detect an increase in salt, they respond by returning less salt into the blood by reabsorption; the excess salt is excreted in urine
polygenic trait
Trait controlled by two or more genes Two or more genes codes for a trait and its alleles
30. Can you read cladogram's and phygenetic trees?
Both cladograms and phylogenetic trees show relationships among organisms, how alike, or similar, they might be. We can see a typical cladogram and phylogenetic tree here. Although even biologists may use these terms interchangeably, you should know that there are some differences between a cladogram and a phylogenetic tree. First, a cladogram can look at trees that may have been derived from a common ancestor to arrange organisms on different branches. But those branches used aren't representative of the relative amount of change or evolutionary time that has occurred between organisms. Plus, a cladogram doesn't necessarily show exact relationships between ancestors and descendants. On the other hand, the branches on a phylogenetic tree can be proportional to mount of change or evolutionary time. So, you can also track how species have changed over time. Species are still grouped according to similarities and physical or genetic characteristics - for example, the presence or absence of gills. But, a phylogenetic tree describes an evolutionary history by showing how ancestors are related to their descendants and how much those descendants have changed over time.
central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord
decomposers
Break down organic matter Fungi and bacteria that break complex organic material into smaller molecules
metastasis
Cancer cells that can spread to different parts of the body
mast cell
Cells that release chemicals (such as histamine) that promote inflammation.
genetic drift
Changes that occur in allele frequency due to random chance NOT BY FITNESS OR NATURAL SELECTION!
histamine
Chemical stored in mast cells that triggers dilation and increased permeability of capillaries.
neurotransmitter,
Chemicals secreted by axon terminals across the synaptic cleft that stimulate neighboring neurons
chemotherapy
Chemicals used to destroy cancer cells.
Metaphase
Chromosomes (meiosis II) or tetrads (meiosis I) line up along the metaphase plate
coccus
Cirlce in shape bacteria .
Antibiotics
Compounds that block the growth and reproduction of bacteria or destroys bacteria
bronchi
Connects the trachea to lungs
systole
Contraction phase of the heart.
Carbon cycle:
Contributors to CO2 in atmosphere: Animals, Decomposers, plants, and combustion of fossil fuels. Remove CO2 from atmosphere: plants. CO2 in atmosphere traps heat within the atmosphere (greenhouse effect- contributes to global warming)
Pituitary Gland:
Controlled by the hypothalamus, located at base of brain: 2 lobes: anterior (release HGH, luteinizing. prolactin, adrenal stimulating, follicle stimulating, thyroid stimulating )and posterior (release ADH and oxytocin from the hypothalamus) pituitary gland. Releases HgH Oxytocin
Telophase
DNA replication happens in the nuclear envelope starts to appear the cell membrane start to pinch it (in meiosis II). NO DNA REPLICATION in telophase I
gram positive
Describing the group of bacteria that have a cell wall that is structurally less complex and contains more peptidoglycan than the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria are usually less toxic than gram-negative bacteria.
gram negative
Describing the group of bacteria that have a cell wall that is structurally more complex and contains less peptidoglycan than the cell wall of gram-positive bacteria. Gram-negative bacteria are more often disease causing than gram-positive bacteria.
Pathogens
Disease-causing agents
autoimmune diseases
Diseases caused when the immune system loses tolerance for self and turns against certain molecules in the body.
Know the levels and order of classification: Remember: a. Dumb Kings Play Chess On Fine Glass Sets
Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
Biological classification system (from most inclusive to least inclusive)
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species. (Dumb Kings Play Chess On Fine Glass Sets)
periosteum
Double-layered connective tissue that covers and nourishes the bone.
descent with modification
Every living species has descended from their parents and other species, with changes.
trachea
Tube that allows the passage of air to the lungs
Scientific theory
Explain Natural Events Supported By Facts Predict Future Events A well-tested explanation for a wide range of observations or experimental results.
Vagina:
Extends from the cervix to vulva; receives penis/semen; rhythmic contractions at orgasm; vaginal sweat: lubricating fluid during sexual arousal; birth canal; menstrual flow
stabilizing selection
Extreme variants are removed from a population. This preserves intermediate types and increases their allelic frequency
behavioral isolation
Form of reproductive isolation in which two populations have differences in courtship rituals or other types of behavior that prevent them from interbreeding
temporal isolation
Form of reproductive isolation in which two populations reproduce at different times
ossification
Formation of bone from cartilage
speciation
Formation of new species
axial skeleton
Forms the central supporting axis of the skeletal system.
index fossil,
Fossils used to compare the relative ages of fossils An index fossil MUST: Existed for a short period Existed in a LARGE range of geological areas
Niche
Full range of physical and biological conditions in which an organism lives and the way in which the organism uses those conditions
Gametic Isolation
Gametic Isolation: Sperm of one species cannot Fertilize the eggs of another
gas exchange
Gas exchange takes place in the alveoli. Oxygen diffuses into the blood. Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood.
hermaphroditism: External Fertilization: Internal Fertilization:
Two individuals from the same species compile their genes to create new offspring that have genetic diversity, therefore creating diversity within a population. H an individual has both male and female reproductive systems E Where the female deposits the eggs and the male fertilizes them I where sperm is deposited in or near the reproductive tract, and fertilization occurs within the tract
Reduced Hybrid Fertility
Two members produce a healthy hybrid, but the hybrid Is sterile (unable to produce offspring).
Diabetes:
Type 1- autoimmune disorder (body makes antibody against pancreas, so it cannot produce insulin) therefore carbohydrates in body cannot be processed, additional glucose cannot be used is urinated, symptoms include thirst, hunger, weight loss, frequent urination, high blood sugar. Treatment includes injecting insulin Type 2- usually related to obesity, resistance to insulin, symptoms are same as above. Treatment includes dieting, weight reduction, insulin
Penis
Urethra extends through penis; erectile columns and vascular reservoirs; insertion into female tract to deliver semen/ sperm
phylogenetic tree
Using DNA and protein comparisons Scientist can assemble more accurate Classifying systems known as phylogenetic trees
Prophage
Viral DNA that is embedded in the host's DNA
3. What are the contributions Hutton & Lyell, Lamarck, and Malthus made to Darwin's work?
HL: Geologic changes Physically shape earth The earth-shaping processes are the same today as they were in the past Earth is many millions of years old. Darwin's thoughts: If Earth can change over long periods of time, could life change over time too? LAMARK:Acquired traits cause species to change over time Use or disuse of organs lead to acquired or lost traits in one lifetime Darwin's thoughts: Acquired traits are passed on to offspring How are traits passed from one generation to the next? MALTHUS- Food and space limit human population growth Eventually population growth will exhaust resources Plants and animals produce thousands or millions of offspring. Most die Darwin's thoughts: What determines which offspring survive and reproduce?
Hypothalamus:
Hormones directed to the pituitary gland and directs hormones to release. Makes oxytocin
glycoprotein/glycolipid
How capsid attaches to host bacteria
Oxytocin
Hypothalamus pituitary. Bonding
Electrocardiogram diagram What is the wave length?
I don't know this one I don't know if the diagram is right either help
6. How does natural selection act on natural variation?
Imagine a population of green and white bunnies in a green forest. In this forest owls are a natural predator. Owls will eat more white bunnies than green bunnies because the green color provides these bunnies camouflage. Because of this, more white bunnies survive than green, causing more of the white fur trait to appear in future generations. The owl, a natural force, 'selected' on the natural variation of bunny fur which trait survived and which one did not. Natural selection acts on natural variation to change the allele frequency of a population depending on the favorability of a given trait in a given environment at a given time.
passive immunite
Immunity conferred by transferring antibodies from an individual who is immune to a pathogen to another individual. .
innate immunity
Immunity that is present before exposure and effective from birth. Responds to a broad range of pathogens.
acquired immunity
Immunity that is present only after exposure and is highly specific.
How do viruses cause infection?
In a lytic infection, a virus enters a cell, makes copies of itself, and causes the cell to burst; in a lysogenic infection, a virus integrates its DNA into the DNA of the hose cell, and the viral genetic information replicates along with the host cell's DNA
inflammtory response
Innate response with the purpose of containing a site of damage, localizing the response, eliminating the invader and restore tissue function. Mast cells detect an antigen and release histamines which trigger near by blood vessels to open and release neutrophils and other phagocytes to destroy the antigen
dermis
Inner layer of skin
How do insulin and glucagon regulate blood sugar?
Insulin decreases blood glucose concentration and glucagon increases it.
Dwarfism
Lack of HGH causes short stature
Why is the small intestine the site of most digestion?
Large surface area Villi and micro villi
threshold
Level of stimulation needed to trigger a neural impulse
How do viruses cause disease?
Like bacteria, viruses produce disease by disrupting the body's normal equilibrium
Pancreas
Located behind the stomach, secretes insulin and glucagon
Adrenal glands
Located on top of each kidney and they decry adrenaline, epinephrine, and cortisol
B lymphocytes (B cells)
Lymphocyte that matures in the bone marrow and secretes antibodies.
T lymphocytes (T cells)
Lymphocyte that matures in the thymus and acts directly against antigens in cell-mediated immune responses.
How do viruses 'reproduce'
Lytic and Lysogenic Cycles
Producers
Make their own food
Testicles
Male gonads that come in pairs; make sperm
benign
Mass of cells that cannot spread to surrounding tissues
hardy-Weinberg theorem
Mathematical model to predict the phenotypic and genotypic frequency of a population that IS NOT undergoing evolution.
What do mitochondria and chloroplast have in common with prokaryotic cells? How might this support endosybiotic theory?
Mitochondria, chloroplast, and prokaryotes each have: 1. Their own DNA 2. A membrane 3. Can reproduce by binary fission. Mitochondria and chloroplasts likely evolved from engulfed prokaryotes that once lived as independent organisms. At some point, a eukaryotic cell engulfed an aerobic prokaryote, which then formed an endosymbiotic relationship with the host eukaryote, gradually developing into a mitochondrion. Eukaryotic cells containing mitochondria then engulfed photosynthetic prokaryotes, which evolved to become specialized chloroplast organelles.
molecular clock
Model that uses amino acid comparisons in proteins shared between species to estimate the length of time that two species have been evolving independently
skeletal muscle
Movement Muscle. Voluntary
cardiac muscle
Muscle found only in the heart. Contractions.
Vas Deferens
Muscular tube that conducts semen from the epididymis toward bladder to join urethra.
Telophase I:
NO DNA duplication! 2 haploid cells produced with different genetic material
natural selection
Natural forces (genetics, the environment) 'select' For fit traits or traits that increase changes to survive -is the process of natural forces, such as changes in the environment and mutations, 'selecting' which species live and reproduce. acts on the phenotype; indirectly act on the genotype
8. How does natural selection cause descent with modification?
Natural selection and descent with modification may sound like the same process, but they are not. Genetic modification can happen for multiple reasons besides natural selection. Some modifications occur because of genetic drift: by random chance, genes for a particular trait such as a particular skin color may become more common in a species. Bacteria engage in horizontal gene transfer, where one microbe trades a piece of its genes with another. This modification of the organisms occurs independent of selective pressures.
disruptive selection
Natural selection in which individuals on both extremes of a phenotypic range survive or reproduce more successfully than do individuals with intermediate phenotypes.
axial nervous system
Nerves attached to the brain and spinal cord
Nitrogen Cycle:
Nitrogen is vital for proteins and nucleic acids. It is abundant in air, but not in a usable form. Nitrogen Fixation( by bacteria) converts N2 into ammonia, which plants can use to grow. Decomposers break down dead organisms and return nitrogen from the bodies into the soil.
Is a virus a living organism? Why or why not?
No. Can not reproduce by themselves nor do they have a metabolism
Parasite:
One create benefits the other is harmed
Haversion canal
One of a network of tubes running through compact bone that contains blood vessels and nerves
vestigial organ
Organ that serves no useful function in an organism. Example, human appendix or the hip bones of whales.
Cloning
Organisms that are EXACT genetic copies. Every nucleotide is the same Ex. Identical Twins
capsid
Outer protein coat of a virus.
epidermis
Outermost layer of skin made of keratinized cells
Bulbourethral Gland
Paired exocrine glands near the base of penis; secretes some of the seminal fluid that is released just before rest of the semen arrives= "pre-ejaculate": lubricates penis/vagina, neutralizes pH, and may contain sperm
Fat vs water soluble vitamins.
Water-Soluble Vitamins Some vitamins, including vitamin C, folate and the B vitamins, are water-soluble, and your body can absorb them easily. These vitamins are easily depleted by cooking with water or lengthy storage times, according to Colorado State University. When you take in excess water-soluble nutrients, your kidneys remove what your body can't use, excreting the excess through your urine. You are unable to store water-soluble vitamins, so you must take in an adequate amount of them each day. Fat-Soluble Vitamins Your body stores fat-soluble vitamins, such as vitamins A, D, E and K, in your liver and other organs. It uses bile acids, fluids that help you absorb fat, to hold onto these nutrients for long periods and uses them as needed. Your body eliminates them more slowly than water-soluble nutrients. Fat-soluble nutrients consumed in excess pose a greater danger of toxicity because these substances can accumulate in your body over time.
Bottleneck Effect:
When a disaster reduces the size of a population resulting in survivors that DO NOT represent the gene pool of the original population.
founder effect
When a few individuals become isolated from a larger population the smaller group may establish a new population with A DIFFERENT gene pool than the original population
How does the dermis maintain homeostasis?
When you are too hot, the sweat glands in the dermis produce sweat to cool you down, the sweat is also used to remove toxins, so sweat helps maintain homeostasis in 2 ways
lymphocytes
White blood cells.
Can you over dose on vitamins? Which type?
Yes on fat soluble
Ecosystem:
a collection of all the organisms that live in a particular place, together with their nonliving, or physical, environment; includes living (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) factors.
hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)
a continuous sheet of areolar connective tissue and adipose tissue between the dermis of the skin and the deep fascia of the muscles
Biome:
a group of ecosystems that have the same climate and similar dominant communities
Species:
a group of organisms so similar to one another that they can breed and produce fertile offspring
hair folicle
a small cavity in the epidermis and corium of the skin, from which hair developes
neuron
a specialized cell that conducts impulses through the nervous system and contains three major parts-- a cell body, dendrites, and an axon
Seminal Fluid
added into semen and control pH; 120 million sperm per mL and 2-6 mL per ejaculation. Path of sperm: testicle→ epididymis→ Vas deferens→Prostate gland →urethra
Cortisol
adrenal/ pituitary. Stress
Vulva
all external genitals; two pairs of skin folds; Labia majora: outer folds covered by pubic hair
common descent
all living things are descended from common ancestors.
muscle fiber
an elongated contractile cell that forms the muscles of the body
Symbiosis-
any relationship where two species live closely together
Positive Feedback Loop:
as long as stimulus is present, action of hormone continues (i.e. breast feeding)
Community:
assemblage of different populations that live together in a defined area; different species living together
how neurons communicate
axon terminals release neurotransmitters. neurotransmitters enter synaptic gap. neurotransmitters bind to specific receptor sites.
Gonorrhea:
bacterial infection causing burning sensation during urination and discharge from vagina or penis
Hormonal birth control
birth control pills thicken the cervical mucous making it more difficult for the sperm to travel up through the uterus and into the fallopian tubes (prevents pregnancy and ovulation) and has no protection against STI's birth control patches prevent pregnancy and has no protection against STI's implants/ injectable hormones are inserted in the body and prevent pregnancy. No protection against STI's.
Mutualism-
both species benefit from a relationship +/+
central
brain and spinal cord
action potential
brief change in electrical voltage which occurs between the inside and outside of an axon when a neuron is stimulated. it produces an electrical impulse
HPV:
can cause genital warts and may even cause cervical cancer (vaccine is available)
Human Growth Hormone:
causes tissue growth in children and maintenance of body structure and metabolism in adults
melanocycte pigment-
cell in the epidermis that produces melanin
Target Cell:
cell with hormone receptors
Hormone:
chemicals that control cell function
Three types of interactions: Competition: Symbiosis:
competition, predation, symbiosis fighting over limited resources any relationship where two species live closely together
Barrier birth control
condom placed on erect penis and prevents sperm from entering a partner's body. Prevents STI's. Condoms can slip/break off. vagina ring (female condom) inserted inside the vagina and protects against STI's spermicides kill sperm
peripheral
connects the CNS. nerves. two divisions somatic and autonomic
larynx
contain elastic folds called vocal cords Site of the vocal cords. Prevents food from entering the lungs
autonomic nervous system
contains two divisions. sympathetic and parasympathetic
frontal lobe
control some body movements, reasoning, judgement, and emotions
medulla oblongata
controls breathing, heartrate, blood pressure
brainstem
controls involuntary actions
hypothalamus
controls secretions of pituitary glands
brain
coordinates and integrates thought process. 100 billion neurons
thalamus
coordinates incoming information
cerebellum
coordinates muscle and balane
Clitoris
covered with sensitive "sexual" touch receptors
epiglottis
covers the enter ace to the trachea
What occurs during prophase 1 that causes genetic diversity? How does this cause genetic diversity?
crossing over- chromatids in tetrads randomly collide causing the exchange of genetic material.
structure of neuron
dendrites, cell body, axon, myelin sheath, fatty insulation
natural variation,
differences among individuals of a species; results from mutation and sexual reproduction. Example, the human population demonstrates a wide variety of different phenotypes such as height.
Meiosis begins with 1 ________ cell and ends with 4 __________ cells
diploid; haploid
lungs
each of the pair of organs situated within the rib cage, consisting of elastic sacs with branching passages into which air is drawn, so that oxygen can pass into the blood and carbon dioxide be removed.
Trophic levels:
each step in a food chain is called a trophic level. contains a certain amount of biomass (mass of all organic matter)
Syphilis:
early symptoms include a small painless sore on or near genitals. Untreated, this STI can cause serious damage to the heart and brain and even lead to death
pituitary gland
endocrine gland. secretes many hormones
Law of conservation of energy and matter:
energy or matter cannot be created or destroyed.
where do sperm learn how to swim
epididymis
Completive exclusion principle
exclusion or just Gause's law, is a proposition that states that two species competing for the same resource cannot coexist at constant population values, if other ecological factors remain constant.
axon
extending fiber that conducts impulses away from the cell body and transmits info to other cells
where do eggs travel after ovary
fallopian tube
tubal ligation:
fallopian tubes are tied to prevent movement of an egg reaching a sperm
Steroid-Hormone:
fat soluble, cause actions in cells by moving across cell membrane
IUD:
for people who don't want a child small plastic/copper hormone device that is inserted in the uterus copper prevents women from getting pregnant for 10 years rather than plastic which only prevents pregnancy for 1 year. Has no protection against STI's
geographic isolation
form of reproductive isolation in which two populations are separated physically by geographic barriers such as rivers, mountains, or stretches of water
Population:
groups of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area.
Bowman's Capsule
hollow cup shape structure where fluid/blood goes in
Negative Feedback Loop:
hormone release stops in response to decrease in stimulus (i.e. insulin)
Electrocardiogram
how electrical impulses of the heart are recorded
predator: ; prey:
hunter hunted
somatic nervous system
includes nerves that are connected to sensory receptors and skeletal muscles
Metaphase I
independent assortment occurs when tetrads randomly line up along the metaphase plate
What occurs during metaphase 1 that causes genetic diversity? How does this cause genetic diversity?
independent assortment- chromosomes assort independently along the metaphase plate
Organism:
individual
Genital Herpes:
infects 1 in 4 people in US. and is caused by a herpes virus causes painful blisters on genitals and remains in the body for life
Hepatitis B:
inflammation of the liver
inhibitory
influencing neurons not to fire
Labia minora
inner highly vascular; vestibule; space between labia
interneuron
integrate signals from body to brain
cerebrum
interprets input from senses and controls skeletal muscles, thinking, higher level thought processes
parietal lobe
interprets sensations such as pain, pressure, touch, hot and cold
autonomic reflexes
involuntary. smooth muscle regulation. heart and blood pressure regulations, regulation of glands and digestive system, activation of skeletal muscles
adaptation
is any inherited characteristic that increases an organisms chance for survival
fitness,
is the ability of an individual to survive in an environment
synapse
junction where axon of a sending neuron communicates with a receiving neuron across the synaptic cleft
cell body
keeps neuron alive and determines whether it will fire. Location of nucleus
pons
link cerebral cortex to cerebellum
Biotic-
living factors in an ecosystem
Loop of Henle:
loop of henle dips down into the medulla where water is conserved and urine volume is minimized
epinephrine
main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
spinal cord
main nerves of CNS extend down from brain
Spermatogenesis
making of sperm by meiosis (4 for every germ cell)
multipolar
many extensions from the cell body
sympathetic nervous system
mobilizes bodily resources and increases output of energy during emotion and stress. fight or flight hormone epinephrine
Prophase I:
nuclear envelope dissolves, tetrads (2 chromosomes attached together) form, crossing over occurs
Logistic Growth:
occurs when a population slows or stops after a period of exponential growth Carrying Capacity (k): The # of individuals the environment can support; constantly changing depending on environment
Allopatric speciation
occurs when biological populations of the same species become vicariant, or isolated from each other to an extent that prevents or interferes with genetic interchange.
Commensalism-
one member benefits but the other isn't hurt ot harmed +/o
nasal cavity
opening in your nose
Cervix
opening that permits the entrance of sperm Conducts sperm to uterus Peristalsis during orgasm Embryo protection / support during gestation Endometrium joins with placenta of offspring to form a physiological connection
parasympathetic nervous system
operates during relaxed states and that conserves energy. housekeeping/daily duties
Consumers:
organisms that consume energy in a food chain from; numbers are far less than producers.
estrogen
ovary. Female sexual development
Ovary/testes
ovary: estrogen and progesterone. Testes: testosterone
Meiosis 2 (same as Mitosis)(NO interphase between Telophase and Prophase) Prophase II: Metaphase II: Anaphase II: Telophase II:
p- nuclear envelope dissolves, spindle fibers form M-chromosomes line up at the equator A-chromosomes split into chromatids t-chromotids arrive at poles. nuclear envelope reforms , 4 HAPLOID CELLS produced
Fallopian tubes: F
paired muscular tubes (spaghetti width); "Fimbriae" help pull ovum into tube; it takes three days for the egg to travel to the uterus.
Ovary
paired organs in pelvic cavity; structure: medulla(inner region) and cortex(outer region)- follicles: pockets in which eggs develop
insulin
pancreas. Lowers blood sugar
glucagon
pancreas. Raises blood sugar
fission: budding: fragmentation: regeneration: parthenogenesis:
parent splits into individuals of the same size parent produces individual from a part of itself pieces of the body develop into new organisms regrowth of body parts egg develops without being fertilized
Prometrium
part of abdominal lining covering the uterus.
Uterus
pear sized; wall and then endometrium= mucous lining that is sensitive to sex hormones estrogen and progesterone; High levels of hormones can cause the endometrium to thicken and change during menstrual cycle and outer layer of endometrium drops off. Smooth muscles contracts when stretched (during pregnancy, menstruation, and orgasm
Human Growth Hormone
pituitary gland. Growth
Follicle
pockets where eggs develop
lysogenic infection
process by which a virus embeds its DNA into the DNA of the host cell and is replicated along with the host cell's DNA
Oogenesis
production of egg through meiotic division; produces four daughter cells but three are polar bodies that die and one is an egg (ovum; has the most cytoplasm). Mature follicle ruptures releasing ovum.
Alzheimers
progressive degenerative disease. mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin in middle age. structural changes in the brain include abnormal protein deposits and twisted fibers within neurons. victims experience memory loss, irritability, confusion and ultimately hallucinations and death.
receptors
protein molecules on the dendrite or cell body of a neuron that will interact only specific neurotransmitters
Pyramid of energy:
pyramid of energy flow
dendrites
receive info from other neurons and transmit info towards cell body
sensory neurons
receptors for stimulus. afferent
HIV/AIDS:
retrovirus that attacks the immune system (no cure available , but lifespan can be expanded with HAART therapy)
What is the flow of blood?
right side: Blood enters the heart through two large veins, the inferior and superior vena cava, emptying oxygen-poor blood from the body into the right atrium of the heart. As the atrium contracts, blood flows from your right atrium into your right ventricle through the open tricuspid valve.When the ventricle is full, the tricuspid valve shuts. This prevents blood from flowing backward into the atria while the ventricle contracts. As the ventricle contracts, blood leaves the heart through the pulmonic valve, into the pulmonary artery and to the lungs where it is oxygenated Left side:The pulmonary vein empties oxygen-rich blood from the lungs into the left atrium of the heart. As the atrium contracts, blood flows from your left atrium into your left ventricle through the open mitral valve. When the ventricle is full, the mitral valve shuts. This prevents blood from flowing backward into the atrium while the ventricle contracts. As the ventricle contracts, blood leaves the heart through the aortic valve, into the aorta and to the body.
Urinary Bladder
sac-like organ where urine is stored before being excreted
temporal lobe
sense of hearing interpreted here
occipital lobe
sense of vision located here
Urethra
shared by reproductive and urinary systems; extends through penis; semen and urine goes through.
Food webs:
show the multidirectional flow of energy in a system.
Prokaryotes
single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus
Epididymis
six meters of coiled tubule alongside testes. Storage and conduction of semen. Where the sperm learns how to swim.
concussion
slight brain injury. no permanent brain damage usually.
sprillum
spiral shaped bacteria
Prostate gland
surrounds the first part of the urethra like a donut; contributes 30% of seminal fluid: basic pH to neutralize urethra and vagina; slippery to help swimming.
testosterone
testes. Male sexual development
Anaphase I:
tetrads split into chromosomes, chromosomes move to opposite sides of the cell
Pyramid of numbers:
the #s of individuals in a population ex)
pharynx
the beginning of the throat
Biosphere:
the global sum or total of ecosystems (can study evolution)
Chlamydia:
the most common STI in the US. Bacterial infection causing a burning sensation during urination and discharge from vagina and penis
joint (anatomy)
the point of connection between two bones or elements of a skeleton (especially if the articulation allows motion)
Pyramid of biomass:
the total mass of the organisms at each trophic level *10% of energy is retained at each level and 90% is lost
species name
the two part scientific name of a species composed of the genus and the species identifier. Example: Homo sapien
corpus callosum
thick fibrous band; connects hemispheres of cerebrum
Calcitonin
thryoid gland. Calcium regulation
Thyroid hormone
thyroid gland. Metabolism
single-gene trait
trait controlled by a single gene that has two alleles : A single gene codes for a trait and its alleles
motor neurons
transfer signal to effector. efferent
vasectomy:
tying a knot on the Vas Deferens to prevent ejaculation of sperm
saddle joint
type of joint found at the base of each thumb; allows grasping and rotation
Permanent sterilization:
vasectomy-tying a knot on the Vas Deferens to prevent ejaculation of sperm tubal ligation- fallopian tubes are tied to prevent movement of an egg reaching a sperm
Non-Steroid Hormone:
water soluble, cause action in cells by binding to the cell membrane
Hyperthyroidism
weightloss, eyes get bigger thyroid hormone
Filtration: Reabsorption: Secretion:
when a liquid passes through a filter, and in this case when the blood coming from the renal artery into the glomerus, where it is then filtered to remove the wastes from blood A form of active transport in which puts useful substances back into the blood filled capillaries occurs in the Bowmans capsule The wastes substances go through the loop of Henley where water is conserved and urine volume is minimized. then it is secreted into the collecting duct on its way to exit.
Exponential growth:
when individuals reproduce at a constant rate.
Parasitism/predation-
when one organism benefits and the other one is harmed +/-
Competition-
when one organism must compete with another +/-
Glomerulus
where filtration of the blood occurs, a bunch of capillaries
Ureter:
where urine travels to the urinary bladder
Rhythm method:
woman learns to recognize the days she is fertile and doesn't have sex before and during those days (much room for error) no protection against STI's
