Lecture 8: Aristotle and Virtue Ethics

Two senses of rationality

(1) Rationality is a state or disposition. (2)Rationality as an activity To perform something well is to be virtuous

The mean is different for...

...a marine, a college student, and an eight-year old child.

The mean varies ...

...according to individuals

For Aristotle, ethics is not a precise science, it is about...

...living the good life.

Honor is dependent on what ____________ ________ __ ___. It is thus too superficial.

others think of us

Ethics is considered as a branch of politics:

the state should actively encourage citizens to inculcate the virtues, which in turn are the best guarantee of a flourishing political order

Desiring virtue:

the virtuous agent desires only to perform the virtuous act

Objections to Virtue Ethics

1) Virtue ethics is too vague and unclear to be action guiding. 2) The demands that virtue ethics makes are too high 3) Maybe the mean is not always best. 4) Conflicting virtues

The Principle of The Golden Mean

A moral virtue is a mean between two extreme vices— (the vice of excess and the vice of deficiency). For example, courage is the mean between cowardice (deficiency) and rashness (excess).

A "moral virtue", for Aristotle, is a trait of character:

A trait that is not "natural" to us A trait that develops through habit -A habit is a repeated action -"Practice makes perfect"

Adolescence and early adulthood is the time when some people make the transition from the _______________ conception of morality to the _______ conception.

Adolescent; adult

Human Nature

Aristotle argues for a universal human nature, observing that all human beings are striving after happiness. Aristotle observes that human beings are rational animals (who can control their actions and feelings, and choose what habits they will develop), and social/political animals.

Habit:

Being virtuous is acting virtuously out of habit.

Experience:

Being virtuous takes experience in the real world. Putting oneself in situations where she/he learns to act virtuously.

Prudence (phronesis):

Consists in knowing correctly how to direct the life of man Assist us in deliberating correctly about the true aims of man: it points out the suitable means to the achievement of true goals ***it is the keystone to all virtues. ****

Relativism v. Universalism

Cultural relativism may be true, because we observe ethical diversity among cultures, but ethical relativism could not be true, because some virtues are important in any culture. Aristotle, then, is an ethical universalist who accepts cultural relativism

The Nature of Ethics according to Aristotle

Ethics refers primarily to character Emphasis is on character and human excellence, the virtues

Virtual Ethics

Everything aims at some end—has some purpose Ethics requires that we discover what the purpose or end of human life is. There are lots of things that people pursue, but most of these are pursued for the sake of something else. We need to discover the ultimate goal or end of human life. Ethics then will tell us how best to achieve this ultimate end. Everyone admits what the goal is: Happiness.

What is the good life, according to Aristotle?

Everything in nature has a purpose The purpose of man is to exercise his reason in a life of virtue, or moderation, to achieve happiness

Four types of people

Evil people Incontinent people Continent people Temperate people

Three core concepts:

Excellence or virtue (arête)-- the excellent performance of distinctively human function. Wisdom, practical or moral (phronesis), to achieve balance between extremes and to choose appropriate priorities. Flourishing, happiness, or well-being (eudaimonia)-- a life well-lived, a deeply satisfying life intimately connected with successful living (interpreted as the fulfilment of natural potential).

What is the Good for Human Beings?

First, happiness is the only thing we aim at for its own sake Second, we must aim at an activity of the soul in accordance with excellence Happiness is an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue.

How is virtue related to the attainment of happiness?

Happiness consists of the activity of the mind in conformity with virtue The true goods of man are the spiritual goods that consist in virtue of his soul, and this is happiness The care of the soul remains the only way that leads to happiness Being sufficiently endowed with the possession of exterior goods is indispensable, but they don't guarantee happiness

Virtue ethics is an ethical tradition that focuses on:

How emotions relate to actions How human beings are able to control their emotions How human beings are able to gain happiness for themselves

"Human Nature" for Aristotle:

Humans are rational animals -unique because of their reason Humans are social/political animals -flourish in groups -have social origins -succeed in social pursuits

Human Nature

Humans by nature are political animals Good state provides good and happy people Good people along with good laws are necessary for a well-governed state

Types of virtues

Intellectual Virtues -The virtues of the rational part of the soul -Practical reason: prudence -Theoretical reason: wisdom Moral Virtues -Derive from attitudes in us (habituation) E.g. by carrying out acts of courage we easily bring in completion the acts of courage

two kinds of virtues:

Intellectual virtues can be taught. Moral virtues can only be learned through habitual practice.

Happiness

It is not merely a subjective state of pleasure or contentment but the kind of life we would all want to live if we understood our essential nature. Our function (essence) is to live according to reason and thereby become a certain sort of highly rational being. When we fulfill the ideal of living the virtuous life, we are truly happy.

What is happiness?

It's is not dependent on anyone else however, honor is

The Virtuous agent:

It's not just about doing the virtuous thing

Examples of moral virtues:

Justice Fortitude Temperance

Example of an intellectual virtue:

Knowledge Prudence

The Golden Mean is Not

Mathematical or precise

Happiness: The Self-sufficient End

Most of the ends (goals) we seek are instrumental steps toward some ultimate goal. Aristotle identifies happiness (eudaemonia) as that which we seek as a goal that is an end in itself. Happiness comes from developing a good character. A good character comes from the development of good habits.

What Makes a Person Virtuous?

Motivation—acts performed for their own sake, not for presumed consequences Conscious, deliberate choice Consistency and habit, via discipline and practice Temperance, reaching "the Golden Mean"

Isn't virtue ethics just egoism?

No, because humans are social animals, built for living in communities, so our behavior toward others is innately oriented to self AND others' well-being. A good life requires a good community. We strive for virtuous communities because that's how we want to live, and that's how human function is best fulfilled.

Aristotle's idea of moral virtue

Principle of The Golden Mean

The ability to ___________ distinguishes human beings from other things

Reason

Aristotle

Student of Plato: -Studied in Plato's academy from 367 B.C. until the death of Plato in 347 B.C. Then pursued research in biology Tutor for Alexander "the Great" 335: founded the Lyceum in Athens where he remained until 323 B.C.

Two Moral Perspectives

The Question of Action: What should I do? How ought I to act? The Question of Character: What kind of person ought I to be? Aristotle's concern is with the question of character.

We can contrast two approaches to the moral life:

The childhood conception of morality: -Comes from outside (usually parents). -Is negative ("don't touch that stove burner!"). -Rules and habit formation are central. The adult conception of morality. -Comes from within (self-directed). -Is positive ("I want to be this kind of person."). -Virtue-centered, often modeled on ideals.

The Golden Mean

The morally good persons live a life of moderation, the "mean" between two extreme type of actions The life of moderation is one that: -Avoids the excesses and the deficiencies of behavior -Is governed by reason -Is not directed by uncontrollable desires and passion

Wisdom

The most elevated dianoetic virtue It regards those things that are higher than man: e.g. theoretical sciences, metaphysics.

Character

The virtuous person acts out of a set disposition to do the right act in the right way, at the right time, and for the right reason If you don't know what the right thing to do is, find the good person and watch what he does

Which pleasures are good?

Those which have good sources (even bodily pleasures are good up to some point - temperance) The only real pleasures are those of the virtuous person. Pleasure crowns the virtuous life and is the necessary consequence of which virtue is the antecedent

Application

To apply virtue ethics to a given case one should discuss which character traits (virtues, vices, intermediate states) are relevant and reflect on the kind of actions, attitudes, and feelings go along with them. It is not enough to say "This action expresses virtue," you must say which virtue would be appropriate to practice in a certain situation(generosity, appropriate compassion) and be prepared to say why.

Training & Education:

To be a virtuous agent takes training and education.

Good Character

Virtue must be developed through constant practice. Good thoughts -> Good acts -> good habits -> good character -> Happiness

To perform something well is ____________

Virtuous

____________ ___ ________ (akrasia) occurs when individuals cannot keep their desires under control.

Weakness of will

Those of good character should ask...

Will this act help lead me to be the person I should be? Will I become a person of good character by thinking and acting in this way?

moral virtue

a mean between two extremes

virtue

a trait of character of a person that is good for that person to have.

Aristotle insists the virtuous person will be best able to deal with _____________.

adversity

Plato

author of many ethical dialogues

Another requirement of a virtuous agent:

being a virtuous agent is more than merely doing the virtuous thing and gaining pleasure in her doing the virtuous thing.

The continent man

does the virtuous thing, although he had some impulse or desire to do otherwise.

The incontinent man:

doesn't do the virtuous thing just because he follows the appetitive soul

Socrates

founder of ethical studies

The "Good Life" is a life that leads to eudaemonia:

happiness flourishing excellence well-being self-realization (Abraham Maslow)

The best and most complete virtue is to be found in

intellectual virtues

The mean

is the precise balance of qualities that strengthen our character.

Prudence

is the virtue of practical intelligence of knowing how to apply general principles in particular situations. is the ability to act so that principle will take a concrete form. Is not only a virtue but it is the keystone to all virtues. It is the virtue which is manifested in acting so that one's adherence to other virtues is exemplified in one's actions.

Acting for the sake of virtue:

one must get pleasure in acting justly for it to count as a just act at all.

Intellectual virtues

points out the suitable means but they do not point out the ends themselves The true ends and aims are grasped by the ethical virtues that directs the will in the correct way

People pursue honors to reassure themselves that they are good—so honor is not _____________ ___ ___ ___ ________.

pursued for its own sake

Wealth also is not happiness for the same reason—we pursue wealth for the ______ __ __________ _____

sake of something else

Resisting the appetitive soul

to be virtuous, one's appetitive soul, that part of the soul which brings about desires and impulses that pull one away from acting rationally, mustn't lead one away from doing the virtuous thing.

Incontinent people

type of people who are not able to control their desires and act them out instead

Continent people

type of people who have unruly desires but manage to control them

Evil people

type of people who yield to vice because they do not believe that the virtues are worth striving for

Temperate people

type of people whose desires are naturally—or through habit, second-nature— directed toward that which is good for them