Leadership

Transactional Leadership

Focus: Transactional leadership focuses on the rewards and punishments used to incentivize followers to do those things necessary to meet existing job requirements. Getting followers to understand what they have to do Using rewards so that followers will follow through on their goals Being vigilant about problems and errors Taking an active approach to addressing problems and errors Waiting to fix a discrepancy until it becomes a problem (least effective)

Implicit Leadership Schemas

Implicit leadership schemas are beliefs and assumptions that followers have about effective leaders in general. Key Characteristics Implicit leadership schemas develop over time as a result of socialization and experiences. They may or may not be consciously perceived by the individuals who hold them. If a follower's expectations of a leader are not met, the follower can form a negative impression of the leader and become less willing to be led. When follower expectations of an effective leader are not met, then the follower can form a negative impression of the leader. This could result in negative leader evaluations or an unwillingness of followers to be led.

Select all of the behaviors that represent charismatic leadership. (Select all that apply.)

Infusing followers with the belief that they can succeed Making personal sacrifices for the good of the group Expressing an exciting and coherent vision for the future

Leadership

Is the use of power or influence to engage followers in a full range of activities that serve to accomplish the leader's vision and goals for the work unit (a team or department or business unit) or organization Key Characteristics Leaders do not need a formal title that designates leadership responsibilities. Influential leaders may emerge in informal ways

High Situational Control

Leaders are in a clear position of authority. Leaders have good relationships with followers. Followers perform clearly defined tasks.

Focus of Transactional and Transformational Leadership

One way to differentiate between transactional and transformational leadership is to pay attention to what the two types of leaders focus on.

Power - Definition

Power is the ability to influence others and to resist the influence of others in return. Key Characteristics There is no requirement for power to be rooted in a formal organization, position, or role.

How Gender Influences Leadership

Women may receive fewer opportunities to advance because of false socialized beliefs based on their gender.

Leader-Follower Relationships:

You can't be a leader without followers—and that important relationship can change over time. Followers considered part of a leader's ingroup tend to be competent, likeable, and similar in personality to a leader. These employees tend to develop bigger roles in the organization than those in a leader's outgroup. But this isn't always a good thing—leaders need to cultivate relationships with many different individuals if they want to use their influence in a positive way.

Passive Behaviors

1. Minimizing existing problems 2. Addressing problems as they come up 3. Maintaining the status quo

Examples of Consideration

A manager realizes two members of a group often have conflicts and meets with them individually to ease the tension. A manager defends employees to a CEO from unfair criticism by a customer. A manager often talks casually with employees on breaks and during lunch.

Characteristics That Influence Leadership

A willingness to improve and expand your leadership skills can significantly influence a person's leadership. Key Characteristics Individuals can improve their leadership skills with: 1. Self-help activities 2. Formal training 3. Developmental experiences

Leadership Advantages of Women:

1. More visionary than men 2. More inspirational than men 3. More forward-focused in their approach than men

Outgroup Members

Often seen as being incompetent and unlikeable by the leader. Often have a different personality from the leader Often have different demographics from the leader

Transactional vs. Transformational Leadership

Transactional leadership focuses on the exchange of resources between leaders and followers. Transformational leadership focuses on leaders inspiring followers to strive toward a vision of how things could be. Examples of each type of leadership can be found in the boxes below.

Three Types of Transactional Leader Behavior

Transactional leadership refers to three leader behaviors that emphasize the exchange of resources with followers: contingent reward, active management by exception, and passive management by exception.

Common Leadership Activities

1. Establishing a vision for what the organization is all about 2. Determining how the organization will cope with fundamental changes that impact the leader's vision 3. Setting the general direction for the organization 4. Establishing broad strategies for achieving goals 5. Aligning people with the leader's vision and strategy through communication, agendas, and other arrangements that motivate and inspire

Impression Management Tactics

1. Exemplification Doing things like arriving early, staying late, or working extra hard to convey the impression that one is dedicated to accomplishing the leader's vision. 2. Self-Promotion Talking about one's accomplishments, displaying awards, or using individuals to sing one's praises. Conveys that one is highly competent and accomplished and should be valued by the organization and leader. 3. Ingratiation Doing things to promote being likable and the impression that one has positive qualities. Involves praising the leader, showing a high interest in what the leader says, and agreeing with the leader's ideas.

Effectiveness:

1. Most effective: Contingent reward 2. Somewhat effective: Active management by exception 3. Least effective: Passive management by exception

Low Situational Control

Leaders do not have the power to reward or punish followers. Leaders have poor relationships with followers. Followers have difficult-to-understand jobs.

Legitimate Power

Relies on the recognition and acceptance that this authority is part of an exchange that takes place between the organization and employees. A person with legitimate power also often has reward and coercive power.

Which of the following statements is accurate regarding the full range of leadership theory?

The most effective leaders emphasize behaviors that propel the organization forward.

Implications of In-Group and Out-Group Membership

There are important implications related to whether a follower ends up in the ingroup or outgroup. 1. Ingroup members receive more attention, support, and trust from their leaders than do outgroup members. 2. Ingroup member are more satisfied with their leaders and perform more effectively in their jobs than outgroup members do. 3. The advantages given to ingroup members enable them to contribute more to an organization than outgroup members can.

Transactional Leader Behavior

1. Contingent reward Getting followers to understand what they need to do and using rewards so they follow through The most effective transactional leader behavior 2. Active management by exception Being vigilant for problems and errors and taking an active approach to dealing with them when they occur Also an effective form of transactional leadership 3. Passive management by exception Waiting to fix a discrepancy or error until it becomes a problem The least effective transactional leadership behavior

Leadership involves the following abilities:

1. Develop and communicate a clear and compelling vision for the future even, though the future is uncertain and in constant flux. 2. Motivate followers to focus their attention and effort on activities that benefit the organization rather than activities that might benefit them more directly or be preferred for other reasons. 3. Inspire followers to work together cooperatively even, though they may be in competition with each other for pay raises or promotions.

Three Approaches to Leadership Development

1. Formal Leadership Training Format: Delivered by the organization Examples: Attending workshops, seminars, classes 2. Developmental Experiences Format: Gained through on-the-job or job-related experiences Examples: Working with management systems, with mentors, or on challenging assignments 3. Self-Help Format: Initiated by the person who wants training Examples: Reading books, watching videos, attending self-chosen seminars

Examples of Transformational Leadership Behavior

1. Idealized Influence A CEO of a technology company gives a rousing speech that shows his passionate belief in the firm. As result, the employees in the audience are inspired to achieve more than expected. 2. Inspirational Motivation The head chef of a restaurant conveys a clear vision for her cuisine to her staff. They will create food that combines elements of French and Cuban cuisine and thereby establish a strong reputation. 3. Intellectual Stimulation The head designer for a company that makes women's jeans challenges her staff's assumptions about what is acceptable with jeans and urges them to go beyond this in a creative manner. 4. Individualized Consideration The manager of a baseball team encourages a player to strike the baseball with more power, rather than trying to spray the ball.

Defining Types of Power

1. Legitimate Power The ability to influence others by virtue of holding a position in an organization. People with legitimate power are given the authority to direct the job-related activities of others. 2. Reward Power Control over resources that can be used to influence others. The use of these resources can create incentives for others to engage in desired behavior. 3. Coercive Power Control over resources that may be used to punish people. Fear is the basis of influence used by a person who relies on coercive power. 4. Referent Power The ability to influence others because of affection, admiration, and loyalty. A person with referent power influences others because they identify with the person and what he or she is trying to accomplish. 5. Expert Power The possession of important knowledge, skills, and expertise uniquely important to others.

Types of Power

1. Legitimate power "I have power because I am a manager." 2. Coercive power "I can make you miserable by controlling certain resources you might need." 3. Expert power "I can help you with that situation because of my knowledge and experience." 4. Referent power "I admire my boss because she treats me like a respected member of the organization."

Leaders

1. May have a role that is defined formally by the organization, but it is crystallized through followers 2. May be hired or promoted to perform the role by the organization, or the role may emerge over time 3. Take a long-term perspective 4. Value innovation, adaptability, and growth 5. Are concerned with transmitting a vision and meaning to employees 6. Motivate employees 7. Are important in uncertain and unstable environments

Management Activities

1. Planning 2. Budgeting 3. Creating positions 4. Hiring employees 5. Monitoring results 6. Addressing discrepancies 7. Solving problems

Leader Behavior for Types of Follower Readiness

1. Very Low Follower Readiness Employees lack both motivation and ability. In such a case, a combination of initiating structure and consideration should be used. 2. Low Follower Readiness Employees are motivated but lack ability. In this case, leaders should emphasize initiating structure. 3. High Follower Readiness Employees are capable and experienced, regardless of their motivation level. In these situations, the leader's emphasis on initiating structure or consideration matters less.

False Beliefs about Women:

1. Women are more communal (compassionate, caring, and sensitive) and thus ill-suited for leadership roles. 2. Women are less agentic (assertive, competitive, and determined) and thus ill-suited for leadership roles. Studies suggest that some companies are working to correct inequalities caused by serious prejudice toward women with respect to leadership roles.

Examples of Initiating Structure

A manager rearranges the work flow of a task group to improve efficiency. A manager sets up weekly meetings to help coordinate the tasks of a group. A manager sets up bonus incentives for a group to motivate them to accomplishing certain goals.

Developmental Experiences

Developmental experiences are on-the-job or job-related experiences that attempt to identify and close gaps in leadership capabilities. Key Characteristics Such experiences could involve working with management systems, mentors, and attempting challenging assignments. Self-help activities, such as reading books on leadership, are also developmental activities.

Effective Leadership

Effective leaders are crucial to the success of many different types of endeavors. Poor leadership can have catastrophic consequences for individuals and organizations alike. Key Characteristics Effective leadership does not require a formal organizational title that designates leadership. Leaders often emerge informally as the situation demands. All that is required to be an effective leader is to have a clear vision for the future and the ability to influence followers to achieve that vision for the good of the organization.

Activities and Responsibilities of Leaders

Effective leaders have a vision for the future and devise strategies and arrangements to help inspire alignment of goals and efforts with that vision. Common Leadership Activities

Reward Power

Effective when dealing with employees seeking certain benefits from their job, such as increased pay, more vacation time, and more flexible scheduling.

Transformational Leadership

Focus: Transformational leadership instills meaning and pride that inspires followers to go beyond normal expectations. Inspiring followers to strive toward a vision Appealing to followers at an emotional level Fostering innovation and creativity among followers Challenging followers assumptions about what is acceptable Helping followers to develop their capability

Appropriate Leader Behavior for Types of Follower Readiness

Follower readiness is the degree to which followers are capable and motivated to accomplish work-related tasks that contribute to the accomplishment of the goals of the leader and organization.

Ways Followers Are Involved in Leadership

Followers can have a tremendous influence on the leadership process through their relationships with leaders (leader-member exchange theory), their behaviors (impression management), and their expectations of leader effectiveness (implicit leadership schemas).

Laissez-Faire Leadership

Laissez-faire leadership is the tendency of a leader to avoid making difficult decisions, Such leaders avoid responsibilities and do not get involved in organizational matters. Key Characteristics Effective leaders engage in very low levels of laissez-faire leadership.

Leader-Member Exchange Theory

Leader-member exchange theory describes how differences develop over time in the quality of relationships a leader has with followers. Key Characteristics Leaders tend to form "ingroups" and "outgroups" with followers. Differences develop over time in the quality of relationships a leader has with followers. Members of the leader's "ingroup" are given more responsibility while members of the leader's "outgroup" develop more limited roles.

What Leaders Do

Leaders make the extra effort to go beyond their job responsibilities on a daily basis. They focus on organizing others to accomplish specific tasks that further the department's or organization's overall goals. Successful leaders develop and maintain ongoing relationships with others in the company who can assist them in moving the company forward.

Leadership Actions

Leaders use their power and influence to engage followers in activities that will help accomplish the leader's vision and goals. This process involves three distinct activities.

Examples of the Two Main Types of Leader Behavior

Leadership behavior includes thousands of different activities, but each of these activities serves one of two broadly defined leadership functions: initiating structure or consideration.

Leadership Characteristics

Leadership characteristics are relatively stable abilities and tendencies of leaders to think, feel, and behave in certain wayKey Characteristics Leadership skills can provide: 1. The means to succeed 2. The motivation to lead 3. The perception that one is leader-likes.

Implicit leadership schemas can affect how followers view their leaders in which ways? (Select all that apply.)

Negative impressions of the leader's abilities An unwillingness to be led Poor evaluations of the leader

Leadership Development:

No one is born a leader—you've got to work at it! Organizations help employees develop leadership skills by providing formal training as well as other job experiences that help identify and fill in the gaps in people's leadership capabilities. Developing leadership skills takes extra effort on the part of both employees and their organizations.

Where Does Leadership Come From?: Topic Overview

Not every manager is a leader. Managers focus their energies on meeting organization goals, but that doesn't make them a leader in the organization. Several different types of power can be used to influence others.

Ingroup Members

Often believed to be competent and likeable by the leader. Often have a similar personality as the leader. Often have similar demographics as the leader

Role Congruity Theory

Role congruity theory gives an explanation about the low percentage of women in leadership positions. Key Characteristics Individuals in a group will be viewed negatively when the group is believed to have traits that are different from the traits typically associated with a role held, or potentially held, by a member of this group.

Four Types of Behavior Characteristics of Transformational Leadership

Transformational leadership involves four types of behavior characteristics: idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. 1. Idealized Influence Leader behavior causes followers to identify with the leader. Leader appeals to followers at an emotional level. Leader shows passion and conviction in his or her beliefs. 2. Inspirational motivation Leaders convey a vision for the future. Vision is challenging, clear, and optimistic. 3. Intellectual stimulation Leaders foster creativity and innovation among followers. Leader behavior challenges followers' assumptions regarding what is acceptable. Leaders frame difficult problems in ways that trigger deeper thinking and novel solutions. 4. Individualized consideration Leaders help followers develop their capability. They encourage followers to uniquely contribute to the organization.

Expert Power

Works effectively in combination with referent power. A person's expertise provides needed knowledge to employees and referent power inspires employees. Such a combination can be empowering for employees and the company as a whole.

Personal Characteristics Related to Leadership

1. Cognitive Intelligence The ability to gather, interpret, and synthesize knowledge and information to solve problems and make decisions 2. Emotional Intelligence The ability to understand and control emotions in oneself and others to perform effectively in interpersonal situations 3. Extroversion Tendency to be social, assertive, positive, alert, and energetic 4. Openness Tendency to be creative, imaginative, unconventional, and independent 5. Conscientiousness Tendency to set high goals for oneself and to be perseverant and dependable in striving for those goals 6. Core Self-Evaluation Bottom-line self-assessment of one's ability to be effective, to have self-confidence, and feel in control over situations

Active Behaviors

1. Creating challenges 2. Propelling the organization forward 3. Being dissatisfied with the status quo

Managers

1. Have a role that is defined formally by the organization 2. Are hired or promoted to perform the role by the organization 3. Take a short-term perspective 4. Value stability, organization, and efficiency 5. Are concerned with adherence to policies, procedures, and standards 6. Direct employees 7. Are important in certain and stable environments

Match each choice of leader behavior with the follower readiness description it best fits.

1. Initiating structure----Followers who are highly motivated but lack ability 2. Both initiating structure and consideration------Followers who are neither motivated nor capable 3. Initiating structure, consideration, or both matches--------Choice, Followers who are highly capable and and have experience on the job

Initiating Structure Behaviors

Behaviors associated with initiating structure deal with organizing and accomplishing tasks and goals in the workplace. 1. Developing or enabling new practices that promote accomplishing work tasks 2. Clarifying employee roles and coordinating work tasks 3. Motivating employees to accomplish goals

Referent Power

Can be very effective if an employer wants to increase employees' commitment to the organization and satisfaction with their jobs. Employees often admire and have affection for a boss who uses referent power.

Charismatic Leadership

Charismatic leaders influence others by charging up their motivation and emotions so they pursue the leader's vision with courage and conviction. Key Characteristics Charismatic leaders offer a compelling vision for the future. They infuse followers with confidence and make personal sacrifices for the team. Charismatic leadership is associated with improved job satisfaction and performance among followers. It also tends to make firms more profitable, which can improve leaders' salaries. However, charisma can be used for ends contrary to the interests of followers and may conceal unethical behavior.

Which of these examples represents the most effective use of transactional leader behavior?

Clarifying followers' job duties and goals and motivating performance with rewards

Moderate Situational Control

Consideration and a style of leadership that emphasizes relationship may be more effective.

Consideration Behaviors

Consideration behaviors involve leaders showing respect and concern for employees' needs and feelings. 1. Mixing with employees informally 2. Encouraging a positive workplace climate and minimizing harmful conflict 3. Acknowledging and discussing matters of concern to employees 4. Advancing the interests of employees and defending them from criticism

Ethical Leadership

Ethical leadership involves conforming to laws and regulations and being honest. Also, such leadership treats others fairly and with respect and does not abuse power to exploit others or to serve the leader's self-interest. Key Characteristics Ethical leadership is important to the long-term viability of organizations. Such leaders set the tone for what's acceptable in a firm and reduce the significant cost of ethical breaches.

Which of these represent charismatic leadership behaviors? (Select all that apply.)

Getting followers excited about the vision Holding followers up to high standards Generating a sense of common purpose among followers

Which of these can conceal a leader's unethical behavior? (Select all that apply.)

Having a compelling vision Exuding passion Being exceptionally charismatic

Levels of Situational Control and Types of Leader Behavior

High-This leader can effectively use the initiating structure approach, which involves emphasizing work tasks. Moderate-This leader can effectively use the consideration approach, which emphasizes relationships with followers. Low-This leader may be able to use an initiating structure approach, which involves coordinating work tasks.

Select all the true statements regarding the relationship between follower readiness and choice of leader behavior. (Select all that apply.)

If followers are highly motivated to accomplish their work but don't have the requisite skills to do so, leader behaviors should focus on the tasks at hand, rather than on relationships with followers. Leaders should take followers' ability and work-motivation levels into account when determining whether to emphasize tasks or relationships in their interactions with followers.

Outcomes of Impression Management Tactics

Impression management can have the desired results of raising one's value in the eyes of your boss. However, there are some caveats to keep in mind. Impression management tactics can backfire depending on one's skill in using them. Self-promotion may evoke negative reactions instead of positive reactions. Ingratiation may have a positive effect on the leader, but negative effects on coworkers. Impression management will rarely compensate for poor job performance.

Impression Management

Impression management is a set of tactics used by individuals to influence how others perceive them. Key Characteristics Impression management is often used by followers to gain favor with their leader. Followers can gain favor with leaders through tactics such as exemplification and self-promotion. In some instances, these tactics can backfire and negatively affect the follower's relationship with the leader.

High or Low Situational Control

In general, initiating structure and a style of leadership that emphasizes work tasks is the most effective.

Advantages Women Have Over Men in Their Leadership Style

In general, men and women are similar in their leadership style. However, a slight advantage may go to women.

Summary of the Effectiveness of Transactional Leadership

In general, transactional leadership can be effective if leaders engage in either contingent reward or active management by exception. However, this type of leadership can be ineffective if leaders practice passive management by exception.

Coercive Power

Makes employees afraid of consequences if they don't comply with an authority, A boss who uses coercive power too much can create resentment among employees, which hinders performance. However, such power can be effective as a last resort to stop the undesirable behavior of an employee.

Activities and Responsibilities of Managers

Managers are responsible for establishing and maintaining the complex system of interrelated operations so the organization can keep running and not turn into chaos. To cope with these responsibilities, managers routinely engage in a number of activities.

High and Low Situational Control

Situational control is the degree to which a leader has the ability to influence followers in a given situation.

Contingency Theory of Leadership and Types of Situational Control

The contingency theory of leadership claims that the effect of a leader style or behavior depends on attributes of the followers or the type of situational control. Situational control can be classified as high, low, or moderate

Full Range of Leadership Theory

The full range of leadership theory claims that leader behaviors can be described with respect to whether they are more passive or active. Passive behaviors are reactive (aimed at addressing problems as they come up) while active behaviors are proactive (aimed at challenging followers to grow and improve). While most leaders engage in a mix of passive and active behaviors, research has shown that effective leaders tend to emphasize more active behaviors.

Matching Levels of Situational Control with Types of Leader Behavior

Whether a leader should use the initiating structure approach or the consideration approach depends on his or her level of situational control, or influence over followers in a given situation.

Leadership vs. Management

While the terms leadership and management are often used interchangeably, there are some very distinct differences between them. Consider the characteristics of each.

Poorly performing followers wishing to gain favorable performance ratings should know that ______.

impression management tactics likely will not be effective