Learning Objectives
Chapter 16: describe the nature of family and peer relationships in adolescence.
,Peer relationships become increasingly important. Adolescents also begin to form dating relationships: - can contribute to gender intensification (behaviour and opinions that correspond with traditional gender roles). Relationships with peers can provide an important source of support through: - shared interests - self-disclosure. Some problems become more prevalent: - depression - suicide - delinquency social and emotional development is influenced by both internal and external factors (e.g., culture, family, personality, peers). Parent-Child Relationships in Adolescence: - Strive for autonomy. - Shift from parents to selves and peers for guidance; de-idealize parents - Parents need to balance connection and separation. - Authoritative style best - Continue consistent monitoring - Can be difficult during adolescence Most spend less time with family. ● Culture is a factor. Family system affects relationships. ● Family structure ● Parents' concerns ● Economic status Sibling relationships change. Fewer "best friends" More intimacy, mutual understanding, loyalty ● Closeness, trust ● Self-disclosure - get to know friend's personality Friends are similar or get more similar. ● Identity status, aspirations, politics, deviant behavior Gender differences ● Girls - emotional closeness ● Boys - activities, status
Chapter 16: describe the patterns of development in self-understanding in adolescence.
- ABOVE Such decisions influence an adolescent's self-concept and self-esteem - Become more complex. Four identity statuses: - achievement - moratorium - foreclosure - diffusion Unify separate traits into larger, abstract ones May describe contradictory traits; social situations Gradually combine traits into organized system More emphasis on social virtues, being viewed positively by others. Continues to differentiate ● New components: close friendship, romantic appeal, and job competence ● Generally rises ● Frequent shifts ● Individual differences become increasingly stable Factors that influence Identity Development: - Personality - Flexible, open-minded - Family - Attached, positive problem solving - Peers, friends - School, community, culture - Need rich and varied experiences - Enduring personal essence Identity Development Among Ethnic Minority Adolescents Ethnic identity: A strong, secure ethnic identity is associated with higher self-esteem, optimism, a sense of mastery over the environment, and more positive attitudes toward one's ethnicity. Acculturative stress Psychological distress arising from conflict between the host culture and the minority Forming a bicultural identity offers strong benefits
Chapter 6: discuss individual differences in development in the context of nature and of nurture.
Object search ● A-not-B search error ● Make-believe play Object permanence ● Secondary circular reactions ● Deferred imitation ● Problem solving by analogy
Chapter 15: discuss and provide examples of the consequences resulting from cognitive changes in adolescence.
- ability to coordinate theory and evidence (scientific reasoning). changes in thinking processes is accompanied by: - self-consciousness - self-focusing - idealism - criticism. - imaginary audience concept: perception that one is the center of everyone else's attention - personal fable - the feeling of importance or uniqueness. These changes have both positive and negative consequences. Can become quite self-critical. Provide the opportunity to develop self-understanding.
Chapter 6: compare and contrast the theories of language development.
- communication skills that makes humans unique. how language is acquired? Nativists - nature perspective. - built-in language acquisition device (LAD), universal grammar, or the rules for any language. - narrows these grammar rules based on his or her environmental input. Behaviourists - nurture perspective - learned solely from the environment through operant conditioning, or reinforcement. Other researchers - interactionist perspective - both nature and nurture play a role.
Chapter 5 - outline the patterns of motor development in infants and toddlers, and discuss the related theory.
- gross-motor development (large muscle movements) - fine-motor development (small muscle-movements). - involves many successive approximations and practice. Dynamic systems theory views the development of motor capacities as occurring through systems in which motor skills work together.
Chapter 4 - describe the different approaches to childbirth (childbirth practices).
- natural or prepared childbirth - home delivery - hospital delivery
Chapter 13: describe the patterns of development in self-understanding and emotions in middle childhood.
- obtaining a better and more complex understanding of themselves (self-concept) - how they feel about themselves (self-esteem). More refined self-concept - Social comparisons - Emphasize competencies, both positive and negative - Cognitive development affects structure of self-concept. - Perspective-taking - Social and cultural development affect content of self-concept. - Real self v. ideal self - Hierarchically structured - Separate areas and general self-esteem. - Drops first few years in school, then rises. - Perceived physical appearance important factor Culture and gender-stereotyped beliefs Child-rearing practices: - Authoritative parenting builds self-esteem. - Controlling parenting harms self-esteem. Attributions ● Mastery-oriented ● Learned helplessness These feelings are now more strongly influenced by their accomplishments, attributions, society, and culture. Making improvements in understanding: - self-conscious emotions - the emotions of others - self-regulation of emotions. Academic competence Social competence Physical/athletic competence Physical appearance Many of these advancements can be tied directly to the cognitive skills that are developing. Concrete characteristics (names, physical appearance, specific behaviours) are developed into organized descriptions of personality traits PERSONALITY TRAITS - Popular Or Unpopular: maturity, interests/talents, and kindness/meanness. Self-conscious emotions - Pride - Guilt Emotional understanding ● Explain using internal states ● Understand mixed emotions Emotional self-regulation ● Motivated by self-esteem and peer approval ● Emotional self-efficacy
Chapter 13: discuss and evaluate the fourth stage of psychosocial theory: industry vs. inferiority.
.Early to middle school. industry vs. inferiority - need to feel competent and successful at tasks. Industry Developing a sense of competence at useful skills and tasks School provides many opportunities. Inferiority ● Pessimism and lack of confidence in own ability to do things well ● Family environment, teachers, and peers, can contribute to negative feelings.
Chapter 4 - outline the stages of childbirth.
1. dilation and effacement: this is when the cervix begins to become thin and gradually opened. 2. delivery of the baby: mother pushes with each contraction, and the baby is born, leaving the mother's womb. 3.birth of the placenta: the placenta separates from the uterine wall and is delivered.
Chapter 7: summarize the pattern of self-development in children, and discuss the concepts related to self-development.
A key ability that overlaps with cognitive and social development is self-awareness. Children demonstrate some self-awareness through their physical movement early in infancy. This ability becomes more complex as they age. F - Gradually demonstrate the ability to recognize themselves in the mirror (self-recognition) - Categorize themselves (e.g., I am big) - Exhibit self-control.
Chapter 5 - identify early perceptual capabilities, and discuss how these capabilities develop.
At birth - poor visual acuity―their vision is quite blurry. Improves substantially in the first six months of life. - sensitive to contrast, patterns, and faces, and they are able to gain significant knowledge about objects. Birth- 1 month - Sensitivity to motion cues 2-3 months - Sensitivity to binocular cues 6-7 months - Sensitivity to pictorial cues Wariness of heights 3 wks. Poor contrast sensitivity, Prefer large simple pattern 2 m - Can detect fine-grained detail, Prefer complex patterns 4 m - Can detect patterns even if boundaries are not really present 12 m - Can detect objects if two-thirds of drawing is missing Intermodal Perception - how sense work, rarely used in isolation. For example, when you hear someone talk, you also see their mouth moving; or, as you feel your arm reach for an object, you also see it move. Differentiation theory - infants look for invariant features (characteristics that stay the same) in an environment.
Chapter 5 - define the key terms related to brain development, and outline the major aspects of brain development.
Brain Plasticity - if damage to an area of the brain, another part of the brain may adapt to perform another function. Specialization - One type: lateralization, in which the two halves of the brain (hemispheres) begin to perform specific functions. For example, the left hemisphere typically performs analytical or language-related functions, while the right hemisphere typically performs spatial or holistic functions. Sensitive to the environment at specific developmental points―sensitive periods. For example, early visual experience is necessary for proper development of the visual cortex.
Chapter 15: provide examples of some of the influences on school success for adolescents.
Can have a significant impact on adolescents, especially for children who already experience difficulties. Support from various sources (e.g., parents, peers, teachers, school structure). Drop-out rates in both the United States and Canada are higher than in many other industrialized countries. Children who belong to minority groups are at the greatest risk for dropping out of high school. Failure to complete high school is also correlated with many student, family, school, and community characteristics, such as low academic performance, low self-esteem, lack of parental support, and large classes. support from parents, peers, teachers, and small groups (within the school setting); extracurricular activities; involvement with peers that share the same ethnicity (critical mass); homerooms Choosing a Vocation As the end of high school approaches, adolescents need to begin considering a vocational path. Periods of vocational development: - the fantasy period - dream about different possibilities; - the tentative period - consider their interests and the paths needed to obtain specific goal. - and the realistic period. - begin to make practical decisions about the next steps.
Chapter 7: discuss the characteristics of the study of temperament.
Categories: easy, difficult, slow-to-warm up, and unique blend. Temperament is indicated by how a child reacts to different situations. How well he is able to self-regulate. A child's temperament is affected by both genetics and the environment, as well as their interaction. Easy - 40% Difficult - 10% Slow-to-warm-up - 15% Unclassified - 35%
Chapter: 12: describe the characteristics of learning two languages.
Children learn multiple languages, which is actually more common than monolingual development. Learning two languages can take place simultaneously (learning both at the same time) or sequentially (one after the other). Evidence for a sensitive period for language development and acquisition. Learning language at an early age tends to result in better performance than trying to learn a language at an older age. Bilingual Development ● Learn both languages at the same time ● Learn first language, then second ● Code-switching ● Sensitiveperiod:childhood Bilingual Education ● Languageimmersion ● Bilingualeducation
Chapter 17 - describe the cognitive, social, and emotional changes that occur during emerging adulthood.
Cognitive - Postformal Thought. Epistemic Cognition. Social / Emotional - Personal Agency, Depth/Breadth of Self Identity.
Chapter 17 - discuss some of the key influences on development in emerging adulthood.
Cognitive attributes Emotional and social attributes Social support
Chapter 7: discuss and evaluate the first two stages of psychosocial theory.
Conflict - basic trust vs. mistrust. For a child to feel confident and secure in exploring the world around him or her, the child's balance of care from his or her caregiver must be loving and sympathetic. Conflict - autonomy vs. shame and doubt. Child must learn to feel confident about doing things on his or her own with suitable guidance from his caregiver.
Chapter 10: discuss and evaluate the third stage of psychosocial theory: initiative vs. guilt.
Conflict: Initiative vs. guilt . This stage characterizes the conflict between the motivation to try new skills and the negative feelings that stem from receiving punishment and criticism. Initiative Eagerness to try new tasks, join activities with peers Play permits trying out new skills. Act out highly visible occupations Guilt Overly strict superego, or conscience, causing too much guilt Related to excessive threats, criticism, punishment from adults
Chapter 1 - describe the three basic issues in studying development: continuity vs. discontinuity, one course vs. many courses, and nature vs. nurture.
Continuity vs. Discontinuity - Gradually (Quantitative) or Steps. One Course vs. Many - One way all people develop or # of diff paths. Nature Vs. Nurture - Genetic/biological factors or Environmental.
Chapter 2 - define the following genetic foundations concepts: DNA, mitosis, gametes, meiosis, zygote, dizygotic, monozygotic, dominant-recessive inheritance, codominance, x-linked inheritance, genetic imprinting, mutation polygenic inheritance, and Down syndrome. outline reproductive choices.
DNA - Mitosis Gametes - Meisois - Zygote - Dizygotic M
Chapter 15: describe the improvements in language during adolescence.
Demonstrate improvements in: - vocabulary - grammar - pragmatic skills. All of which enhance an adolescent's ability to make decisions. However, adolescents don't always apply these skills in decision-making, and may act impulsively. Girls: Verbal Abilities ● Score higher on tests of verbal ability ● Increased advantage in reading and writing achievement over adolescence ● Benefit from a biological advantage and more verbal stimulation Differences in literacy skills a contributing factor to widening gender gap in college enrollment ● Today, males account for only 42% of U.S. undergrad students. Vocabulary ● Add abstract words. Grammar ● Master irony and sarcasm. ● Grasp figurative language, proverbs. ● Use more elaborate constructions. Pragmatics improve ● Improved capacity to adapt to social context ● Slang and "cyber slang" ● Adept at electronic communication
Chapter 15: summarize the findings on sex differences in mental abilities for adolescents.
Differences between males and females continue in adolescence throughout most industrialized countries. Girls tend to score higher than boys in language tasks. Boys tend to outperform girls in mathematical reasoning and geometry. Some researchers argue that these differences are biological, especially when gifted children are considered. However, other researchers believe that the environment has a strong impact on these differences: - exposure - encouragement - confidence can improve performance. PROPOSITIONAL THOUGHT: Adolescents can evaluate the logic of verbal propositions. Children can evaluate the logic of statements only by considering them against concrete evidence in the real world. SCIENTIFIC REASONING: - Coordinating theory with evidence - Improves with age From childhood through adulthood - Individuals vary - Skills mastered sequentially CONTRIBUTING FACTORS: ● Complex problems ● Metacognitive understanding ● Open-mindedness Consequences of Adolescent Cognitive Changes Self-consciousness and self-focusing ● Imaginary audience ● Sensitivity to criticism ● Personal fable Idealism and criticism Planning and decision making ● Rely on intuitive judgments ● Overwhelming options ● Far more likely than adults to choose short-term over long-term goals
Chapter 16: discuss and evaluate the fifth stage of Erikson's psychosocial theory: identity vs. role confusion.
Dramatic changes in self-understanding and relationships that occur during adolescence. Identity vs. role confusion. Identity crisis during adolescence is a normal phase that needs to be resolved to achieve an identity. - making decisions about who you are and what you believe. Defining who you are, what you value, and your direction in life IDENTITY: - Commitments to vocation - personal relationships - sexual orientation - ethnic grou - ideals Resolution of "identity crisis" or exploration ROLE CONFUSION: - Lack of direction and definition of self - Restricted exploration in adolescence - Earlier psychosocial conflicts not resolved - Society restricts choices ● Unprepared for stages of adulthood
Chapter 7: describe the pattern of early emotional development in children.
Emotional responses become more specific to the child's own feelings and environment. Get information from trusted others about how to respond to particular situations (social referencing). Becomes more aware of his or her emotions and expectations, s/he will experience self-conscious emotions Start to exercise emotional self-regulation rather than relying on a caregiver to help adjust his or her emotions Assuming a close correspondence between a pattern of behavior and an emotional state can lead to error. Emotional expressions are flexibly organized and vary with the child's developing capacities, goals, and context. Cues can be vocal, facial, gestural, and situational. HAPPY: Smile ‒ from birth Social smile ‒ 6 to 10 weeks Laugh ‒ 3 to 4 months ANGER: General distress ‒ from birth Anger ‒ 4 to 6 months SADNESS: Distress to "still face" ‒ 2 to 7 months FEAR First fears ‒ 6 to 12 months Stranger anxiety ‒ 8 to 12 months Emotional contagion- Early infancy Recognize others facial expressions - From 5 months Social referencing Self-Conscious Emotions ● Shame ● Embarrassment ● Guilt ● Envy ● Pride Emerge middle of second year Need adult instruction about when to feel them
Chapter 10: outline the developments in peer relations in early childhood.
Experience also plays a key role in peer relations morality, and behaviour in general. Social learning theory emphasizes the importance of learning through observation (modeling) and discipline. Parenting or child-rearing styles can have a strong effect on a child's behaviour and self-esteem. An adaptable, accepting (authoritative) parenting style has been linked to the most successful outcomes. Predictably, harsh discipline and abusive treatment have been linked to a variety of negative outcomes.
Chapter 17 - describe the characteristics of emerging adulthood, and provide examples.
Exploration: goals - school or travel. Epistemic cognition - dualistic thinking, relativistic thinking, commitment within relativistic thinking (formulating a fusion of multiple views). Forming committed, intimate relationship. Finding meaningful employment. Postpone marrigage. Return home
Chapter 4 - define and discuss medical interventions used during childbirth, and discuss complications that can arise in the process.
Fetal monitoring Medication ● Analgesics ● Anesthetics Instrument delivery Induced labor Cesarean delivery
Chapter 6: describe the patterns of and influences on language development.
First speech sounds ● Cooing ● Babbling Becoming a communicator ● Join tattention ● Give-and-take ● Preverbal gesture First Words ● Underextension ● Overextension Two-Word Utterances ● Most children show a steady, continuous increase in the rate of word learning through the preschool years. ● Telegraphic speech Comprehension of the spoken language increases dramatically over the second year. ● Quick comprehension frees space in working memory for picking up new words and for the more demanding task of using them to communicate
Chapter 9: discuss and evaluate current research findings about children in the preoperational stage of development.
Follow-up research on Piaget's preoperational stage demonstrates that children are capable of certain logical tasks if the methods are simplified. Egocentrism: Children have shown awareness of another's viewpoint on Piaget's three mountain problem if the objects used are familiar and picture selection is not used. For other examples, see Berk, page 323. Conservation: Smaller numbers / careful wording = better performance. Categorization: Young children appear to categorize everyday knowledge. Appearance vs. reality: Non-verbal performance indicates understanding Egocentric, Animistic & Magical Thinking: - Can adjust language to others and take others' perspectives in simple situations - Animistic thinking comes from incomplete knowledge of objects Illogical Thought: - Use causal expressions - Can do simplified conservation - Can reason by analogy Categorization:. - Everyday knowledge is categorized. Appearance versus Reality - Make-believe helps children tell the difference.
Chapter 12: describe the theories of learning as applied to a classroom setting
Formal education (school) contributes significantly to cognitive development Quality of the education is important. Traditional classrooms focus on the teacher as the instructor of the material Constructivist classrooms allow children to play a more active role in their education. School provides opportunities to further children's cognitive development by allowing them to consider new ideas and attempt new skills. Ability to process and adapt to emotional information Modestly associated with IQ Positively associated with self-esteem, empathy, prosocial behavior, and life satisfaction - Children in smaller classes, especially minority children, score higher than those in larger classes. - Teachers have more time for individual attention. - Children show better concentration, higher-quality class participation, and more favorable attitudes toward school New philosophical directions: ● Social-constructivist ● Reciprocal teaching ● Communities of learners Teacher-student interaction ● Self-fulfilling prophesies Grouping practices ● Homogenous ● Multigrade classrooms ● Cooperative learning Magnet schools: regular curriculum plus specific areas of interest, such as performing arts.
Types of play.
Functional play: The example should relate to repetitive motor movements and play that involves physically manipulating an object. Constructive play: The example should involve creating or constructing something. Make-believe play: The example should involve imaginary roles or scenarios.
Chapter 9: discuss how differences in one's environment influence mental development.
Gains in mental representation ● Make-believe play - With age, make- believe gradually becomes, More detached from real-life condition, Less self-centered, More complex, sociodramatic play. During social pretend, interactions last longer, show more involvement, and draw more children into the activity in a more cooperative manner. Make-believe strengthens a variety of mental abilities, including sustained attention, logic, memory, reasoning, and creativity. ● Dual representation Viewing a symbolic object as both object and symbol Mastered around age 3 Adult teaching can help provide lots of maps, photos, drawings, make-believe playthings, etc. point out similarities to the real world. Provide an example that demonstrates a child's difficulty with a logical reasoning task. To illustrate a young child having difficulty with logical reasoning, one can apply the concept of conservation. Young children don't realize that despite the change in appearance, water that appears in glasses of different dimensions can have the same volume. To illustrate a young child having difficulty with logical reasoning, one can apply the concept of conservation. Young children don't realize that despite the change in appearance, water that appears in glasses of different dimensions can have the same volume. Simplify and relate the tasks to everyday experiences. questions are information-seeking (not requests). ● Provides precise knowledge when children need it ● Content related to cognitive development ● Context shapes questions. ● Adults seem to formulate answers based on children's maturity.
Chapter 16: discuss some of the behavioural and emotional problems that occur during adolescence.
Gender Intensification in Adolescence: Increased gender stereotyping of attitudes and behavior Both sexes experience, but stronger for girls Biological, social, cognitive factors More in early adolescence, declines mid- to late adolescence Depression in Adolescence © Nikhil Gangavane | Dreamstime.com Most common psychological problem of adolescence 15% to 20% experience major episode Twice as many girls as boys Factors influencing depression: ● Genetics ● Child-rearing practices ● Learned helplessness ● Multiple negative life events Pressures to conform to: ● Dress, grooming, social activities ● Proadultbehavior ● Misconduct ● Rises in early adolescence, but low overall More conformity in early adolescence Authoritative parenting helps resist pressures. Adolescent Suicide Rate jumps sharply in adolescence 3 to 4 times as many boys as girls ● Girls more attempts Greatest risk: ● White, African-American males; Native Americans ● Gay, lesbian, bisexual ● Highly intelligent and socially withdrawn ● Antisocial; hostile and destructive behaviors Adolescent Delinquency: Adolescents account for 14% of arrests. ● Most commit some (usually minor) crime. ● Delinquency rises over early and mid-adolescence, then declines. ● Usually reward-seeking and peer approval Gender gap SES and ethnicity are strong predictors of arrests (but law enforcement practices partially to blame). Chronic delinquency linked to difficult temperament, low intelligence, poor academics, peer rejection, or antisocial peers. Early-onset: behavior begins in middle childhood - Biological risk factors and child-rearing practices combine. Late-onset: behavior begins around puberty ● Peer influences Resilience in Adolescence: ● A balance between family connection and separation ● Effective family problem solving that models and encourages rational decision making ● Parental monitoring and school involvement ● Close, supportive friendships ● High-quality vocational education ● A culturally sensitive school and community ● Affiliation with a religious organization ● Opportunities in extracurricular activities, youth organizations, community service
Chapter 10: discuss gender and the role of nature and nurture in early childhood development.
Gender typing, in which children associate roles, activities, or traits with one (or the other) of the sexes. Gender categorizations are strongly influenced both by nature and nurture. The environmental influences on gender typing are extensive and can originate from many different sources. Gender typing contributes to: -Children's understanding of the stability of gender regardless of appearance (gender constancy) - Their own masculinity or femininity (gender identity) - Gender-roles in general (gender schema theory). GENDER SCHEMA: Combines social learning theory and cognitive developmental theory to explain the attainment of gender identity. SOCIAL LEARNING: Gender-typing behavior leads to gender identity. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL: Self-perceptions (gender constancy) come before behavior. Delay exposure to gender-stereotyping. Model nontraditional roles. Encourage mixed- gender activities. Point out exceptions
Chapter 16: discuss the influences on moral development during adolescence.
Kohlberg: Rights and justice orientation Gilligan: Caring and responsiveness orientation ● Ethic of care Both sexes use both orientations ● Females may stress care more, due to more involvement in personal care for others. ● Males may stress justice more. ● However, culture and situation influence choice Moral behaviour varies from one situation to the next. Adolescents express great concern in matters of personal choice. Reflects their quest for identity and independence Those whose parents intrude into their private domains report higher levels of stress. Adolescents still believe parents have the right to tell them what to do in moral and social-conventional situations Factors can influence moral behaviour: Moral self-relevance ● Degree to which morality is central to self-concept Close relationships with parents, teachers, and friends may play vital roles by modeling prosocial behavior and fostering morally relevant emotions. Other positive influences: ● Just educational environments ● Opportunities for civic engagement Personality Child-rearing practices ● Authoritative, caring ● Discuss moral concerns Schooling Peer interactions ● Exposure to different views Culture ● Variations ● Collectivist v. individualistic Development of Civic Responsibility Family influences School and community influences ● Currently, 66% of U.S. public schools provide students with community service opportunities. ● Half have service-learning programs, which integrate service activities into the academic curriculum. ● Students who are required to serve their community express a strong desire to remain active. Formal religious involvement declines in adolescence, coinciding with increased autonomy. Religious involvement linked to: ● More community service ● Less misconduct ● Lower drug and alcohol use ● Later sex ● Less delinquency CHALLENGES: Inadequate account for everyday morality ● Prefer pragmatic approach to morality ● Context and motivations important ● Everyday moral judgments are tools used to reach personal goals. May act first, justify morality later
Chapter 12: summarize the findings on the development of specific language skills in early childhood.
Language skills are also advancing. Ever expanding their vocabulary. Making advances in their use of grammar and pragmatics (social communication skills). Whole-language approach ● Phonological awareness ● A combination of the two approaches, along with excellent teaching practices, shows the best results in literacy progress for 1st graders Metalinguistic awareness increases in middle childhood. Vocabulary - Increases fourfold during school years 20 new words a day Grammar - Passive voice Infinitive phrases Pragmatics - Communicating clearly, Narratives
Chapter 7: discuss the characteristics of the study of attachment.
Many believe that the attachment response is present at birth. Enhances the infant's chance of survival. Ainsworth - observing a child's reactions to brief separations from the parent and to brief introductions of a stranger. Four types of attachments- 1. secure 2. avoidant 3. resistant 4 disorganized/disoriented. Children with stable, secure attachments tend to have more positive developmental outcomes than children with insecure attachments.
Chapter 3 - describe some of the positive and negative influences on prenatal development.
Negative influences, or teratogens, such as drugs, pollution, and disease can cause damage to a developing child during the prenatal period. Maternal factors, such as exercise, nutrition, and age
Chapter 13: outline developments in perspective taking.
Perspective taking is an important social skill Requires children to think about the knowledge and feelings of others. Selman (1976) describes how children develop through stages of perspective taking. - moving from the inability to differentiate their own perspective from others - to understanding the societal influences on perspective taking. Morally, children also move from a simplistic understanding of rules to a careful consideration of intentions. In middle childhood, major advances in perspective taking support: ● Self-concept ● Self-esteem ● Understanding of others ● Increasing social skills Both adults' and peers' explanations of their viewpoints contribute to children's perspective taking. Level 0 - Undifferentiated 3 to 6 years Level 1 - Social-informational 4 to 9 years Level 2 - Self-reflective 7 to 12 years Level 3 - Third-party 10 to 15 years Leve l4 - Societal 14 years to adult
Chapter 5 - outline the characteristic changes in body size, tissue makeup, body proportions, and skeletal growth in the first two years of human life.
Physical Development - height increases - body fat decrease - muscle mass increase. - cephalocaudal trend: growth from "head to tail" - proximodistal trend: centre of the body to the extremities. - head, soft spots (fontanels) become filled-in. 50% in height from birth to age 1; 75% by age 2 ● Grow in spurts ● Gain "baby fat" until about 9 months, then get slimmer ● Girls slightly shorter and lighter than boys, some ethnic differences
Chapter 6: discuss and evaluate information processing theory in relation to cognitive developmental theory.
Piaget's Theory. - Learn about the world around, exploration leads to knowledge or schemes. Children build on or adapt this knowledge by interacting with their environment, using existing knowledge to interpret new information (assimilation) and creating new schemes or modifying existing schemes (accommodation). Once new knowledge is obtained, the child then organizes the information. Information processing theory - perspective on cognitive development. - mental system that uses attention, memory, and categorization skills. - role of the environment in the acquisition of knowledge
Chapter 9: compare and contrast the cognitive developmental theory, sociocultural theory, and information processing theory.
Private Speech - Piaget called "egocentric speech" - Vygotsky viewed as foundation for all higher cognitive processes Helps guide behavior ● Used more when tasks are difficult, after errors, or when confused Gradually becomes more silent ● Children with learning and behavior problems use longer
Explain and provide an example that illustrates the difference between problem-centred coping and emotion-centred coping.
The key difference os the focus. Problem-centred coping - focuses on changing the problem. Emotion-centred coping - focuses on changing the feelings associated with that problem. For example, after a fight, someone with a problem-centred focus may examine the behaviour that led to the skirmish, and make a change to the behaviour, so as to avoid fighting about this issue in the future. With an emotion-centred focus, the same person may choose to stay away from the other person so as to avoid similar feelings going forward..
Chapter 1 - summarize the main theoretical perspectives on child development.
Psychoanalytic - Sexual Impulses. Cognitive Developmental - Behaviourism - Learn modeling, Operant conditiioning. Information Processing - like computer. Sense- Working - Short Term - Long Term. Sociocultural Theory - Culture & Environment influence.
Chapter 1 - summarize the methods and designs used to study development.
Research - Lab Field Study. Quantitative. Correlational Naturalistic.
Chapter: 13: define the different types of moral understanding.-
Social Conventions - Conventions with vs. without clear purpose - Consider intentions and context of violations Moral Rules - Consider intentions and context of violations Personal Matters - Recognize areas of personal choice, relate to moral rules - Recognize limits on choice When children challenge adult authority, they typically do it within the personal domain. Ideas of personal choice enhance children's moral understanding. Older school-age children put limits on individual choice and typically decide in favor of fairness, resulting in a general decline in prejudice during middle childhood. By the early school years, children associate power and privilege with white people and inferior status with people of color. ● In the absence of information, children may fill in the gaps with information they encounter in the media. ● When authority figures confer status distinctions, children may form biased attitudes. In-group favoritism Out-group prejudice Out-group favoritism Factors Affecting Extent Children Hold Racial and Ethnic Biases A fixed view of personality traits Overly high self-esteem A social world in which people are sorted into groups
Types of discipline
time-out, positive discipline, appropriate modeling Inductive Discipline ● Gives children information about how to behave that they can use in future situations ● Encourages sympathy and concern, which motivates prosocial behavior ● Gives children reason for changing their behavior and encourages moral standards that make sense ● Children form a script that can deter future transgressions.
Chapter 16: describe and evaluate Kohlberg's theory on moral development.
Three levels of development, each of which consists of two stages. Preconventional - externally-based morality: - Rules are determined by others and followed to avoid punishment. Stage 1: Punishment and obedience Stage 2: Instrumental purpose Conventional - morality for the good of society: Stage 3: "Good boy-good girl" (morality of interpersonal cooperation) Stage 4: Social order maintaining Postconventional - morality is abstract, and human life holds the greatest value.: Stage 5: Social contract or Principled Level Stage 6: Universal ethical principle Challenges to Kohlberg's theory have been based on the last level of development. Some research indicates that individuals may never reach the postconventional stage and that decisions about morality may fluctuate between higher and lower stages in real-life circumstances.
Chapter 10: compare and contrast theories on moral development in young children.
Warmth and responsiveness ● Competence and power ● Consistency between words and behavior PSYCHOANALYTIC: Freud: superego and guilt Today: induction, empathy- based guilt SOCIAL LEARNING: Modeling moral behavior BEHAVIORISTS: Rewards and punishment COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: Children as active thinkers about social rules Moral Imperatives: - Protect people's rights and welfare. - Victims and other children react strongly ● to moral offenses. Social Conventions: - Customs such as table manners or dress styles - Peers seldom react to violations of social convention. - Adults explain less, demand obedience
Chapter 13: describe changes in peer relations in middle childhood.
When children move into a school setting, peers play a crucial role in their development. Peer groups and friends influence how children feel about themselves and the types of activities in which they choose to engage. Formed from proximity, similarity Adopt similar dress and behavior Peer culture Relational aggression Exclusion Personal qualities, trust become important. More selective in choosing friends Friendships can last several years. Influence each other's behavior
Chapter 9: describe the components and findings of information processing theory.
Young children make gains in attention Ability to inhibit behaviour, plan, remember information, solve problems, read, and reason about quantity. Start thinking about thinking (metacognition). Able to understand that ideas can be incorrect (false beliefs). Sustained attention increases sharply between 2 and 31⁄2 years. ● Frontal lobe growth ● Increasingly complex play goals ● Adult scaffolding ● Quality preschooling Planning Improves. MEMORY: Recognition better than recall Beginnings of memory strategies ● Limited by working memory, Familiar events remembered as scripts - More elaborate with age - Elaborative style best - Adults help with autobiographical memories PROBLEM SOLVING: Overlapping Waves Theory Try variety of strategies. Observe how well they work. Gradually select those leading to rapid, accurate answers. Theroy of the mind - coherent set of ideas about mental activities (metacognition) Milestones: Age 1: view others as intentional beings who are available for communication Age 2: aware of others' emotions and desires Age 3: realize that thinking is internal, but focus on desires Age 4: realize both beliefs and desires determine behavior; awareness of false beliefs Mastery of false beliefs: around age 4
Chapter 9: describe and evaluate Vygotsky's sociocultural theory.
begin to use language more successfully. interact with others in a variety of ways. Intersubjectivity -, describes how a more knowledgeable person can assist in moving a less knowledgeable person towards understanding. One strategy to achieve this goal is to offer support suitable to the child's need: scaffolding. Assisted discovery - Teachers guide children's learning with explanations and verbal prompts. ● Peer collaboration is also emphasized. One criticism of sociocultural theory is that it focuses too heavily on children's attainment of knowledge through language. De-emphasizes other types of learning, such as observation
Chapter 15: describe the findings of information processing theory for adolescent development.
changes that occur in cognition: - increases in attentional selectivity - inhibition - use of strategies - the knowledge base - metacognition - cognitive self-regulation - processing speed - capacity. Information-Processing Improvements: ● Attention ● Inhibition ● Memory strategies ● Knowledge ● Metacognition ● Cognitive self-regulation ● Speed of thinking and processing capacity
Chapter 10: discuss the influences of child-rearing on early childhood development.
depression, anger, defiance, anti-social behaviour, early sexual activity, adolescent parenthood, and school drop-out Authoritative ● Authoritarian ● Permissive ● Uninvolved Warm, involved parents provide models of caring concern as well as confident, self-controlled behavior. ● Children are far more likely to comply with and internalize control that appears fair and reasonable. ● Authoritative parents let children know that they are competent individuals, which fosters self-esteem and maturity. ● Supportive aspects of the authoritative style, including parental acceptance, involvement, and rational control, are powerful sources of resilience.
Chapter 5 - identify and describe the influences that affect early physical growth.
extreme sensory deprivation cataracts in both eyes chronic stress Heredity Nutrition ● Breast v. bottle feeding ● Malnutrition Emotional well-being ● Problems can cause failure to thrive. Stimulation - Experience-expectant growth ● Ordinary experiences "expected" by brain to grow normally ● Occurs early and naturally Experience-dependent growth ● Specific experience, varies widely across cultures ● Rushing early learning can overwhelm young brains.
Chapter 3 - outline the factors that influence a person's decision whether or not to have children.
financial circumstances. ● career goals. ● values. ● health conditions.
Chapter 12: discuss and evaluate the concrete operational stage of early childhood development, as outlined by Piaget..
middle childhood. Concrete operational: Begin to process information in a more logical way. Mental operations work best with objects that are concrete. ● Problems with abstract ideas Continuum of acquisition ● Master concrete operational tasks gradually For example,: Able to conserve - Decentration - Reversibility Classify hierarchically Seriate (organize items by amount) -Transitive inference Reason spatially. - Maps, Directions Experience and advancements in information processing skills are important factors. Reversibility - Ability to think back to the items that changed physical appearance in the conservation task and to use this information to determine that the basic properties of the item have not changed.
Chapter 6: discuss and evaluate the sensorimotor stage of human development.
first two years of life. Organized ways of making sense of experience, called schemes, change with age. ● Action-based (motor patterns) at first ● Later move to a mental (thinking) level - must accommodate a new scheme for <em>cat</em> and must adjust his scheme for <em>dog</em>. Building schemes through sensory and motor exploration Circular reactions— stumbling upon a new experience caused by the baby's own motor activity 1. Reflexes (0-1 month) - inborn reflexes such as sucking and looking. 2. Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months) - coordinating sensation and new schemas. Actions are repeated because the infant finds them pleasurable. 3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months) - focused on the world. Intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment. 4. Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months): Clearly intentional actions. Combine schemas in order to achieve a desired effect. Begin exploring the environment. Imitate behavior. Recognize certain objects as having specific qualities. 5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months): Trial-and-error experimentation. 6. Early Representational Thought (18-24 months): Develop symbols to represent events or objects in the world. Move towards understanding the world through mental operations rather than purely through actions.
Chapter 15: discuss and evaluate the formal operational stage of adolescent development.
formal operational stage adolescents as possessing the ability to think about - problems abstractly and systematically. capable of creating a hypothesis and narrowing in on - --alternative inferences (hypothetico-deductive reasoning). Consider the logic of verbal statements (propositional thought). Research has found that children can perform some of these tasks at earlier ages. However, even many adults perform poorly on certain formal operational tasks. Formal operations may not be universal. ● Training, context contribute ● Individuals in tribal and village societies not usually exposed
Chapter 5 - discuss and provide examples of research concerning early learning capacities.
imitation classical conditioning operant conditioning. - attracted to novelty, which helps them to increase their knowledge base. - habituation, or the decrease in the strength of a response as a stimulus is repeated.
Chapter 10: describe the patterns of early child development in self-understanding and emotions.
more conscious during early childhood. In this stage of development begin to have an idea of their own characteristics (self-concept) starts out as quite concrete but becomes more abstract with age. Based on observable characteristics: - Appearance - Possessions - Behavior Typical emotions and attitudes The richness of life-story narratives helps children understand themselves. Asserting rights to objects ("Mine!") helps define boundaries of self. Self-Esteem ● Judgments we make about our own worth ● Includes global appraisal and judgments of different aspects of self ● Affects preschoolers' initiative Emotional development is another key aspect. Better able to think about and describe emotion. Leads to improvements in controlling emotions (emotional self-regulation). Exposure to different types of experiences is related to this emotional understanding and ability. - judge causes of emotions better. - predict actions based on emotions. - help relieve others' feelings - Parenting strongly influences preschoolers' emotional competence. - Understanding of others' emotions increasingly accurate - Emotional self-regulation improves. - More self-conscious emotions (shame, guilt) as self-concept develops - Empathy, sympathy, and prosocial behavior increase. Caregivers: ● Label and explain emotions. ● Discuss feelings that highlight the emotional significance of events. ● Scaffold emotional thought. ● Acknowledge emotional reactions. Siblings and Friends: ● Negotiate. ● Act out emotions in play, especially make- believe. ● Help increase social skills. Language helps children improve their ability to regulate their emotions. Effortful control is vital in managing emotions in early childhood. ● Inhibiting impulses ● Shifting attention
Chapter 9: discuss and evaluate Piaget's preoperational stage of development.
preoperational stage from 2 to 7 years. Engage in mental representation Reason about their surroundings more successfully. Able to participate in make-believe play. Represent the world symbolically. Uable to effectively take on other's viewpoints (egocentrism). Understand that some physical characteristics stay the same even when appearances change (conservation), Classify objects hierarchically. Piaget may have underestimated children's abilities.
Chapter 4 - discuss and provide examples of the sensory capacities that infants have at birth.
reflexes- which may be important for survival, and extensive sensory capacities. For example, newborns are very sensitive to touch, sound, and smell. ● Withdrawal ● Rooting ● Sucking ● Swimming ● Moro ● Palmar grasp ● Tonic neck ● Eye blink ● Stepping ● Babinski Vision is the least developed sense in newborns, but this sense continues to develop during the early part of the infant's first year.
Chapter 9: summarize the research findings on the development of vocabulary, grammar, and conversation
skills children learn relate to achievements in language. Able to quickly learn new words (fast mapping). Learn words and grammar so effectively. Young children likely use a combination of their own strategies and support from adults. Overregularization is an overextension of grammatical "rules" to irregular word form. Emergent literacy is demonstrated when children begin to understand the relationship between written words and language. Fast-mapping Mutual exclusivity bias Syntactic bootstrapping Relying on word meanings to figure out grammatical rules Inventing own words
Chapter 3 - summarize the stages of prenatal development.
zygote - 2 weeks. Fertilization, Implantation., Start of placenta then an embryo - 6 weeks. Arms, legs, face, organs, muscles all develop, Heart begins beating and finally a fetus 30 weeks - "Growth and finishing"
Chapter 4 - describe the states of arousal of a newborn baby.
● Regular sleep ● Irregular sleep ● Drowsiness ● Quiet alertness ● Waking activity and crying
