lifespan exam 2

The Child Development Project has 4 core values

(fairness, concern & respect for others, helpfulness, responsibility).

clique

6 to 10 members, less intimate, more permeable, with changing membership

Working memory

(formerly "short term storage") is next, focusing attention, planning, using problem-solving strategies, making inferences and organizing information. It literally allows the information to be "worked on" before going on to be stored in long-term memory. Working memory uses both immediate sensory information & information from long-term memory.

procedural knowledge

(how to apply rules & strategies effectively)

declarative knowledge

(knowing facts, rules, oneself)

They found that the average level of global self-esteem was high & stable during _________________

adolescence.

proposed to account for this phenomenon. Crocker and Major (1989) posit that, to maintain their self-esteem, members of historically marginalized groups engage in three complementary processes.

They attribute negative feedback directed toward themselves to the prejudice that exists in society. They make social comparisons to members of their own group rather than to members of the advantaged majority. Finally, they tend to enhance the importance of self-concept domains in which members of their group excel, while discounting the importance of domains in which their members do not excel

psychosocial development

This has been defined as "the internal psychological processes of interpersonal understanding, skills, and values that comprise an individual's capacity for interpersonal relationships, including friendships"

adolescence-limited antisocial pattern ( adolescent onset).

begins in adolescence & usually ends soon after. It has a far better prognosis than the early-starter.

X-linked recessive disorders

hemophilia, baldness, color blindness, night blindness , Duchenne's muscular dystrophy, fragile X syndrome

According to Piaget, around age 5, morality is __________(rules fixed & stable, exist external to themselves, & must strictly adhere to them). Rules must be followed, no matter what & not doing so deserves punishment

heteronomous

Peer groups are complicated webs of social relationships, including__________________

friendship dyads, cliques, and crowds

While adults show increased amygdala responses only to images of fearful faces, adolescents show greater amygdala activation to both __________________ (Thomas et al., 2001). Findings for adolescents of an exaggerated startle reflex (a measure of fear processing), and stronger interference effects from emotional stimuli on task completion (Hare et al., 2008) lend further support to the proposition that the adolescent brain is particularly reactive to emotional information

fearful and neutral faces

Cultures with________________ socialization practices, more characteristic of nonindustrialized cultures, exert more control over the expression of behaviors that violate social standards and expect more conformity from young members of the society.

narrow

semantic (Declarative knowledge )

knowledge about factual information, rules & concepts.

Teachers'____________________ (Ashton & Crocker, 1985) has been shown to significantly relate to their performance (teaching effectiveness).

knowledge of teaching & learning

nondeclarative knowledge

knowledge that we cannot adequately put into words and that may not even enter our awareness. For example, you may know how to shift the gears in a standard transmission vehicle, but you might have a difficult time explaining how to do it. Many physical skills are based on this kind of unconscious, nondeclarative knowledge, which we usually call procedural.

functions more clearly governed by the_____________ hemisphere in males

left

Steinberg & Monahan's (2007) study of 10 to 30-year-olds found that when it came to "going along" with their peers even when they don't agree with them, females were _____________likely than boys to change their behavior to conform to peer pressure

less

regardless of ethnicity, when parents are low on warmth and high on harsh control, adolescents are _______________ likely to be willing to reveal information to them, making the actual monitoring of adolescents' behavior more difficult

less

Ruble et al. (2009) found that in the U.S., African American mothers imposed __________ traditional gender-typed attitudes on their children (both daughters & sons) than did European American mothers. Latina American mothers tended to impose______________traditional gender-typed attitudes

less, more

Feelings of self-worth depended upon ________________for both boys & girls. Where they felt that they could express themselves more freely, they felt more self-worth.

level of voice

Both correlational and experimental studies of social skills training programs lend ____________ support to their usefulness in improving peer acceptance

modest

Bandura (1977) also found that if the model is perceived as ___________________, they are more likely to be modeled than if they were seen as scary or punishing

nurturant

After we've had several experiences with one kind of event, such as being examined by a doctor, we begin to form a schematic representation of the typical features of such an event and the order in which they happen. This is called a _______________.

script

acceptance

(with affection, praise, parental involvement, acceptance of child's strengths & limitations, showing concern for needs). It has been correlated with self-esteem & social adjustment.

Conventional morality (Kohlberg)

(young adolescents) similar to Piaget's autonomous morality (doing right for others' approval or to maintain social order).

responsiveness

seems more closely tied to adolescents' self-confidence and social competence

A very interesting study was done up in northern Canada where they received television for the first time (Kimball, 1986). Before television, the children demonstrated no sex-typed attitudes, but _____ years after access to television, they showed measurably greater sex-typed attitudes

2

John Money and his colleagues, who did extensive studies of children with CAH, concluded that if the diagnosis is not made before the age of _____________, a child's gender identity can be very difficult to alter

2½ to 3

Freud argued that at about age ___, children begin to have vague sexual needs. These needs create a family triangle that plays out somewhat differently for boys versus girls

3

Teachers' years of teaching experience have been related to their teaching effectiveness, with inexperienced teachers less effective than more experienced teachers but a leveling off after _________ years if teachers don't continue to learn & grow

5

We know that by age ____, children understand that others can have different thoughts & beliefs than their own.

5

__ weeks after conception. By this point, the fetus has developed a pair of "indifferent" or unisex gonads that could become either ovaries or testes.

5

In every culture in the world, adults seem to recognize that somewhere between ages ___________________children become more sensible, reliable problem solvers

5 and 7

Statistics show that _____________ of adolescent males have experienced some police contact for minor offenses during their teenage years

80%

Mortimer (2005) reports that between _______________ of teens are employed sometime during their high school years.

80% and 90%

When it comes to use of pain-killers, Johnston, O'Malley, & Bachman (2004) found a significant increase in their use by ________________ between 2002 & 2004.

8th- to 12th-graders

racial/ethnic socialization practices

: (1) teaching about culture, cultural values, and participating in cultural activities, (2) preparing children for the possible experience of discrimination, and (3) providing them with opportunities for mainstream cultural experiences and egalitatrian relationships with others from different groups.

the meaning of morality generally includes some social interactive principles or propensities that are necessary to the successful functioning of all societies and of individuals within society

First, concern for others is important, as well as a willingness to act on that concern by sharing, forgiving, and other acts of benevolence. Second, a sense of justice and fairness, including a willingness to take into account the rights and needs of all parties, is part of a moral sense. Third, trustworthiness, defined primarily as honesty in dealings with others, is critical to most discussions of morality. Finally, self-control is essential

Around the beginning of the 3rd month,_________________ is activating growth of male external genitalia from other undifferentiated structures (like the genital tubercle becoming a penis but if no androgen, it becomes a clitoris; or, one area of genital swelling becomes a scrotal sac with androgens or the labia majora without them).

androgen

Diffusion

is the state that often characterizes young adolescents as they embark on the identity development process. In this state, they lack both exploration and commitment. Persons in the diffused category are not actively involved in exploring possible life choices, nor have they made any firm commitments to them.

Moodiness

is part of a broader set of behavioral tendencies in teens that also includes conflict with parents, negative affect, and risky behavior, such as violating norms and recklessness ( "storm and stress" of adolescence )

Moffitt (1993a) makes a valuable contribution to understanding these differences by distinguishing between two major developmental trajectories of adolescent antisocial behavior:

life-course-persistent antisocial pattern and adolescence-limited antisocial patterns.

For males, androgen begins to rise at 5 weeks post-conception & this ends around 28 weeks. It rises again right after birth, peaks at 1 to 2 months & declines again. This after-birth rise is also seen in females' estrogen levels, which is why some call it "_____________________".

mini-puberty

anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH)

causes the deterioration of the Mullerian ducts, which could have developed into internal female parts: the fallopian tubes, uterus, and upper part of the vagina

Even when parents are not particularly warm or democratic, that is, when they are more authoritarian than authoritative, high levels of monitoring, especially for _____________teens, can help protect youngsters from high-risk behavior

minority

It may just be that racial or ethnic identity or coping with _____________ status may impact more on adjustment for some groups than gender identity.

minority

Several studies have found that elements of the imaginary audience (extreme self-consciousness) and of the personal fable (a sense of invulnerability) continue at least into __________________, sometimes not showing much decline even then

early adulthood

Social learning theorists argue that many parents and other adults influence children's sex-typed behaviors, both by ________________such behaviors and by differential treatment of boys and girls that teaches them to behave in sex-appropriate ways.

modeling

Research has shown that even at age 3, children will judge breaking_______________ as worse than breaking conventional rules. And by 4 or 5, they may even assert that moral rules should be obeyed, no matter what authority figures say.

moral rules

When David R. Shaffer and his students asked young parents what they considered to be the most important aspect of a child's social development, most placed _______________at the top of their lists

morality

democracy is the diametric opposite of ________________(with parents invalidating feelings, constraining verbal expression, using withdrawal of love, all of which undermine strivings for autonomy).

psychological control

Lamborn et al. (1991) linked parenting style to 4 contexts of teen adjustment:

psychosocial development, school achievement, internalized distress, & problem behavior.

In the large-scale study of 14- to 18-year-olds by Steinberg and his colleagues, parenting style was linked to four aspects of teens' adjustment:

psychosocial development, school achievement, internalized distress, and problem behavior

After 5 months of age, infant boys' & girls' androgen & estrogen production remains low until ______________

puberty

Usually the first signs of puberty in boys & girls is growth of ______________ (pubarche).

pubic hair

The testes then start producing many masculinizing hormones

testosterone (one of the male hormones called androgens). AMH (anti-Mullerian hormone).

Early-maturing girls

tend to have more behavior problems than other girls, especially if they become involved with older boys (e.g., Gowen, Feldman, & Diaz, 2004), and there is a slight tendency for early maturing girls to have their first sexual intercourse earlier than other girls

Alternative crowds ("punks," "metal heads," "goths") ( Denmark)

tended to display more nonconformist, rebellious behavior than more conventional crowd

gender stability

that over time, one's gender category usually stays the same: Boys grow into men, girls grow into women.

nondeclarative knowledge,

which may not be encoded in words & may not even be in conscious awareness. It is often how physical skills are remembered (often called procedural knowledge). Perhaps it is what we call "muscle memory"?

The biggest difference between the two happens at around 5 weeks post-conception. By this time, ________________ have developed, which could develop into either ovaries or testes

"indifferent" or unisex gonads

Less effective orientations, as identified by Selman, are

"other-transforming" and "self-transforming" social interaction styles.

sensational seeking

"the need for varied, novel, & complex sensation & experiences & the willingness to take physical & social risk for the sake of these experiences".

Toddlers____________ begin to show signs that they can discriminate some actions as more typical of one gender or the other. For example, they look longer (as if surprised) at a man putting on makeup than a woman doing so

(about age 2)

example of metacognitive skills

, once Rebecca sits down to study for her exam, she may test herself to determine what she has learned so far, evaluate the study strategies she has been using for their effectiveness, and allocate her study time planfully, spending the most time on the information she knows least well

example of attribute substitution

. A formerly quiet boy might imitate the wisecracking style of a friend, a girl may explore the mysteries of Buddhism espoused by a classmate, or a mediocre student might work for hours on a special project, mimicking the approach of a more successful peer

Harter (2000) reports that the correlations found between self-perceptions of attractiveness & self-esteem range from _________________. She further notes that cross-cultural research has shown the same effects (for Australia, Canada, China, England, Germany, Greece, Holland, Ireland, Italy, Japan). She contends that for girls in particular, there are implications for depression & eating disorders

.52 to .80 (averaging .63)

Social Information-Processing steps

1) ENCODING OF CUES (both internal and external 2)INTERPRETATION OF CUES 3)CLARIFICATION OF GOALS the child decides on a goal

a number of studies have found African Americans have a slight but consistent advantage over White Americans. Why? Crocker & Major (1989) suggest that marginalized groups use 3 processes to maintain their self-esteem:

1) attributing negative personal feedback to societal prejudice; 2) making social comparisons to members of their own group; 3) enhancing the importance of areas their group excel in & discounting areas they don't.

There were some similarities between all ethnic groups in what is linked to academic success:

1) hard work (more homework); 2) believing that getting a good education pays off

Gender Identity it begins with:

1) self-categorization 2) gender stability 3) gender constancy

Orth & Robins (2014) did a thorough review of current research on the development of self-esteem from a life-span perspective & came to 3 conclusions:

1) self-esteem increases from adolescence to middle adulthood, peaks at age 50-60, & then declines into old age; 2) self-esteem is a relatively stable, enduring trait such that those with high or low self-esteem at one stage in life will tend to have the same at a later stage; & 3) high self-esteem is predictive of success & well-being in life with regards to relationships, health, & work.

the National Assessment of Educational Progress (2009) reported that about 7,000 students decided to drop out of school daily, culminating in ______________________ million students a year. In addition, only 70% of high school freshmen would go on to graduate.

1.2

Children considered _______________generation are those who immigrated with their parents, while second generation are those who were born after their parents arrived to their new country.

1.5

__________________ of teens experience depressed mood at any time. In addition, Kann et al. (2014) found that 1/3 reported feeling hopeless.

1/3

Parkhurst & Asher (1992) suggest that _____________are extremely Rejected withdrawn

10-20%

environment seems to play a factor as well, as nowadays the beginning of menarche is becoming much sooner (Steingraber, 2007). For example, on average back in 1860, it began at around age 16 & now it begins on average around age _______________.

13

environmental factors are clearly important for The timing of puberty as well. For example, a downward shift in the average age of menarche has been consistently reported (Steingraber, 2007). Today, the average age is just under _____ years, with slight variations across racial and ethnic groups, whereas in 1850 it was approximately 3 years later

13

prosocial behaviors are seen in both infants & toddlers (Paulus, 2014). Hoffman (2014) has shown that between ___________________months of age, toddlers display increasing responses to others' emotional & physical distress by expressing concern & offering comfort

18 & 24

moral emotions are supposed to emerge between ages 3 & 5 according to Freud, but they have been shown in children as young as ______________ months (empathy & shame, at least). We have also already learned that sympathy, pride & guilt are in evidence by age 3.

18 to 24

The first juvenile justice system was established in Illinois in _________________. Within 25 years, in every part of the United States there were two systems of justice for individuals charged with crimes, one for adults and the other for juveniles

1899

since the first juvenile justice system was established in ____________, there have been many changes. Within 25 years, it became a dual system (one for adults, one for those under age 18), with the focus for juveniles upon rehabilitation as opposed to punishment

1899

Kaiser Foundation (rideout & Hamel, 2006) study

19% of infants and 29% of 2- to 3-year-olds in America actually have televisions in their bedrooms

In the late ________________, there was a recognition that young adolescents have different educational needs than middle & older adolescents, resulting in junior high schools being converted into middle schools with 5th or 6th grade through to 8th grade

1970s & early 1980s

But by the ___________, "a legislative tsunami was washing over the United States" (Wilcox, 2003, p. 12). In one state after another, laws were altered to allow juveniles, especially adolescents, to be tried in adult criminal court, facing the same penalties that adults would face. ( Tough on crime movement)

1990s

Research clearly confirms that patterns of criminality can start early. A recent report of the office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention's Study Group on Very Young offenders (Loeber & Farrington, 2000) states that child delinquents (ages 7 to 12) have "a _______________fold increased risk of becoming tomorrow's serious, violent and chronic offenders

2- to 3-

Stage 0 (Selman)

3 to 6 years Unreflective imitation or enmeshment Undifferentiated/Egocentric Physical force; impulsive fight or flight

Freeman (2007) even found that _______________ children were remarkably attuned to what toys parents would approve of them playing with, with gender-stereotyped toys receiving approval & cross-gender toys receiving disapproval.

3- and 5-year-old

Although only about ___________ of 16-year-olds have had intercourse, Finer & Philbin (2013) found that most teens had had intercourse for the first time at around age 17.

30%

Puberty is a process, taking about ___________years to complete for boys & girls

4

Even though puberty is seen as the sign of adolescence, the hormonal changes that trigger it actually begin at around ________________ years of age

8 or 9

Girls start to show signs at around ___________ years of age on average. Some show breast & growth of pubic hair as early as 6 or 7 or as late as age 14

8 to 10

second circle

A larger clique of about 6 to 10 members. composed of friends who eat lunch or go to class together

_________________is used instead of achievement because it connotes a dynamic linkage between high levels of commitment and high levels of exploration

Achieving commitment

For _______________ students, membership in ethnically diverse peer networks contributed positively to their academic achievement, even though it was not related to their graduation rates

African American

Pubarche occurred earliest for _____________ (10.25) boys compared to white (11.47) and Hispanic (11.43) samples. The results from this study showed pubertal onset occurring 6 months to 2 years earlier (depending upon groups) than data reported 20 years ago

African American

Affiliation with the two nonconventional crowds (_______________) was associated with higher rates of delinquency, aggression and depression. ( Denmark)

Alternative and Urban

Children diagnosed with CD and/or ODD have a greater likelihood of being diagnosed with ________________ as adults.

Antisocial Personality Disorder

________________parenting promotes the development of self-control, compliance, prosocial behavior & conscience (all of which are important elements of moral development) in babies & preschoolers (Baumrind, 1989). In order to internalize values & standards, mild power assertion (enough to get attention, not enough to cause anxiety) & use of inductive techniques (explaining) is best.

Authoritative

Steinberg (1996) has aptly demonstrated how crowd membership impacts on academic motivation/achievement, finding that crowd membership outside of the small percentage who valued academic excellence (around 50% of students) averaged a "__________" average

B

In a second study, the actual content of television programs turned out to be important. Amount of educational television viewing (e.g., ___________________) before age 3 was not a predictor of attention problems later, but children's entertainment television was. Also, the more violent the content, the more serious the later attention problems were

Barney, Sesame Street

what causes sensational seeking?

Because dopamine is a neurotransmitter important to processing emotion & when puberty happens, it triggers a quick & remarkable increase in activity involving dopamine, which is believed to lead to greater reward-seeking

Both can lead directly to friendship outcomes (making & keeping friends). This is unusual/atypical

Biological Predispositions (nature) and Sociocultural Factors (nurture)

the AAP recommends girls with ______________ identified in infancy be raised as girls.

CAH

social dosage effect:

Children who spent more time in same-gender groups showed greater increases in gender-related behaviors even after only a few months

U.S. adolescents report more conflicts, less emotional closeness and a reduced sense of obligation to parents compared to their _______________ counterparts

Chinese

moratorium can lead to

Constructed identity

Gender Identity

Defined as person's awareness of own gender assignment & understanding of its meaning. The APA defines it as: "One's sense of maleness or femaleness; usually includes awareness & acceptance of one's biological sex."

Cognitive Flexibility (or "Shifting")

Diamond (2006) defines it as the ability to refocus attention to relevant stimuli. This is an adaptive strategy, to help with dealing with a dynamic environment. It is also the ability to multi-task, to disengage from one task & redirect attention to another. Zelazo et al. (2003) describe cognitive inflexibility as perseveration on a response, as shown in difficulty inhibiting a response. It is a complex executive function skills that involves both memory & inhibition (Garon et al., 2008)

social information-processing

Dodge and his colleagues have suggested is required to interpret others' behaviors and make decisions about how to respond in social situations

______________ percent of European-American high school and college students had lied to their parents in the past week according to a study by Arnett and colleagues (2004), and lies for the high school group most often involved peers and alcohol.

Eighty-three

This was Freud's way of explaining why women are "morally inferior" to men, a belief that was endemic to the time and place in which Freud himself was enculturated

Electra complex

Gervai (1995) noted that in preschool children from _________________, if their fathers engaged in more childcare & housework, their children displayed less gender-typed play & were less aware of gender stereotypes

England & Hungary

Some (Gilligan, 1982; Josselson, 1988) believe that Erikson has focused too much on the individual self while neglecting the collectivist self, with Gilligan suggesting that women's identity is comprised more of the latter. Similarly some (Root, 1999) suggest that the theory is too "_______________", focusing too much on the individual.

Eurocentric

__________________comes from long-lasting attention and practice, not typically from genius

Expertise

valuing learning and valuing the child as learner

Factors that fit this category include prioritizing education in the culture and the family; having high expectations of each child and believing that challenge and hard work are the keys to success (as opposed to native ability); supports for self-regulation; respecting the value of different backgrounds and interests among learners

Why greater working memory?

Faster processing speed, which Piaget related to the development of decentration skills with practice

a large-scale survey of 10- to 30-year-olds examined their reported general willingness to "go along" with peers even when they do not agree with them. __________________overall reported more self- reliance: They were less likely to change their behavior to conform with peer pressure than males

Females

Identification with the (imagined) aggressor is a solution for two reasons.

First, by trying to be like the angry parent, a child wins the parent's approval and affection. Second, by pretending to be the parent, the child attains some vicarious satisfaction of her or his sexual longing for the other parent (Freud)

Some aspects of the growth process play out differently for girls and boys.

For girls, the growth spurt begins and ends about 2 years earlier than for boys The size of the heart and lungs increases more in boys, for example, who also develop thicker bones and more muscle tissue than girls

Steinberg (1996) and others have found that parental involvement shows a sharp decline in the middle & high school levels

For students in his study, 40% of them noted no parental attendance at school functions or activities, 1/3 of them noted that their parents did not know about their academic performance, and another 1/6 said that their parents didn't care.

Corby, Hodges, & Perry (2007) used the same measures with Black, Hispanic, & White children in grade 5 from lower middle-class neighborhoods. The results?

For the minority groups, gender identity seemed to have less of an impact on social adjustment.

________________ years of bilingual education and support yielded the best results by far, with early academic gaps tending to disappear and children outperforming their native english speaking peers over time

Four- to seven

We have seen (Chapter 3) that a full understanding of number conservation typically is achieved between 5 and 7 years and seems to be based on the development of logical thinking. ________________ may also be dependent on the logical thinking skills that emerge as children reach middle childhood.

Gender constancy

___________ at all ages felt less typical and less content with their gender than boys did, but they also reported less pressure to conform than boys

Girls

some researchers believe that this normally heightened ______________ reactivity sets the stage for increased vulnerability in adolescents who are at risk for psychiatric disorders. In other words, the surge in hormones may not just be a temporary blip during adolescence, leveling off and returning to some baseline at the end of puberty

HPA

innermost circle

He spends most of his time with one or two close friends

Jesse, a conventional thinker, bases her decision on the importance of others' agreement or approval:

Heinz should take the drug, because nobody would blame him for wanting to keep his wife alive. They might blame him if he didn't.

a preconventional thinker, bases his choice on personal need:

Heinz should take the drug, because the druggist won't really suffer, and Heinz needs to save his wife.

_____________ are instrumental in laying down new neural pathways at adolescents, so overexpression of and increased sensitivity to cortisol during this period of rapid brain reorganization may signal a window of vulnerability for development of psychopathology

Hormones

___________________ can affect structural changes in the brain by influencing the onset or offset of genes. By doing so they alter protein synthesis, which is important for the growth and pruning of neurons, the production of neurotransmitters, and other neuromaturational processes.

Hormones

The timing of puberty appears to be affected by genetic factors:

Identical twins usually begin and end the process within 2 to 3 months of each other, and mothers' and daughters' ages at menarche are correlated

___________________includes both imitation of the parent's behaviors and, most important, internalization of the parent's standards and values, creating the child's superego. ( Freud)

Identification

example of needs-based reasoning

In one story, a child, on her way to a party, comes upon another child who has fallen and broken her leg. The first child must decide whether to continue on to the party, which is very important to her, or to find the parents of the injured child.

boys are typically more competitive than girls in the United States, Canada, and Mexico, but not in ___________. And in Israel, boys tend to be less competitive than girls

India

We do have to remember that this is not a stage theory, so we are not looking at leaps-and-bounds or sudden-onset, but gradual, incremental changes.

Information Processing

These practices have been linked to low levels of student motivation and heightened social comparison,

Instructional practices such as whole-group lectures , ability grouping , and competitive rather than cooperative activities and assessment

preadolescence

Intimacy needs were directed at & met by same-sex "chums", who were valued to the point that they took on the role of shaping or socializing agents. "Chums" allow for truly seeing things & themselves from another's perspective, as well as a source of attachment, which provides a sense of security.

Self-Concept

It is multidimensional, but is part of what goes towards self-esteem

The Growth Spurt

It tends to last on average 2 years & then tapers off to a more gradual pace. For girls, usually their growth in body size is done by age 16 & in boys by age 18. In girls, starts as early as age 10 (with a range of 9.5 to 14.5) & in boys around age 12 (with a range of 10.5 to 16). start about 2 years earlier for girls Over about 4 years, boys & girls grow on average 10 inches in height, girls gain 28 pounds & boys 42.

Several approaches to moral education became available to teachers, but the two most influential were

Kohlberg's (1966) own prescription for translating his cognitive developmental model of moral reasoning into educational practice and a "values clarification approach" to moral education by raths, Harmin, and Simon

stage 4 (Selman)

Late teen/adulthood Interdependent sharing of vulnerabilities and self Intimate/In-Depth/Societal (generalized other) Collaborative integration of relationship dynamics (commitment)

The results support Gilligan's ideas about the importance of voice for self-esteem, but they do not support her notion that girls are more subject to "voice suppression" than boys, at least among today's children

Levels of voice were the same for both girls and boys with teachers, parents, and male classmates. But with female classmates and close friends, girls reported a stronger level of voice than boys did! For neither gender did level of voice decline with age, and for both genders, level of voice varied dramatically depending on whether the adolescent felt support for self-expression. For both girls and boys, feelings of self-worth varied with level of voice: In social contexts where kids felt like they could express themselves freely, they felt more self-worth

Some gender differences have also been noted, especially with regard to brain size.

Males' brains tend to be larger than girls' brains overall. The amygdala tends to be larger and grows more rapidly in boys and the hippocampus tends to follow this pattern in girls (Lenroot & Giedd, 2010). As you will see in Chapter 10, brain changes in adolescence are also implicated in increased risk taking and greater involvement with peers

example of gender schemas

Martin, Eisenbud, & Rose (1995) found that when given gender-neutral toys, both boys & girls would first ask if they were "boy" or "girl" toys & then choose whether or not to play with them.

When children are in early school years, their "______________" becomes more organized. They receive and integrate more feedback from others. Discrete attributes begin to be categorized (with observations of behaviors being integrated into traits...see themselves as good at various skills in a sport, must be good at that sports

Me-self

example of Programs or projects that are focused on positive youth development may differ, but they have important elements in common

Midwestern Prevention Project

Even when an individual is found guilty of a crime, her guilt can be mitigated under the law. "________________ places the culpability of a guilty actor somewhere on a continuum of criminal culpability and, by extension, a continuum of punishment

Mitigation

quantity

More time in educational settings is valuable, especially early education in preschool and kindergarten. Another such factor is having access to extra learning opportunities, such as reading or math specialists or tutors, or cram school

With AMH, the ______________ ducts deteriorate (which would have developed into female internal sexual organs, like the fallopian tubes, uterus & upper vagina).

Mullerian

adolescent growth spurt characteristics

Over about a 4-year span, the average increase in height is about 10 inches for both boys and girls; boys gain about 42 pounds on average and girls about 38 pounds. Different parts of the body grow at different times. Facial features like the nose and ears usually grow before the skull does. It is likely that when her head growth catches up with her features, she will no longer seem to have a big nose. Hands, feet, and limbs usually grow before the torso, which can create awkwardness and adds to the odd look. There can even be asymmetries in growth between the two sides of the body, with one breast or one testicle growing before the other

provide opportunities to practice social skills, communication skills, conflict resolution, joint goal-setting, shared decision-making, and cooperative learning among many others

Peer groups

Johnson (2003) has shown that practice speeds up information processing._______________also seems to play a part

Physical maturation

some evidence of environmental influences on puberty

Polish boys and girls living in crowded urban conditions begin puberty earlier than those living in rural areas Puberty is accelerated for Finnish boys and girls reared in father-absent homes as compared to other children Divorced families Early childhood abuse stress affects hormone production

self-categorization as male or female.

Poulin-Dubois & Serbin (2006) found that by late in their 1st year, babies appear to make perceptual distinctions between men & women seen in pictures, & between male & female voices

Kohlberg proposed 3 levels of moral reasoning, each with 2 stages

Preconventional morality Conventional morality Postconventional morality

__________________ are usually considered nonstrategic in their memory efforts.

Preschoolers

What Cognitive Changes Contribute to Improvement of Memory in Middle Childhood

Processing Speed Breadth & Depth of Knowledge (knowledge base, domain of knowledge) Logical Thinking Skills Language Skills (esp. narrative skill) Memory strategies (organizational, elaboration strategies) Metacognitive skills (declarative, procedural & conditional knowledge

What accounts for increases in working memory capacity with age?

Processing speed knowledge base Logical Thinking Skills Language Skill Memory Strategies Metacognitive Skills

Educational Factors That Promote Cognitive & Academic Growth

Quantity Stimulating/engaging environments Valuing learning & the child as a learner

___________________ happens when the information to be remembered is immediately available to your senses. For example, you see your 9th grade gym teacher crossing the street in front of you, and you realize that you're experiencing someone who is familiar. Your sensory image elicits information about the teacher stored in long-term memory

Recognition

moratorium individuals

Report the lowest levels of authoritarianism, conformity, and obedience to authority

Various writers have used different terms to refer to these behaviors, including reckless, problem, deviant, antisocial, and delinquent

Risky behaviors

We'll begin by following the process of differentiation into male structures. The key is a gene located only on the Y chromosome, called the _________ gene (sex-determining region of the Y chromosome

SRY

For males, it all begins with a gene found on the Y chromosome called the _______________ (sex-determining region).

SRY gene

____________________ is a key determiner of sexual behavior, but many other factors come into play.

Sexual maturation

These are nurtured through coaching, modeling, & reinforcement.

Social skills

__________________ involve both verbal & nonverbal behaviors that promote communication & social interaction

Social skills

second individuation

Steinberg & Monahan (2007) describe a reworking of adolescents' views of their parents, "deidealizing" them, & loosening of emotional dependency. A decline typical of ages 11 to 17 in perceived legitimacy of parents' authority & perceived obligation to follow parental rules. Clearly, there is a move towards greater autonomy & individuation

children who are difficult to sooth watch more ________, probably because parents find that it has a calming effect on them. Attention problems at 7 or 8 may be the result of these early temperament differences instead of the amount of early TV viewing children have done

TV

Research comparing children who have taken the program to those who haven't have found: statistically significant effects on self-esteem, sensitivity & consideration of others' needs, spontaneous prosocial behavior, interpersonal harmoniousness, preference for democratic values, conflict resolution skills

The Child Development Project

Webster-Stratton et al. (2001) developed ______________ for prevention with children ages 2 to 10 who are at-risk, as well as their families. It is used in preschools & elementary schools, with programs for children, parents, & teachers. The aim is to develop positive interpersonal relationships & skills at emotional regulation. The research shows reduced conduct problems over the long-term, reduced disruptive behavior in the classroom, improved school readiness, & reduced ADHD symptoms in preschoolers.

The Incredible Years

what causes puberty

The actual chemical in the brain that signals the beginning of puberty is kisspeptin, which originates in the hypothalamus. It starts a wave of reactions: activating GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone), which then stimulates the pituitary gland to get things going. The pituitary then releases FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) & LH (luteinizing hormone). These then activate other endocrine glands to produce more hormones.

frameworklessness.

The body changes in appearance, adult sexual needs emerge, hormonal shifts may heighten irritability, the capacity to reflect on the future and on the self expands bringing its own brand of egocentrism, and demands for autonomy increase. All of these changes are supported by dramatic alterations in the adolescent brain. These profound shifts can produce a state of instability and anxiety unique to adolescence

Peers are thus a source of support. But Seltzer (1982) argues also that the peer group becomes both the site and the raw material for constructing an identity. There are twin processes at work:

The first is social comparison Second is a process of attribute substitution, which involves both imitation and identification

rumination

There are both a cognitive & an affective component to this coping style

flame retardants, pesticides, certain pharmaceutical agents, lead, mercury, phthalates

These chemicals have been related to pubertal abnormalities in studies of animals and humans and warrant further investigation according to experts

Moffitt (1993) distinguished between 2 developmental trajectories that help with decision-making about possible effective interventions.

They are the life-course-persistent antisocial pattern (early-starter) & the adolescence-limited antisocial pattern ( adolescent onset).

Rejected children

This group has gotten the bulk of research attention, so quite a lot is known about them. Of all groups, they are the least socially skilled. They are also the most diverse & the most likely to be victims of peer victimization (Hanish & Guerra, 2011). Although they have social networks, these are marked by less intimacy & interaction

Child Development Project

This program has been researched. It targets kindergarten through grade 6. Its goal is to integrate ethical development with both social & intellectual development.

Aspects of self-control

To live by standards requires a capacity and willingness to inhibit one's own selfish or aggressive impulses under some circumstances, that is, to avoid misbehavior to be a useful member of society, or even to fully develop one's talents or abilities, requires effort and persistence regardless of discomfort or difficulty. a willingness to do things that are not much fun, such as work and practicing skills, even when play is more enticing

binge drinking stats

Twenty-eight percent of high school seniors & 40% of 20-21-year-olds admitted to binging at least once within the 2 weeks before. The results of the same survey done in 2000 showed 30% of 12th-graders, 26.2% of 10th-graders, & 14.1% of 8th-graders had done so.

________________ show little awareness of gender stereotypes

Two-year-olds

In the _______________, males do better on math SATs but in countries that stress gender equality, there are no differences found or they tip in favor of females (like Iceland, for instance).

U.S.

Baby X" studies

When participants think they are interacting with a boy, they are more likely to handle the baby in active ways, such as bouncing; when they think the baby is a girl, they handle it more gently. Participants more often describe boys as big and strong, but they use terms like sweet and pretty more often with girls. As children get older, mothers talk more, use more supportive speech, and talk more about emotions with their daughters Many parents place more pressure on preschool boys than girls not to cry or express feelings

Formal Operational Thought example

When you're younger, you learn how to do addition and subtraction with just numbers. But when you get older you can do Algebra, where you add and subtract with numbers as well as letters

the_________ducts to develop into male structures, such as the seminal vesicles.

Wolffian

The Personal Fable

a belief held by many adolescents telling them that they are special and unique, so much so that none of life's difficulties or problems will affect them regardless of their behavior may also include fantasies of having a special destiny, an important role to play in the lives of others or on the world stage

Social competence

a criterion for peer group acceptance, is a broad construct that is not restricted to one set of prescribed behaviors. Affective responses, such as empathy and valuing of relationships, and cognitive processes, such as perspective taking (see Chapter 5) and ability to make mature moral judgments (see Chapter 7), play a part in the repertoire of the socially adept individual

loss of voice

a girl experiences a gradual silencing of an authentic, imperious, and often willful self in order to identify with certain culturally prescribed roles of women as self-sacrificial and pleasing to others. Speaking one's mind, at least for women in certain contexts, can be threatening to the relationships that are such an important part of their lives. These authors argue that suppressing one's voice becomes the only possible way of maintaining important connections to others.

psychological control

a parent's tendency to subvert an adolescent's autonomy by invalidating his feelings, constraining his verbal expressions, using love withdrawal, and so on.

needs-based reasoning

a person must weigh her own personal needs against those of others.

gender identity

a person's awareness of his or her own gender assignment and understanding of its meaning

As we found with more current research on the preoperational stage, studies with children in the concrete operational stage now do suggest that the ages for attainment that Piaget suggested are not _______________, as some tasks are accomplished by children younger than he expected.

absolutes

Since thinking is more concrete at this stage, there would be difficulty with logical thought about anything _______________ (like theories or thoughts). As such, self-evaluation of own beliefs or theories would be difficult. This is where Piaget saw a specific form of egocentrism occurring during this stage.

abstract

During the middle childhood developmental period, the most important ones seem to be:

academic competence, athletic competence, physical appearance, peer acceptance, & behavioral conduct

The number of ________________ increases over time

achievements

Aunyeung et al. (2009) found that girls exposed to male hormones prenatally took part in more _____________ & less caregiving activities compared to other girls

active play

A group's identity is based on shared__________________

activities, values, clothes, and behaviors

moral rules

address fundamental moral issues of justice, welfare, and rights, such as rules about stealing, hurting others, or sharing.

it appears that the brain changes characteristic of ______________ are among the most dramatic and important to occur during the human lifespan

adolescence

Puberty corresponds with the ________________, a rapid increase in size accompanied by changes in the shape and proportions of the body

adolescent growth spurt

It is not so simple as to suggest that emotions alone result in prosocial behaviors. Other factors interact with prosocial emotions to produce prosocial behavior, including more

advanced cognitive processes (perspective-taking, abstract thinking), individual temperament & personality, parenting practices, & peer experiences.

Bierman (2004) emphasizes that we can differentiate the social behaviors that contribute to rejection into at least four constellations:

aggressive/disruptive (fighting, stubbornness, threatening, lying, meanness); inattentive/ immature (disruptive, irresponsible, dependent, poorly organized), low levels of prosocial behavior (uncooperative, temperamental, bossy, humorless); and socially anxious/avoidant (solitary, withdrawn, nervous, cries easily).

Working memory

allows us to focus attention, plan, execute problem-solving strategies, make inferences, and organize information short term store

Controversial children

also demonstrate high levels of aggressive behavior, but they possess correspondingly positive attributes, such as greater sociability and cognitive ability, that buffer their abrasive characteristics and may make them attractive to their peers

Eisenberg et al. (2006) suggest that there is an "_______________", given that there has been stability shown across age and between situations in prosocial behaviors.

altruistic personality

Sympathy

an emotion related to empathy, involves "feeling for" another: having concern for the other person, but not necessarily sharing the feelings of the other.

As children advance, providing familiar examples might become more difficult, but it is often possible to show them familiar situations that are ________________ to a concept (e.g., an equation is analogous to a balance scale; if you do the same thing to each side, it stays balanced)

analogous

A classic treatment sequence for many _______________programs includes helping clients to recognize provocative stimuli or events in the environment, to stop long enough to reduce levels of reactivity using deep breathing or backward counting, to change distorted thinking by using rational self-statements, and to practice more appropriate social behavior and emotion expression

anger management

Memory strategies

are "potentially conscious activities a person may voluntarily carry out" to help them remember

Friendship skills

are behavioral skills, such as appropriate assertiveness, good communication, and conflict resolution, that maintain and enhance friendships.

Risky behaviors

are behaviors that constitute a departure from socially accepted norms or behaviors that pose a threat to the well-being of individuals or groups.

neglecting (also called uninvolved or dismissive) styles

are essentially disengaged, scoring low on both dimensions

conventional rules

are more arbitrary and variable from one culture to another and are a function of social agreement, such as rules about appropriate dress, forms of address, and table manners

Cooperative learning strategies

are not only intellectually enriching, but also serve to promote social development

uncharacteristic behavior

as in the case of a first offense or when the crime is "aberrant in light of the defendant's established character traits and respect for the law's values

William James believed that self-esteem was dependent on the ratio of our successes to our ____________________

aspirations

Levels of_______________ have also been related to prosocial behavior: children who are assertive are more likely to help without being asked, unassertive children will help but only if asked (compliance)

assertiveness

Boys who are not ___________________ inclined can suffer greatly in social status and self-esteem relative to their peers

athletically

Kilmartin (1994) demonstrated that if boys were not ______________, their self-esteem & social status were adversely affected.

athletically-inclined

for those who use an _______________ parenting style (low in warmth, high on demandingness), this has been related to less empathic responding (at least in toddlers), according to Thompson (2012). Similarly, abusive parenting has been shown to suppress prosocial behavior, as Main & George (1985) demonstrated. If anything, the abused toddlers & preschoolers they observed tended to display either hostility or fear when they saw another child in distress.

authoritarian

Universally, it has been found that both parents & teens see some areas of parental control as justifiable. These include ____________________________________. As such, conflicts over these issues are less frequent (Renk et al., 2005). In addition, if these conventional rules have possible health or safety consequences (called prudential consequences), there is little disagreement.

authority over moral issues (legal, like stealing), & conventional rules (like table manners)

According to Piaget, In middle childhood, with perspective-taking skill development & experience with reciprocity in peer relationships, rules are seen differently. Moral thinking at this age becomes ____________ (rules can be changed & are based on social agreements). They (at least begin to) understand that rules promote cooperation & fair play, as well as establishing justice.

autonomous

Children in the_______________ category are average on both social impact & social preference. As compared to popular children, they are less socially competent. As compared to rejected-aggressive children, they are less aggressive. Overall, like the neglected group, no developmental problems seem to arise for them.

average

As Cairns & Cairns (1994) suggest, sometimes individual counseling can be a_____________ to deal with the symptoms until the systematic roots of the problems are addressed

band-aid

Girls choose play-partners more due to personality & seem to socialize just to be together. They also seem to have broader interests than boys. Their play often revolves around family or school experiences. The themes of their pretend play are more likely about _______________

beauty & dressing-up

rumination affective aspect

being increased emotional reactivity

Hoffman suggests that there is a ___________________towards empathy, as it is seen even in young infants who cry when they hear other babies cry.

biological disposition

During middle childhood, mixed-gender interactions, called ______________, tend to be quite limited

borderwork

Cross-culturally, Arnett (1992) suggests that deviant behavior is more evident in cultures with ____________ (allowing & encouraging individual freedom of expression, fewer social constraints, less community responsibility, tolerating more socially deviant behavior) socialization practices than those with more narrow socialization practices (that are typical of non-industrialized cultures, which exert more control over behaviors that violate social standards & expect more conformity).

broad

In the information processing tradition, flawed strategies are referred to as "________________." An example would be a boy who does not yet truly understand the base 10 system, but who thinks that one should always subtract the smaller from the larger number. When he is given the problem

bugs

"downward" social comparisons

by comparing themselves to less competent or less successful peers when their own self-esteem is at stake. Such comparisons protect the child from negative self-evaluations

double standard

by which female sexual behavior is judged more harshly than male sexual behavior, has clearly diminished over the last half century, as the rates and acceptability of premarital sex have increased among teens of both sexes

Empathy

can be thought of as "feeling with" another person— recognizing her emotional condition and experiencing what she is assumed to be feeling

In China, for example, popular children are likely to be _______________

cautious, restrained, and shy

ADHD that do not remit, researchers have found unusual, progressive loss of brain volume in some brain areas, such as the _________________

cerebellum

parental monitoring has to___________ as adolescents grow & age. With the transition from middle to late adolescence, parents' knowledge lessens as older teens develop a more private domain & disclose less as parents exercise less control

change

Hutchins (1917) published "Children's Code of Morals for Elementary School". In it, he advocated for "10 laws of right living." It was used for _______________throughout the school system for 30 years. Schools would intersperse lessons in right living into regular daily school activities, & launched school clubs where moral behavior could be practiced.

character education

one in 12 murders committed in 2002 (8%) involved a ____________ offender, implicating them in an estimated 1,300 murders. More tellingly, approximately 48% of crimes committed by juveniles never get reported to the police

child

Loeber & Farrington (2000) noted that "_____________" from ages 7 to 12 have a 2- to 3-time greater risk of becoming serious, violent, chronic offenders as adults. As such the emphasis is now upon early prevention & intervention.

child delinquents

gender atypical

children have either ambiguous genitalia or genitalia that are inconsistent with their sex chromosomes

seduction hypothesis

children or adolescents are seduced into homosexuality by homosexual pedophiles (untrue)

Patterson's influential model of _____________ family interaction describes how children learn to act aggressively

coercive

self-identity

comes from comparing the self to others & there is a tendency to gravitate towards those with similar self-expression (dress, act, music, etc.). When they congregate, they establish a group identity & some basis of comparison for others. Fiske & Taylor (1991) characterize a group's identity through shared activities, values, clothes, & behavior

When children are in the ________________operational stage, they usually answer conservation questions correctly. They may look at the snake and say "it looks lighter than before" but they can logically conclude that it remains the same weight as the ball.

concrete

Piaget pegged the _________________ stage as occurring around age 6 until about age 12 ( Middle childhood). With it comes the ability to use logic (but not for abstract or hypothetical concepts).

concrete operations

The identity attained by those who are foreclosed is called a _________________

conferred identity,

Independent of all this, Liben & Bigler (2002) clarify that knowing about stereotypes doesn't necessarily lead to sex-stereotypical behavior. And Bandura (1985) is quick to point out that people's behavior can depend upon the_____________

context.

Adolescents lied more to parents whom they perceived as ___________________

controlling, cold, or rejecting

By late preschool, he has informal arithmetic skills such as adding and subtracting small numbers by using counting strategies, like the _____________________. For example, given two red blocks and three green ones, he will probably count all the blocks to find out the sum.

counting all strategy

Erikson labeled the process of identity formation in adolescence a "_____________" of "identity versus identity confusion." But his view of the process is more accurately characterized as a specific challenge or task that asserts itself at a particular point in development

crisis

Any gender differences depend upon __________________

culture

One feature of human memory is that we can store different kinds of information or knowledge. Knowledge about facts and events, called _______________, is of two kinds.

declarative knowledge

the research suggests that late-maturation has a protective effect for girls with respect to _______________

depression

adolescence-limited antisocial behavior,

develops in adolescence and usually ends shortly thereafter. The prognosis for the latter kind of pathway is generally more favorable.

In the case of delinquent behavior, research has consistently shown that _______________peers mutually influence each other

deviant

For babies & young children, video stimuli draw their attention but little evidence it is healthy for them & some evidence that it can cause harm (studies showing later attentional difficulties, _________________ with more TV watching).

difficulty regulating attention

Individuals at adolescence and beyond may be characterized as belonging to one of four identity status categories:

diffusion, moratorium, foreclosure, or achievement.

Although clinical depression ______________ appear to be higher in samples of adolescents than in the general population, rates of clinical depression do increase at adolescence compared to childhood

does not

For ________________ girls, there tends to be greater moodiness, depressive symptoms, anxiety, & low self-esteem than is seen in later maturers

early-maturing

Some age-appropriate _________________ (like Sesame Street) does help with school readiness, growth of vocabulary & number skills for kindergarten (Schmidt & Anderson, 2007) & better school achievement by adolescence

educational programming

What we are describing is a form of ________________ that emerges in middle childhood.

egocentrism

Possible Contributing Factor to Adolescent Risk-Taking

egocentrism sensation-seeking & the personal fable of invulnerability skew their perceptions to a point of inaccuracy. when adolescents are new at probability analysis, they are more likely to revert to cost/benefit assessments favoring risk-taking. Their perception would be that the possible costs are low probability & are worth taking the risk for the potential rewards.

In fact, Eisenberg et al (1998) found that empathy & prosocial responses were more likely to be displayed by children who were sociable & good at ______________

emotional self-regulation.

The Elements of Morality

emotions, cognitions, & behavior not always consistent with each other (even in adults). And children are even more inconsistent.

Even if children perceive discrimination, a strong sense of ________________ is a protective factor (Garcia, Coll, & Marks, 2009). Children with positive ethnic identities are more motivated & more likely to be academically successful.

ethnic identity

Formulating a racial or ___________, or coping with minority status, may have more influence on adjustment for some groups than gender identity dimensions

ethnic identity

they found that African American students who were members of _______________ displayed higher academic achievement (although there was no relationship to graduation rates).

ethnically diverse peer networks

morality involves both an "___________________" toward actions and events (Damon, 1988) and a sense of obligation or commitment to behave in ways that are consistent with what is right

evaluative orientation

, for those working with children & youth, training in ____________________is highly recommended (Catalano et al., 2012). In order for this to work, it is critical to understand the protective & risk factors for teens within their culture. This allows for much more focused & appropriate intervention

evidence-based practice & prevention science

Much research has demonstrated that contrary to what Kohlberg suggested, pre-school children will consider _______________ in their judgments earlier than he proposed.

fairness

Success on ________________tasks has been related to reciprocal communication with peers (Slomkowski & Dunn, 1996) and to the ability to communicate about internal mental states with friends

false belief

Using __________________ is important because, as Piaget argued, children build new knowledge by starting with what they already know

familiar examples and analogous situations

elaboration strategy—

finding or creating some kind of meaningful link between items. To help remember that Baton Rouge is the capital of Louisiana, he might make up a sentence like "Louise saw a bat," or he might create a mental picture, visualizing a girl named Louise with a bat on her head ( late elementary or adolesense)

What motivates the development of distinct cliques? Two major forces are at work:

first, the need to establish an identity, and second, the need for acceptance (approval) and belonging.

Certain chemicals used in industrial production interfere with endocrine functions (called endocrine-disrupting chemicals or EDCs). These have been linked to changes in pubertal timing and have been shown to affect fat metabolism.

flame retardants, pesticides, certain pharmaceutical agents, lead, mercury, phthalates found in plastic

Cliques seem to begin forming in middle childhood due to 2 needs:

for establishing an identity & need for acceptance & belonging

Infants born with malformations of genitalia due to medical conditions receive gender assignment or gender reassignment. The large amount of research on them has produced conflicting results:

for some, it works well but for others, they reject the reassignment by adolescence. So: perhaps the impact of socialization on development of gender identity is not as powerful.

Why do peers become so important? Seltzer (1982) proposes that it is because adolescents share in common the unique state of _________________

frameworklessness

It is evident from the Figure that ___________ self-esteem seems to decline more during late childhood than boys'.

girls'

The effects of work on schooling and school involvement are mixed. Several large-scale studies have found no effects on students' _______________ but negative effects on total educational attainment

grades

Gender schemas

have been shown to impact on how children judge behavior & the behaviors they choose to engage in.They are used as guides for attitudes & behaviors, resulting in gender-typing

identity foreclosure

have not explored alternatives (but make a commitment). They tend to be inflexible & view the world in black-and-white, right-and-wrong ways. These individuals tend to assimilate into the goals & values of significant others (like parents) without consideration, or really thinking about it. As such, their commitment to it is premature, guided by family obligations or constricted by the situation. Examples of this would be deciding on a career or marriage very early in life. Their identity is called a conferred identity (rather than one they have constructed on their own). According to Marcia (1993), their plans fit with those that have been pre-arranged & they experience fewer problems along the way.

The purpose of rough-and-tumble play is to establish dominance _________________ (dominant individuals won't back down & are less likely to be targets of aggression).

hierarchies

Members of cliques or peer groups tend to be remarkably similar, displaying ______________ (similarity on important behavioral or attitudinal attributes).

homophily

peer groups or cliques are generally homogeneous. There is a well-documented tendency for peer groups to exhibit ______________, or a degree of similarity among members on behavioral or attitudinal attributes of importance

homophily

______________ bias as a relational scheme that has functional significance for a child with a history of coercive interactions

hostile attributional

The search for __________ is considered the primary developmental task of the adolescent period

identity

Studies have generally shown positive correlations between ________________ and psychological well-being

identity achievement

Both __________________ groups' outcomes have been linked to positive functioning, an adaptive, mature sense of self, prosocial behavior, & capacity for romantic attachments in high school students

identity achievement & identity moratorium

Individuals in ______________ report more risk-taking and less prosocial behavior

identity diffusion

risk-taking, & prosocial behavior, Padilla et al. (2008) found higher risk-taking & less prosocial behavior for those in _______________

identity diffusion

Marcia (1966, 1989, 1993) provided the most comprehensive research on Erikson's theory, developing a categorical system to label dimensions or patterns found during the process of identity development. This is known as _______________

identity status.

Geist & Gibson, 2000). on the positive side, preschoolers' experience with some age-appropriate educational programming, such as Sesame Street and Dora the Explorer, is linked to __________________school readiness, vocabulary growth and better number skills by kindergarten

improved

congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)

in which biological females with two X chromosomes are exposed to high levels of androgens during prenatal and postnatal development. The overproduction of androgens by their own adrenal glands is caused by a defective gene. The upshot is that although CAH females usually have the internal organs of a girl, their external genitalia may be masculinized. They may, for example, have an enlarged clitoris that looks like a penis, and they have sometimes been misidentified at birth as boys

altruism

include benevolence, kindness, & selflessness.

Sociocultural Factors (nurture)

include peer culture & family culture.

Biological Predispositions (nature)

include temperament & neuropsychological development

Valuing learning & the child as a learner

includes making education a priority at home & culturally, having high expectations of a child, seeing challenge & hard work as keys to success, helping with self-regulation (which sensitive, responsive parents & teachers do), as well as respect & appreciation for individual differences in interests & backgrounds have a positive impact. All go towards building self-worth & a positive attitude towards learning & education, which would also increase motivation & goal-directed behavior.

Essentially, girls are reinforced for behaviors stressing closeness & dependency while boys are reinforced for ________________

independent behavior.

Although peer pressure (or influence by peers to conform) exists, Berndt, Miller, & Park (1989) suggest it is more _______________ than overtly coercive. As others note (Steinberg, 1996; Steinberg & Monahan, 2007), the pressure exerted is not necessarily harmful but can be beneficial, such as pressure not to engage in drug use or risky behavior

indirect

studies also show that the influence of peers is primarily ______________ rather than overtly coercive

indirect

Cohen (1977) explains that groups are formed due to the processes of____________ (the group's ability to make an individual conform to its norms) & ____________(the choice to associate with others who share similar attributes or behaviors

influence, selection

gender schema is a concept or structure that organizes gender-related information. It engages a network of expectations & beliefs about what is male & female. The proponents of this explanation tend to follow__________________

information-processing theory

empathy is linked to the __________________ or control, of aggression

inhibition

empathy & sympathy are related to_________________

inhibition of antisocial behaviors.

Two types of Antisocial behavior

instrumental (used to gain something) & person-directed.

older children pay more attention to_______________(e.g., whether the child was helping or misbehaving).

intentions

Douvan and Adelson (1966) challenged Erikson's view by suggesting that women's successful identity formation depended upon prior resolution of _________________, whereas men's successful resolution of intimacy issues depended first upon achieving identity

intimacy issues

formal operational thought

involves the ability to think logically, abstractly, & systematically change in thinking seemed to begin between 11 & 12 years of age. found around 30% of 13-year-olds (younger adolescents) tend to use formal reasoning in some situations while around 60% of older adolescents or college students use it. Some aspects of it are seen in middle childhood, so it is clearly a gradual shift, not a leap. improved information processing. Case (1992) added that working memory capacity expands Greater inhibitory control (which improves attentional control)

Metacognition

is all about knowledge of how the mind works, the ability to control the mind, basically understanding one's own cognitive processes the ability to be planful of their own cognition (how they take in, manipulate & store information) requires logical thinking about the abstract concept of thought

Declarative knowledge

is knowledge about facts & events. It has 2 types: semantic (knowledge about factual information, rules & concepts) & episodic (knowledge about experienced events

demandingness

is more closely associated with "good" behavior and self-control.

third circle

is the adolescent's crowd. What crowd members share is not necessarily friendship, but similar interests, attitudes, behaviors, and appearance

Sensory memory

is what is stored initially (whether visual or auditory or...). It is the sensory experience, which according to Blaser & Kaldy (2010) seems to be similar for infants & adults, at least when it comes to visual information.

Retrieval

is what we usually mean by remembering, that is, getting information out of storage so we can use it.

Rubin et al. (2011) observed that in China, aggression is more disapproved of & aggressive children would more likely experience__________________

isolation.

ego identity ( Erickson)

it serves as the foundation for the behavioral, affective, and cognitive commitments to career, relationships, and political and religious belief systems that will be made in adulthood

. Although very young children, in the "childhood era" according to Sullivan, primarily depend on parents for reflected appraisals of themselves, children's dependence on playmates becomes more important as they enter the "_______________" around age 4.

juvenile period

reasons why non-naturalized citizens do not get health care

language barriers, worry that accessing healthcare for their children may impact on residency status, or fear that if they are illegal immigrants, they would be caught.

Compared to the average group, children in the neglected category experience_____________ peer interaction.

less

Early maturing boys are actually far_____________ moody & less likely to experience depressed mood than later-maturing boy

less

one pathway has a life-course trajectory characterized by the presence of oppositional, noncompliant, and aggressive behavior that begins early, persists and diversifies over time, and becomes increasingly more serious. This early-starter pathway has been called_________________

life-course persistent

the research has consistently demonstrated that they are related to low levels of student motivation & greater social comparison.

like whole-group lectures, ability groupings, & competitive versus cooperative activities & assessment

Needs for acceptance & belonging stem from the desire to be ______________________

liked & receive praise or approval

Campbell (1990) has suggested that those with lower self-esteem are more vulnerable & reactive to social feedback. Campbell & Lavallee (1993) note that they tend to be more cautious & self-protective, keeping themselves out of the ______________ (perhaps for fear of others' negative evaluations

limelight

Membership in a crowd can have a_____________ influence on potential behaviors

limiting

ideals

logically organized possible systems

The strategies employed depend upon a child's level of self-esteem. If it is ______________, Smith & Smoll (1990) showed that children prefer and respond more to teachers or coaches who provide a lot of encouragement. Those with moderate or high self-esteem didn't seem to show such a preference or response. (Perhaps they don't need it as much?)

low

decenter

meaning in this case the ability to recognize and hold in mind more than one perspective, is enhanced by repeated interactions with others.

social comparison (Festinger, 1954),

means that people observe the performance of others and use it as a basis for evaluating their own abilities and accomplishments.

On the more negative side, the self-evaluation and self-monitoring that come with improved ___________may also contribute to other forms of ___________ that seem to emerge at adolescence

metacognitive skill , egocentrism

Anxiety seems to be highest for____

moratorium

What Else Changes to Improve Memory

narrative skills how parents who model & encourage their children to talk about experiences help their children's narrative skill development.

Erikson's (1968) view of adolescence as a "_______________" supports this as a time of potential upheaval

normative crisis

Do infants and toddlers actually learn from video that is intended to be educational? Marketers claim great educational benefits, but the evidence does ______________ support these claims

not

Hartshorne & May's (1928-1930) observations of 8 to 16-year-olds in situations where they could lie, cheat, or steal. Their results showed that the children's knowledge of moral standards did ____________relate to whether they cheated or helped others cheat. They also found that honesty varied situationally.

not

It must be noted that clinical depression does ______________ appear to be higher in teens than the general population.

not

Level of voice did ____________decline with age for boys or girls. Level of voice did vary for both boys & girls, depending upon how supported they felt for self-expression

not

compelling circumstances

occurs when an individual faces such pressure that even an ordinary, reasonable person could be expected to give in, such as acting in the face of extreme need or under threat of injury.

______________ of teens experience depressed mood at any given time.

one third

In middle childhood, there tends to be systematic use of memory strategies, which would include an

organization strategy (sorting or grouping), or an elaboration strategy (developing or finding a meaningful link between things to remember).

In psychology, a _______________ is often defined as a social group made up of members around the same age who tend to have similar backgrounds & social status. They can have similar interests & share similar activities, but they do exert much influence over behaviors & attitudes

peer group

boys are more vulnerable to_________________ than girls

peer pressure

Importantly, Romeo (2010) noted that: "The intersection of stress & the developing adolescent brain may represent a '________________' in the context of dysfunctional emotional development".

perfect storm

Lamborn, Dornbusch, and Steinberg (1996) found, for example, that children from _______________families were most likely to experiment with alcohol and marijuana

permissive or disengaged

It is needed to maintain relationships (healthy ones, at least), and is where self-knowledge & self-recognition come from.

perspective-taking

Adolescents in China and the United States who perceived greater obligation to_______________ parents demonstrated higher achievement overall compared to those without a comparable sense of obligation.

please

Those at risk for peer rejection are children who have

poor communication, language, emotional control & social information processing skills

Interestingly, moral reasoning, which is likely to benefit from interaction with peers , tends to be more advanced in _________________children with good social skills, at least for boys

popular

Older children and adolescents with a __________global self-concept generally tend to be more prosocial than other children (e.g., Larrieu & Mussen, 1986). Feeling competent and secure may help a child both focus her attention on others and believe that her help will be effective

positive

risk-taking behavior has both_______________aspects.

positive (social status) & negative (social deviance)

Teacher Factors Warmth

positive attitudes Good behavioral management skills High academic expectations of each child Tailoring feedback and input to children's needs Respect and valuing of children's ethnic differences

According to Piaget , Preschoolers are __________(don't care about rules or standards, make their own & don't even follow their own).

premoral

Piaget proposed that preschoolers are _______________in the sense that they seem unconcerned about established rules or standards, making up their own as they go along in a game of marbles, for example, and having little regard even for their own rules

premoral

Currently available evidence is strongest for________________ on the development of gender identity and sexual orientation.

prenatal influences

how physical skills are remembered (often called _______________)

procedural knowledge

Sharing, comforting a friend, helping a neighbor carry her groceries, collecting canned goods for victims of a flood—all are examples of simple _________________behaviors that we might see from a child

prosocial

Behaviorally, more current research has found that toddlers will act_____________ due to empathy (Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad, 2006). They will sometimes even comply with parents' rules even if parents aren't there

prosocially

Once they enter school (age 5 or 6), Liben, Bigler, & Krogh (2002) note that children already know a considerable amount about activities & occupations that they see as gender-based. This becomes more in terms of _______________ (traits, & expecting a constellation of them) during the middle childhood years.

psychological stereotypes

the effects of nature and nurture are integrated with a third area of influence called ____________________

psychosocial development

retrieval strategy

pulling the answer automatically from memory.

Even though the research suggests not much difference, it is clear that boys & girls spend their time ___________differently. Girls tend to spend time with other girls & boys tend to spend their time with other boys, even when they have ample opportunity to choose the opposite gender (like in the schoolyard).

qualitatively

In general, educational factors that promote children's cognitive and academic growth seem to fall into three broad categories:

quantity stimulation/engagement valuing

messages about _____________ and participation in activities that reflect shared heritage lead to many positive increases in competence, identity, self-esteem, academic achievement, and less antisocial behavior

racial and ethnic pride

Because having a strong ethnic identity confers many benefits on children, parents engage in ____________________

racial/ethnic socialization practices

The task of mental health professionals working with teens & their parents is then two-fold:

reconnecting teens & their parents, as well as reconnecting parents to each other. Examples of the latter are parent support or discussion groups, "safe-house" programs or "phone-tree" arrangements that get parents connected to each other.

Since we know that memory is ____________, bringing together current information, past information & what is inferred, older children would have had more experiences (past information). Maturation would also allow for reconstruction of (possibly) previously misunderstood information.

reconstructive

Sensory memory

refers to a brief retention of sensory experience. For about one third of a second, when we first see a scene, we store most of the sensory information that has come in, almost as though our eyes have taken a snapshot of the whole scene. A similar phenomenon occurs with hearing.

Friendship understanding

refers to a child's changing knowledge of what friendship implies.

egocentrism

refers to some failure to recognize your own subjectivity. You fail to see things realistically because you are, in a sense, trapped in your own perspective.

performance

refers to the child's actual use of skills for getting along with others

Competence

refers to the child's level of perspective-taking ability

influence

refers to the fact that the peer group can cause an individual to conform to the norms of the group. For example, if a youngster is part of a peer group that disparages getting good grades, the child presumably reduces his investment in doing homework in order to be accepted by the group.

hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis (HPG)

regulates all of these hormones. It also regulates appetite, growth, stress responses & sexual responses

Berndt & Heller (1986) found that boys behaving in feminine ways were more likely to be _________________. Conversely, girls behaving in more masculine ways are more likely to be accepted by peers

rejected

foreclosure is more strongly associated with ______________

religiousity

Foreclosed individuals

report the highest levels of authoritarianism, conformity, and obedience to authority

Needs-based reasoning

requires a person to weigh her or his own needs against others' needs....do the needs of others outweigh personal needs or are they even considered?

The boy code

requires learning that feelings of fear, weakness, and vulnerability should be suppressed to appear brave and powerful

Social information processing theories have demonstrated that schemas (including self- and relational schemas) are _____________ to change and support consistency

resistant

When a small set of facts in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division is learned so well that_______________ is automatic (e.g., 2 + 2 = 4),

retrieval

When it comes to conservation tasks, children in the concrete operations stage can answer them correctly because they understand ____________________ (that a change can be reversed so that an object can return to its original state, like pouring the water back into the original glass from the taller, thinner one in the conservation task).

reversability

During middle adolescence (highest ages 14 to 18), teens' resistance to peer influence grows (Steinberg & Monahan, 2007) but its influence on _______________ is still greater & lasts longer

risky behavior

Goldstein (1990), for example, suggests that________________is instrumental in relieving the maturity gap that afflicts adolescents who are caught in a time warp between physical and social maturity.

risky behavior

Eastern cultures, children and adults are more likely to emphasize the importance of _________________, whereas Westerners more often refer to interpersonal feelings when discussing care concerns

role-based duties

An emerging area of research finds strong links between adolescent______________involvement and depression. Adolescents, who are steady or frequent daters, and those who engage in more sexual activity, are more prone to depression

romantic

relational aggression is seen in some _________________

school shootings

The research seems to suggest that the process of _____________ draws individuals to particular groups in the first place, but once there, the group can exert________________ on its members

selection, influence

Most people, at least in Western cultures, are motivated to maintain moderately positive beliefs about themselves, called the _____________________ (Taylor & Brown, 1988), which is considered a good thing in most cases

self-enhancing bias

Taylor & Brown (1988) suggest that people use a_______________ to maintain positive beliefs about themselves, in other words, to maintain more positive self-esteem. This is a tendency to take responsibility for positive outcomes, whether it is realistic or not. They attribute greater happiness & sense of well-being to those who employ it. Although this may have positive consequences for self-esteem in the short-run, it can have negative effects on peer relationships

self-enhancing bias

Such children are both more labile than other children, sometimes moving from victim to victimizer position depending on the relationship, and more rigid, refusing to compromise their position once established, even at the risk of losing the friendship.

self-transforming

Concrete operational children can arrange objects in a series, depending upon their physical dimensions (called _____________), whereas preoperational children can pick out the extremes, but not the fine differences in-between

seriation

one large fMRI study of older children found no __________________in lateralization of language processing

sex difference

Thus, the adolescent growth spurt increases both internal and external ________________, physical differences between the sexes

sexual dimorphism

Therefore, both level and timing of prenatal hormone exposure in concert with genetic influences need to be taken into account for__________________

sexual orientation

that parents are going through their own developmental "_____________" along with their teens, I have found this an extremely helpful frame of reference in working with teens. We know that they are so very focused on their own issues (which is totally developmentally appropriate), but they seriously have no idea of what their parents are going through (or even how it impacts on them).

shift

Since we already know that executive functions improve, although genetics are involved, so are social, cultural & educational experiences (Hewage et al., 2011). The role of experience is evident in the area of cognitive (attentional) flexibility, also called "_____________". It is one of the executive functions & means the ability to switch between thinking about 2 different concepts & think about multiple concepts at the same time.

shifting

Marsh & Shavelson's (1985) model of the self (as shown in Figure 7.1, page 247 of your text)

shows the self-concept as divided into academic self-concept (which is further divided into subject areas) & nonacademic self-concept (which is further divided into physical ability, physical appearance, peer relationships, & parent relationships).

Thus, education in math requires,_______________, practice that promotes memorization of facts, exposure to efficient procedures or strategies, and help discovering the conceptual structure of math that makes the facts and procedures what they are

simultaneously

Patterson (2004) & others have shown that there are no differences shown in sex role development for children from ____________________

single-parent families or families with same-sex parents

Hartshorne and May concluded that moral conduct is usually determined by the particular ________________ and is not coordinated with moral reasoning or training

situation

Girls tend to display a pattern of nonconfrontational, relational aggression (___________________) along with direct confrontational approaches.

social ostracism, spreading rumors, alienation of others

The construction of self-concept is a ___________________, and any social process is conditioned by culture

social process

Good ______________ are important contributors to socially competent behavior at every level of interaction. They may be defined as discrete, observable behaviors such as making eye contact, using appropriate language, asking appropriate questions, and so forth that promote effective social interaction and that are part of the broader construct of social competence

social skills

One possible reason for their limited effects is the unidirectional approach typically employed in these interventions. In other words, treatment often assumes that the socially troubled individual owns the problem. There is evidence, however, that if children are disliked, peers also process information about them in biased ways. For example, children interpret negative acts as intentionally malicious when committed by disliked children but not when committed by popular children

social skills training programs

They also measured children's interest in stereotypical male & female activities & traits, their "intergroup bias" (whether they valued their own gender more than the other & if so, how much), their global self-esteem, & perception of own social competence. At the same time, peers' perceptions of them were assessed using a ______________________

sociometric assessment

organization strategy:

sorting the items to be learned on some meaningful basis, such as grouping the names by region ( late elementary or adolesense)

When it comes to math, (which males are supposed to be better at than females), it has been found true for complex math problem-solving using ______________.

spatially-based strategies

Learning, or acquiring knowledge, involves the _________________ of information

storage

Gilligan was correct about "loss of voice" & how it relates to self-esteem. However, girls were no more likely to use voice suppression than boys. Even more interesting, girls showed _____________voices with female classmates & close friends than boys did.

stronger

Miedzian (1991) found that boys tend to receive _______________gender socialization than girls, who receive more freedom to choose clothes, activities, & playmates

stronger

The ______________would develop when specific motives & emotions driven by the id came into conflict with parental authority. The occasion for this conflict would happen around age 3 when sexual desire for the opposite-sex parent occurs (electra complex for girls, oedipal complex for boys). Since this would put the child in a no-win competition with their same-sex parent (who they fear), the child resolves it by identifying with the same-sex parent. This accomplishes 2 tasks: the child wins that parent's (their competitor's) affection & approval; and in pretending to be the same-sex parent, the child achieves some sort of vicarious satisfaction of sexual desire for the opposite-sex parent.

superego

Ability to self-regulate emotions also has an impact, as if children feel overwhelmed by empathic emotions for others, they may be focused too much on their own discomfort to react ____________________

sympathetically

Hines et al. (2002) found that if girls' mothers had higher blood-levels of______________during their pregnancies, the girls' activities were rated as more masculine

testosterone

Some research supports the relationship of hormones, specifically prenatal exposure to _____________, to heightened aggressiveness and disinhibition in males

testosterone

narrative skill

the ability to tell a coherent story

It should be noted that parents who are demanding without warmth and sensitivity (_______________) may actually interfere with prosocial development. At least for toddlers, this parenting style has been associated with reductions in children's empathic responding

the authoritarian style

Possible Reasons for Trends Towards Earlier Puberty

the body fat connection to pubertal onset. Higher ratios of body fat relate to earlier onset. leptin, which is a hormone produced in fat tissue families where there is significant conflict or stress, puberty tends to begin earlier(urban crowding, father-absent homes, divorced families, as well as early childhood abuse) Exposure to certain chemicals used in industrial production (called EDCs) can disrupt endocrine functions, as well, affecting the timing of puberty & fat metabolism. These include flame retardants, pesticides, lead, mercury, specific pharmaceutical agents, & phthalates found in plastic, among others.

Understanding what leads to vulnerability versus advantage is thus extremely important. Factors that have been found to make a difference are:

the circumstances that lead to migration, characteristics of the country of origin, characteristics of the family (such as religious values, parents' education, family size & structure), as well as family's circumstances after migration (SES, job opportunities, social supports, schools available, diversity in the schools & communities, racial/ethnic tolerance/discrimination patterns).

the ego identity

the conscious sense of self that develops through social interaction. Changes occur through new experiences & information accumulated in interactions with others.

Stressors that seem to impact on girls at this age more include:

the fact that females are seen as less competent than males (the gender role being less valued), greater concern with body image (given that with puberty, there is weight gain & redistribution of fat), girls tend to have lower expectations of success than boys, possible greater stress from their increasing sexuality & sexual desirability, romantic involvements which seem to relate to depression, & the concurrent occurrence of puberty for girls with the move to secondary school.

higher-order functions

the frontal lobes, which play a role in organization, planning, self-control, judgment, and the regulation of emotion; the parietal lobes, which are involved in integrating information; the temporal lobes, serving language functions and contributing to emotion regulation; and the corpus callosum, the network of fibers connecting the left and right sides of the cortex, aiding in information integration and other higher functions, such as consciousness

Between middle childhood and early adolescence

the individual becomes capable of integrating opposing characteristics and begins to form more abstract traitlike concepts to describe herself. Self-assessments, such as "being smart," are bolstered by feedback from a wide variety of outside influences across many kinds of situations, and these assessments become more resistant to modification. Self- esteem tends to decline a bit during middle childhood and early adolescence because children recognize, often for the first time, how they fall short in comparison to others. Struggles to integrate abstract representations of the self characterize the period of adolescence as the young person works on defining a unique identity.

formal operational thought,

the kind of thinking that Piaget and his colleague, Barbel Inhelder, identified as beginning at about 11 or 12 years First, formal thought rises above particular contents and focuses on relationships that govern those contents Second, formal reasoning involves coordinating multiple relationships. Third, formal thought can be difficult even for adults. We all find logical thinking to be easier when the information we must contend with is more concrete

Following her reasoning that we presented earlier, she suggests that Kohlberg ignores the "different voice" women use to making moral decisions. Whereas males tend to use a justice focus (the morality of justice), she suggests that females tend to use a caring focus (___________________).

the morality of caring

children will model themselves after others whom they perceive to be like_______________, as the cognitive theorists predict, and whom they perceive as competent.

themselves

those with high self-esteem will tend to call attention to ________________ & use self-enhancement (taking responsibility for successes, even if unrealistically so).

themselves

As for his assertion that children only identify with one role-model (the same-sex parent), the research finds that children will actually model those who they perceive as like _____________________

themselves & who they perceive as competent.

children with siblings tend to develop ________________ earlier, which helps them to learn perspective-taking sooner. Walker (2005) noted that this is related to empathic & prosocial behavior.

theory of mind

personal rules

there are areas of functioning that individuals or families might have standards about—such as choices of friends or recreational activities or participation in family life—which are not governed by formal social rules in Western societies

As executive functions improve, children get better at consciously controlling their ___________________

thinking (e.g., planning, strategically problem solving), their actions (e.g., inhibiting automatic responses), and their emotions.

metacognition

thinking about and awareness of our own mental processes and their effects.

Simmons & Blyth (1987) suggest a "cumulative stress" theory

those who experienced three transitions (K-6, 7-9, 10-12) had more negative outcomes than those who experienced only 1 transition (K-8, 9-12).

Genetics seem to play a role in the____________ of puberty

timing

In humans, girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) who are overexposed to prenatal (and sometimes postnatal) androgens have been found to exhibit more ______________—playing with boys and preferring boys' toys and activities—than non-CAH girls

tomboyism

An example of clear structural differences in brain structures between men & women was found by Haier et al. (2005), whereby intelligence was correlated with more gray matter in the frontal & parietal lobes for men, but more gray matter in other areas of the frontal lobes were correlated with intelligence for women. The women & men had the same level of intelligence, which suggested to the researchers that "different types of brain designs may manifest equivalent intellectual performance". In other words, same____________________

trajectory despite different structures.

Booth & Gerard (2014) in fact found that both academic achievement & motivation suffered during school ______________

transitions

The_______________ between school levels are a turning-point where social status may be redefined (like from oldest in middle school to youngest in high school).

transitions

Montemayor (1983) reported that in typical families, teens and their parents argued on average_____________ a week, hardly a matter of great concern

twice

with girls reporting depression____________ as often as boys (Thapar et al., 2012). Davila (2008) found that rates of major depression for adolescents 12 to 19 years old were from 15-20%, again finding girls' were twice that of boys.

twice

Halpern et al. (2007) note that the research actually shows there are more boys who______________ in math than girls & girls actually outperform boys in computation.

underperform

Before, unsuccessful interventions aimed at problem-reduction were predicated on fear, only providing information. In fact, Blum (2003) enumerates some of the characteristics of unsuccessful strategies:

using scare tactics, of short-duration, providing only factual information, targeting mainly self-esteem, segregating at-risk students for special treatment.

On the other hand, sometimes children use a strategy, but it does not seem to boost memory; then they are said to have a __________________

utilization deficiency

Conventional rules

vary between cultures & depend upon social agreement (table manners, appropriate dress, forms of address)

Teachers' _________________ has shown some relationship to students' academic achievement (Hanushek, 1971), as Murnane (1985) suggests that it is a measure of their ability to convey ideas in clear & convincing ways.

verbal ability

playing the ________________ themselves was associated with increased levels of aggressive behavior for both boys and girls.

violent games

When it comes to electronic games, they do develop the specific skills required for the game. Research has also shown that they can also improve children's ________________(Uttal et al., 2012). Some have been designed for education & younger children seem to prefer those over purely entertaining games

visual-spatial abilities

Conventional crowd ( Denmark)

was made up of "normals," rural, and religious youth

Achievement-oriented crowd ("posh," "brains")( Denmark)

was oriented toward academic and financial success

purpose of these middle schools

was to provide greater flexibility & autonomy than elementary schools, but promote strong ties to adults (teachers & parents) & provide active learning to stimulate their developing capacities for abstract reasoning

example of reality monitoring

when a child becomes devoted to an imaginary friend.

intergroup bias

whether they valued their own gender more than the other & if so, how much

diminished capacity

which could be due to mental illness, emotional distress, intellectual impairment, or "susceptibility to influence or domination"

crowd

with similar interests, attitudes, behaviors, appearance & membership based on reputation, even less intimate

Cowan et al. (2015) have shown that there are improvements in _______________ at this stage ( Middle childhood) which are due to greater storage capacity & greater attentional control. Schneider & Pressley (2013) demonstrated that working memory capacity improves substantially during elementary school years.

working memory

The Office of Juvenile Justice & Delinquency Prevention (2014) noted that_______________ of violent offenses in the U.S. were by adolescents, including aggravated assault, murder, rape, & robbery.

¼

in ___________, the Supreme Court ruled against capital punishment for minors due to lack of maturity & susceptibility to peer influence (Steinberg, 2013). Similarly, using the same rationale, the Supreme Court ruled against life in prison without parole for minors.

2005

It is important to note that Steinberg & Scott (2003) pointed out at the time the Supreme Court was considering the case, _____________ of the United States allowed the death penalty for adolescents under age 18 & most of those allowed it at age 16.

21

the sex of a baby is determined by the________________pair of chromosomes, the sex chromosomes

23rd

, bullying is still a problem there, impacting over _____________ of boys & girls in middle school experiencing it.

25%

over _______________ are Hispanic (parents having migrated from Mexico or Central America) & 14% have parents who migrated from East or South Asia or the Pacific Islands. It is a diverse group in terms of language & country-of-origin.

40%

stage 3 (Selman)

10 to 15 years Empathic sharing of beliefs and values Mutual/Third-Person Mutual compromise

The most troublesome finding is that long hours of employment (especially ____________ or more hours per week) are associated with increases in problem behaviors like theft (e.g., giving away store products to friends), school misconduct, alcohol and drug use, including cigarette smoking

20

More recently, Monaghan, Lee, & Steinberg (2011) re-examined the data, coming to different conclusions: that part-time work of___________or less a week has no impact on either positive nor negative outcomes

20 hours

Pomerantz et al. (2011) noted that for Chinese ________________ graders, their sense of obligation to parents increased while it decreased for their U.S. cohorts. This corresponded to higher grades, better mastery of learning, & better self-regulation for both Chinese & U.S. youth who felt a greater obligation to parents.

7th and 8th

stage 2 (Selman)

8 to 12 years Reflective sharing of similar perceptions or experiences Reciprocal/Self-Reflective Cooperative exchange; reciprocity; persuasion or deference

According to Mortimer (2005), _______________ of teens are employed at some time during high school years

80 to 90%

Martin & Fabes (2001) observed 3 & 5-year-olds at play over a 6-month period, with ++++++++++++ of the children already having clear same-sex play-partner preferences despite teachers' suggestions otherwise

80%

Arnett et al. (2004) found that _____________ of European-American older adolescents admitted to lying to their parents the week before, with high-schoolers more likely to lie about peers & alcohol. Tilton-Weaver et al. (2010) found this was especially true for teens who saw their parents as controlling, cold, or rejecting.

83%

According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (2014), ___________ of arrests in the U.S. involve adolescents, with males 4 times as likely to be arrested as females

9%

Part-time work of moderate intensity (______________) was not associated with either positive or negative outcomes for adolescents. Contrary to the argument that adolescents acquired some psychological benefits from part-time work (Mortimer et al., 1999), this analysis showed negligible outcomes on academics, self-reliance, and self-esteem

20 hours or less per week

Mortimer et al. (1999) reported that long work hours (especially _______________) were related to higher incidences of theft, school misconduct, alcohol & drug use

20 hours or more

the APA defines self-concept as:

"A person's mental model of his or her abilities & attributes".

gender (according to the APA) is defined as:

"A psychological phenomenon that refers to learned sex-related behaviors & attitudes of males & females." As such, they view it as a nurture (environmentally-influenced) phenomenon

The APA defines prosocial behavior as:

"Behavior that is carried out with the goal of helping other people

Anderson (2015) found White & Latino youth are about equally as likely to be arrested, but African American teens are more likely to be arrested. The least likely to be arrested were ______________ American youth

Asian

Steinberg, Dornbusch, and Brown (1992) found ethnic differences in their large survey of adolescents, particularly in the likelihood of academic success: Authoritative parenting was not as good a predictor of academic success for teens from _________________ families as it was for White teens.

Asian American, African American, and Hispanic

These three groups were more likely to graduate, and Asian and Latino students were more likely to have higher GPAs, when their peer networks were more homogeneous.

Asian, Latino and non-Hispanic White students

_________________children, who will, for example, defend their possessions, are likely to be prosocial in situations in which no one has asked them to help, probably because offering assistance is, at least in part, an assertive act

Assertive

Media exposure was higher in ________________ (by approximately 4 hours per day) compared to Whites and among boys (by approximately one hour per day) compared to girls (Center on Media and Human Development, 2011).

Black, Hispanic, and Asian groups

What might be causing this the early onset of puberty

Body fat affects the timing of puberty in both girls and boys, such that higher ratios of fat are associated with earlier onsets, possibly through some association with leptin. Leptin is a hormone produced in fat tissue that may affect GnRH levels in the hypothalamus onset of puberty tends to be earlier in families where there is substantial conflict or other significant sources of stress

They suggest that at least initially adult sanctions and direct teaching contribute most to the production of behaviors that are considered gender appropriate.

Bussey and Bandura

When ___________females are raised as boys, their gender identity is inconsistent with their biological sex, and yet most accept their gender assignment. Of course, their social assignment to the status of male may not be the only factor that supports their acceptance of a male identity. Their exposure to androgens appears to have a masculinizing effect on their behavior as well as on their genitalia, and this biologically generated difference in behavior may make a male identity a comfortable "fit" for some CAH females.

CAH

those girls with______________ (high androgen exposure pre- and postnatally), they displayed more tomboyism

CAH

We've just been talking about aggressiveness & its link to possible later conduct problems, which can lead to their extreme:

CD (Conduct Disorder) & ODD (Oppositional Defiant Disorder).

An interesting example of this is farming, which is something that women do in many parts of the world but in _______________, it is seen as a more male occupation.

North America

Heine & Hammamura (2007) found that _____________ from middle childhood & up tend to report high self-esteem more than those from Eastern cultures. They also use self-enhancement strategies (like downward comparisons) more to maintain positive self-esteem.

North Americans

social impact score (moreno)

adds up the total of both positive & negative mentions. This is used to measure the amount a child gets noticed within a group

Polce-Lynch et al. (2001) examined age & gender patterns in self-esteem, as well as the effects of social influences for boys & girls from grades 5 to 12. Their findings were interesting in that girls' self-esteem was lower than boys' in early adolescence, & boys in late _______________reported lower self-esteem than younger boys. Girls showed higher media influence & more negative body image than boys, both in late childhood & early adolescence.

adolescence

The reward and threat systems( (Amygdata) are more active during _____________, tipping the balance needed for mature self-regulation, decision-making, and behavior

adolescence

about half of ADHD cases diagnosed in childhood remit by late ____________ or early adulthood. For those children, it appears that brain development follows a delayed but typical trajectory. For cases of

adolescence

the _____________brain is different from both the child's brain and the adult's brain. It is different with respect to both morphology and function, and at the levels of brain structures, regions, circuits, and systems. It is different with respect to grey matter, white matter, structural connectivity and neurotransmission.

adolescent's

When it comes to sensation seeking, Zuckerman (1979) found ______________ to score higher than any other age group

adolescents

The Potential Interaction of Biological & Social Causes of Adolescents' Mood Disruption

allele is a risk factor in an unsupportive family delayed phase preference (the effect of hormonal changes in teens which causes them to stay up later & sleep later than younger children), Arnett (1999) suggests that perhaps earlier school days leave teens sleep-deprived & may contribute to their emotional volatility. found that depressed adolescents were more likely to live with depressed parents. Feelings of alienation from parents have been shown to contribute to depression as well (Smith et al., 2009). Like for adults, depression during adolescence is often found with the loss of a friend, parental divorce, or failure changes in peer relationships, parental expectations, & self-concept

More recent statistics from 2009-2011 show some encouraging signs. Decreasing trends were reported for _________________ use among teens. Marijuana use, however, increased over this period

alcohol and tobacco

Crowds

are larger collectives, composed of multiple cliques, which serve as social categories for students rather than as actual friendship groups. You might think of crowds as actual peer "cultures" that represent approaches to behavior, attitudes, and values.

Rejected-withdrawn children

are more socially anxious than other groups and likely to behave in socially inappropriate ways. Poor perspective-taking skills and general social ineptness may lead these youngsters to behave in ways that are considered odd, infantile, unpredictable, or potentially embarrassing to peers

Selman & Adalbjarnadottir (2000) developed an interesting method to help understand adolescents' reasoning for risky behaviors using social perspective-taking.

The Risky Business Interview & the Relationship Interview

Maccoby & Jacklin (1987) call mixed-gender interactions during middle childhood _______________, & it is suggested that there exist implicit rules for it

borderwork

Steinberg et al. (1992) found that the most successful students had ______________ peers & parents who supported academics

both

Steinberg & Monahan (2007) showed that ___________are more susceptible to peer pressure than girls

boys

girls are more interested in ____________' activities than boys are interested in girls' activities

boys

increasing susceptibility to peer influence is greatest for anti-social or risky behaviors, and more likely for ____________ than for girls

boys

According to the APA, morality is:

"A system of beliefs & values that ensures that individuals will keep their obligations to others in society and will behave in ways that do not interfere with the rights and interests of others."

the brain is at _____________of its maximum at age 6

95%

Democracy is the opposite of "_____________,"

psychological control

Right from birth, infants receive _________________

gender socialization

According to Egan & Perry, adjustment is best when:

children are secure in seeing themselves as typical members of their sex but also feel free to explore cross-sex options when they want

______________play a central role in the process of identity or self-development.

peers

Peers' influence can be via negative control strategies (________________).

teasing, threats of rejection

Harter (1999, 2012) has gone on to show that the one domain that seems to be most important at this time is physical appearance, which correlates up to______________ with self-esteem for older children & up.

.80

social situations, teens are more likely to make risky choices when they can't yet incorporate their own with adults'/parents' perspectives. Following this theoretical line of reasoning, this requires 3 reciprocally-related abilities: r.

1) the teen's general knowledge about risks & how they fit in social interactions; 2) knowledge of the variety of risk-management strategies available to the teen; 3) the teen's awareness of their personal meaning of risky behavior

More recently, due to social concern among parents & communities about declining morals, there is renewed interest in schools promoting character development as a preventative measure for escalating violence & crime, more conduct problems in schools, as well as rampant despair & discontent in today's youth. The focus here again is on universal, widely accepted standards of conduct. They have 2 goals

1) to help children understand why the standards are important; and 2) to encourage behavior that fits with these standards

Keith et al. (1998) found that parents' involvement in school in 8th grade predicted ___________ students' grade point average, irrespective of SES, previous academic achievement, or ethnicity.

10th-grade

juvenile crime rates have dropped, with its incidence _____________ lower than at its peak in 1994

55%

95% of its peak size by age ______

6

Longitudinal studies have shown this "difference" is more a delay, particularly in growth of the cerebral cortex. Shaw et al. (2007) have shown that the greatest delay (up to 5 years behind typical children) is in the prefrontal cortex.

children diagnosed with ADHD

Birkeland et al. (2012) followed children from when they were aged 13 until adulthood at age 30. They characterized 3 very different but common paths of global self-esteem: consistently high, chronically low, & U-shaped.

For the U-shaped group, they had positive self-esteem at 13 but it declined from then until it reached a low at age 18. Then, it rebounded & climbed to be much more positive by their mid-20's. The 3 different paths impacted on life satisfaction, likelihood of depressive mood, somatic complaints, & insomnia at age 30. For the U-shaped group, although their self-esteem was as high as the highest group at age 30, they encountered more negative life outcomes.

gender constancy

For this, children must realize that even if major surface changes were made—in hairstyle, dress, and behavior—the sex of the individual would not also change.

adolescents process emotional information in ways that are different from prepubertal children and adults.

Mid to late pubertal adolescents show greater pupil dilation to emotion-related words, rate themselves as higher in negative affect, and tend to remember more emotion-related words in delayed recall tasks than younger children, suggesting exaggerated limbic reactivity at puberty

Piaget's and Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Preschool Premoral Period Child is unconcerned about rules; makes up her own rules. 5 to 8 or 9 years Heteronomous Morality Child is a moral realist: Rules are determined by authorities; are unalterable, moral absolutes; must be obeyed. Violations always punished. Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation Child obeys to avoid punishment and because authority is assumed to be superior or right. Rules are interpreted literally; no judgment is involved. 8 or 9 to 11 or 12 years Autonomous Morality Social rules are arbitrary, and promote cooperation, equality, and reciprocity; therefore, they serve justice. They can be changed by agreement or violated for a higher purpose. Stage 2: Concrete, Individualistic Orientation Child follows rules to serve own interests. others' interests may also need to be served, so follow the principle of fair exchange, e.g., "You scratch my back, I scratch yours." to 16 years Stage 3: Social-Relational Perspective Shared feelings and needs are more important than self-interest. Helpfulness, generosity, and forgiveness are idealized. Late adolescents/young adults Stage 4: Member-of-Society Perspective The social order is most important now. Behaviors that contribute to functioning of social system are most valued, e.g., obeying laws, hard work. Some adults Stage 5: Prior Rights and Social Contract The social contract now is most valued. Specific laws are not most valued, but the process that they serve is, e.g., democratic principles, individual rights. Some adults Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Certain abstract moral principles are valued over anything else, e.g., above specific laws. Social order is also highly valued, unless it violates highest moral principles. (Theoretical; Kohlberg's subjects did not achieve this stage.)

degrouping

The importance of cliques reaches a peak in early adolescence, followed by a general decline in importance over the course of high school

McClure et al. (2010) examined low self-esteem in a large U.S. sample of adolescents aged 12 to 16.

They found female gender, race, overweight & obesity, sensation-seeking, rebelliousness, team sports participation, school performance, parenting style & daily TV time were independently related to lower self-esteem.

Females: Not as much is known about the genetic controls of female development. What we do know is that without the ____ chromosome (and thus the SRY gene, which activates the androgens), the undifferentiated structures become female genitalia. The Mullerian ducts don't deteriorate & instead develop into female reproductive organs. Conversely, the Wolffian ducts deteriorate because they have no androgens to initiate their development.

Y

Whereas participation in competitive activities provided opportunities for self-understanding by defining personal strengths and weaknesses, participation in noncompetitive activities enhanced a sense of________________ in relationship to others.

acceptance and belonging

functioning well within a peer group is one of the most significant _______________ in children's lives

accomplishments

there is a link between boys' androgen levels and their aggressiveness (Buchanan, Eccles, & Becker, 1992). But androgens appear to more directly affect attempts to _______________ which leads to aggression only in some people and some situations

achieve social power (dominance seeking)

Children's sexual attraction seems to emerge when their adrenal glands begin to increase activity (around age 10, just before puberty), which is called)_____________

adrenarche

guided imagery

aid to memory. A child might be asked to pretend that an event occurred, then create a mental picture of the event and its details (Ceci & Bruck, 1998; Gilstrap, 2004). Unfortunately, if an adult encourages a child to construct a fantasy about what might have happened, the child may eventually come to believe that it did happen, even if it did not.

those who participated in prosocial activities were unlikely to use ____________ in high school, whereas those who participated in sports were more likely than other teens to do so

alcohol or drugs

Note that research shows having ____________ positive thoughts is neither necessary or desirable.

all

relationships with others are central to human functioning in ______________ cultural environments, but the typical approaches to relating may vary. In more individualistic cultures, for example, people may feel comfortable seeking relationships with new partners, whereas in collectivist cultures, loyalty to in-group members (such as family) is often the primary path to meeting relationship needs

all

Once puberty happens, males produce high levels of testosterone right through adulthood, but its production gradually reduces in middle age, which is called _______________

andropause

Reward seeking is related to _____________ (approach) systems in the brain, and sensitivity to stress marked by emotional lability is related to the brain's _______________ (avoidance) systems

appetitive, threat-detection

more stimulating, engaging environments

are important, so that factors like educational level of the family and society matter. Minimal use of grade retention helps to reduce boredom, and small classes make it more likely that each child can be engaged in learning activities that meet his needs, with challenging input and individually tailored feedback. Increased amounts of instruction at school are more stimulating than doing lots of homework alone

Crowds

are larger, looser groups that tend to be reputation-based. According to Dunphy (1963), their importance comes into play during middle adolescence. They tend to include many cliques & their membership is less through joining than through peer sorting. (Examples of crowds would be "populars", "jocks", "brains", "partiers", etc.)

Personal rules

are ones that families or individuals set (not based on societal rules).

Moral rules

are those that address fundamental moral issues (justice, welfare, rights).

Maccoby calls the girls' strategy more "____________" and the boys' more "_______________".)

conflict mitigating, egoistic

responsiveness

has been shown to impact more on teens' self-confidence & social competence

Even in children as young as 16 months, patterns of brain activation appear to be more lateralized for word comprehension in ______________ than in girls

boys

Longitudinally, there was some tendency for kids to increase in felt gender typicality over time; ____________ also showed a tendency to increase in gender contentedness

boys

With their sons, mothers would explain emotions to them with a focus on______________ so that they would understand the importance of controlling emotional expression.

causes & consequences

But even though boys tend to learn their own gender __________ a bit earlier than girls do, girls show _____________ preferences earlier than boys

category, same-sex playmate

One advantage of a rich web of knowledge is that it allows ____________ of information in working memory. Chunking links several pieces of information together into a single meaningful unit. For example, suppose you were given the following series of numbers in a digit span test: 149217761929. You might notice that you could divide the series into three chunks that represent famous dates in American history: 1492, 1776, and 1929 (Siegler, 1998). If so, you would be able to remember all the digits because you converted them to just three pieces of information, which would not exceed your working memory capacity

chunking

Teaching children to use memory strategies like ______________ helps them remember more

chunking

The multiple connections in long-term memory allow for ____________ information in working memory, which links pieces of information together meaningfully.

chunking

Paus and his colleagues (Paus, Leonard, Lerner, Lerner, Perron, Pike et al., 2011) report studies using imaging techniques to assess the degree of connectivity between regions of the cortex involved in self-control in a sample of 12- to 18-year-olds. Those participants who scored high on measures of resistance to peer influence showed more structural__________________ (controlling for age) than participants who scored low on such measures

connectivity

Although poverty is seen as a high risk factor for children's development, some immigrant families try to provide some protection from its negative effects. Examples of this are Hispanic families' "________________" (Galindo & Fuller, 2010) & immigrant Hispanic mothers tending to report good mental health (Jung et al., 2012), perhaps due to good social supports.

core socialization norms

As the ______________ myelinates, the left and right sides of the body become more coordinated. The upshot is that children have much greater motor control, something you can appreciate if you compare the awkward full frontal running of a 3-year-old to the ducking and weaving of a 9-year-old as he avoids capture during a game of tag. ( white matter increases)

corpus callosum

In middle childhood, , the white matter in the ________________increases (remember, it connects the two brain hemispheres?), resulting in better coordination between the left & right sides of the body

corpus callosum

Recent longitudinal studies have found that levels of ____________ rise gradually through middle childhood and increase rapidly around age 13 (Walker & Bollini, 2002). Studies of adults have consistently linked increases in HPA reactivity, as measured by cortisol increases, with unipolar and bipolar disorders, schizophrenia, and PTSD

cortisol

Laursen, Coy, & Collins (1998) found that there tended to be more conflicts with parents during _______________ adolescence so that by middle adolescence, the frequency declined but the intensity increased

early

According to Steinberg (2008), the same slower-developing cognitive control systems (in several cortical areas) & the subcortical emotional system are involved in the ______________ of both risk-taking & peer influence in later adolescence/early adulthood.

decline

if those children had a reciprocal friend, their self-esteem grew substantially from grade 3 to 5. This was maintained through grade 7. Those children's self-esteem was on par with children who had not suffered abuse or neglect. For children who experienced abuse or neglect who did not have a best friend, their self esteem __________________

declined.

Steinberg and Scott (2003) indicate that there are roughly three sources of mitigation in adult criminal law

diminished capacity compelling circumstances uncharacteristic behavior

According to Steinberg & Scott, 3 sources of mitigation include:

diminished capacity (due to mental illness, emotional distress, intellectual impairment, susceptibility to influence or domination), compelling circumstances (when faced with pressure that would cause anyone to give into, like extreme need or under threat of injury), and uncharacteristic behavior (when doesn't fit with established character traits).

negative feedback or criticism from teachers, even in combination with high expectations, was found to be most clearly associated with_______________motivation and poor achievement

diminished

rumination cognitive aspect

directed at self-focused cognitions

Tienda & Mitchell (2006) have found that children who feel ________________ against by their teachers, it impacts negatively on their motivation (resulting in under-achievement & lowered expectations by teachers). At the other end of the spectrum, if teachers have similarly high expectations for all students & value multiculturalism, children feel less discriminated against by both teachers & peers, & are more likely to be academically successful

discriminated

To qualify as a gender-linked preexisting risk factor, gender differences in rumination and ______________ must be shown to exist prior to adolescence, before the rise in levels of depression

distraction

White students, had higher graduation rates when there was greater school-wide________________ in the student body.

diversity

logical thinking may be at least somewhat ______________(that is, applicable to a particular area of knowledge) rather than strictly domain general and determined by one's stage of development,

domain specific

North Americans are more likely than people from Eastern cultures to report high self-esteem and to use self-enhancement strategies, such as ____________________, to help maintain their positive self-views

downward comparisons

risky behaviors

drinking & drug use, smoking, truancy, sexual behavior, high-speed driving, drunk driving, vandalism, as well as other kinds of delinquency. Some of these are illegal as well as deviant behaviors

Children who are ______________, for example, may do better at perspective taking, making them more appealing social partners, and may have closer friendships. The opportunities this creates for peer interaction help boost their perspectivetaking skills, which in turn benefit their moral reasoning and empathy, and so on

empathic

In many cases, our emotional reactions to others' distress can be an important source of helping behavior, and the emotion of __________________ may be the linchpin

empathy

Miller & Eisenberg (1988) found that greater______________was related to inhibition or control of anger.

empathy

Over time, with maturation & greater awareness of others' perspectives, Eisenberg & Fabes (1998) suggest that motivation is more based on _______________

empathy & internalized societal values for good behavior

immanent justice

expecting that misbehavior will eventually be punished, even if no one knows about it, as though some higher authority is always watching.

found that the peer group had more influence than the parents on whether___________________ would lead to regular use. For example, even the most vulnerable youngsters, those who had experimented with drugs and whose parents were disengaged, were unlikely to become regular users if their peers were not.

experimentation

someone with an _____________l locus of control tends to blame outside forces for everything.)

external

When they are involved in school- or community-sponsored____________, Mahoney, Larson, & Eccles (2006) have found that they tend to be academic achievers & embody other desirable qualities. The longer & more intensive their involvement, the better the long-term effects, even into adulthood

extra-curricular activities

For white children in grades 3 to 8, they looked for dimensions of gender, finding 3 particularly important:

felt gender typicality (compatibility), contentedness with gender assignment, felt pressure for sex-typing.

These 3 were related to children's psychosocial adjustment (such as peer acceptance, internalizing problems, self-esteem)

felt gender typicality (compatibility), contentedness with gender assignment, felt pressure for sex-typing.

High levels of competency in personally desirable behaviors, even if they are socially unacceptable (e.g., __________________), may enhance self-esteem for some youth

fighting, delinquent activities

When the spike in pruning happened earlier in infancy & early childhood, it mostly involved the sensory & motor cortices. Casey, Giedd, & Thomas (2000) note that this time, it is in brain areas related to higher-order functions (like the ___________________).

frontal lobes, the parietal lobes, the temporal lobes, & the corpus callosum

adolescents make increasingly sophisticated decisions about what to disclose to parents. Information may be mangaged in various ways:

full disclosure, partial story telling with details omitted, changing the subject or avoiding conversations, and outright lying

Bem (1989) actually found that if children know about the _________________ basis of gender assignment, they are more likely to achieve gender constancy.

genital

Biology =

genitalia; Gender assignment is based on genitalia

At all ages,______________ felt less typical & less content with their gender than boys, but they felt less pressure to conform than boys.

girls

Maggs, Almeida, & Galambos (1995) found increasing risk-taking behavior in adolescence to be related to decreased self-concept but _______________ peer acceptance (which is very important at this time).

greater

Dishion et al., (1995) found that teens tend to be more willing to engage in deviant behavior as a _____________ than they would be alone.

group

Studying peer groups differs from study of social interactions & friendship relations due to the _______________

group dynamics

Fortunately, not all children with these high-risk profiles demonstrate adult aggressive outcomes; approximately _______________ show no disorders in adulthood

half

Partnership for a Drug-Free America (1998) reported that 30% of children in 4th to 6th grade had been offered drugs (in 1997), which was up 47% from 1993. In a more recent survey, Johnston et al. (2007) found that nearly ___________ of teens in the U.S. have tried an illegal drug & nearly ¾ have tried alcohol by the time they have left high school.

half

Table 9.1 shows the percentages of U.S. high school students who "ever had intercourse" by race & gender. It appears that over _____________ have had intercourse by grade 11, & according to Savin-Williams & Ream (2007), as many as half of young teens have sexual experiences with members of the same sex. These experiences have tended to involve touching genitals & mutual masturbation

half

Identification of cliques & crowds is from students' descriptions of who "_______________" together in class. Using this, the social structures of schools or classes are mapped-out.

hangs around

Differences in cultural beliefs & practices for Asian parents tend to promote children's academic development, even if the parents themselves lack education. These include the view that intellectual achievement is due to______________, not inherent, fixed intelligence

hard work

"Playing doctor,"

has been known to involve disrobing or fondling the genitals of other children

Eisenberg & colleagues have studied this using scenarios with children where personal needs are in competition with others' needs. She has shown a developmental trend in that preschoolers show a tendency to be ______________ (focus on their own needs).

hedonistic

Eisenberg has found that preschoolers tend to be _____________—concerned for their own needs

hedonistic

At about age 5, Piaget described children's morality as __________________. They regard rules as immutable, existing outside the self, and requiring strict adherence. So, 5-year-old Jasmine might argue that a rule should never be broken, even if some greater good might prevail or even if all the participants in a game agree to the change. When her older sister crosses the street without waiting for a "walk" signal, rushing to help a neighborhood toddler who has wandered into the street, Jasmine might insist that her sister should have waited for the signal no matter what. She might also judge that a boy who broke 15 cups trying to help his mother get ready for a party deserves more punishment than one who broke one cup while actually misbehaving. In heteronomous morality, the letter of the law must be followed, and failure to do so requires punishment

heteronomous

the number of babies born to teen mothers in the United States is still the________________ of all developed countries

highest

most of the students who participated in extracurricular activities (one or more years of involvement in 6th through 10th grades) graduated from high school and did not become involved in criminal activity as young adults. This result was most obvious for students in the ______________ category

highest risk

it has recently been found that even for teens in minorities from poor neighborhoods, if their parents were_______________ (closely monitoring), they were less likely to take part in delinquent behavior. What this means is that these parents keep track of their children, place limits on who they spend time with/what they spend time doing.

highly demanding

Social preference scores may range from ____________________

highly positive to highly negative.

High school students who have most sex

hispanics

, Lytton & Romney (1991) did a meta-analysis of many parenting behaviors, finding no differences in:

how much parents interact with daughters or sons, how much they encourage them to achieve, how much they encourage them to seek help, how much responsiveness or warmth parents show, or how effectively parents communicate with their sons or daughters

In Freud's (1935/1960) psychoanalytic theory of moral development, the behavior of very young children is driven by the inborn impulses of the ____________, which are completely self-serving desires for sustenance and release, such as hunger or the need to defecate

id

Adolescents who are capable of generating possibilities, without regard for present reality, have acquired a powerful new cognitive tool that can be used to construct ____________: logically organized possible systems

ideals

Freud traced it back to around age 3, when children start to experience vague sexual needs. Boys' & girls' experiences are different but they come to similar outcomes:

identification with their same-sex parent.

The__________________suggests that children from immigrant families are particularly susceptible to academic & social problems because of multiple risk factors.

immigration risk model

selection

in which individuals choose to affiliate with others who share similar behaviors or attributes. For example, youngsters who are highly motivated academically are drawn to peers who are similar in this respect. As children mature, they become more able to select the environments that suit them, perhaps influenced by their genetically based predispositions

With the many possible variations of sexual nondimorphism, as well as the ambiguity in factors that lead to gender identity, many researchers are arguing for recognition & cultural acceptance of _________________statuses. As Blackless et al. (2000) noted, some form of it occurs in 2 out of every 100 births. Some medical groups agree on the term "disorders of sex development", but others find that judgmental & suggest "divergence of sex development

intersex

Theorists have long argued that one's identity develops within the context of ____________________

interpersonal interactions

Attribute substitution

is a "trying-on" of others' attributes & behaviors & identification with others to deal with an unstable sense of self

Knowledge acquisition

is a constructive process, built on the foundation of prior learning and experience. Children benefit from instruction that organizes information, relates it to previously learned material, and stresses its meaningfulness.

A gender schema

is a network of expectations and beliefs about male and female characteristics

puberty

is a process of sexual maturation. When it is complete, boys and girls are fertile: Males can impregnate females, and females can conceive

Delayed phase preference

is a shift in sleep patterns that has been associated with hormonal changes at puberty. Adolescents are more comfortable staying up later in the evening and sleeping later in the morning than younger children

reliable differences have been found with more ____________ for males than females

lateralization

School Factors Strong

leadership by principal, headmaster/mistress Clear mission and vision shared by teachers and staff Small class sizes Communication with parents/encouraging parental involvement Support and respect for multiculturalism Consistent behavioral expectations for cooperation and courtesy Adequate teaching materials, physical facilities Coherent curriculum across grades Support for teachers' preparation and training

For Chinese & other South Asians, Li et al. (2008) explain that the "________________" tends to be the highest cultural value, as it brings "honor, respect, and everything good in life". Even if they have to work extra jobs or longer hours, Chinese immigrant parents will ensure that their children can attend weekend Chinese school. Their expectation is for nonnegotiable commitment to academic excellence.

learning model

It has been found that in males, their ____________ hemisphere is more involved in language functions

left

cognitive theorists (Piaget) have emphasized the importance of changes in _______________as a source of moral development

logical thinking

Freud was about emotions driving moral behavior, cognitive theorists focus on changes in _______________

logical thinking (Piaget)

Mahoney et al. (2005) reported on a longitudinal study that found if youth participated in prosocial activities or sports, it impacted positively on their_________________

long-term educational achievement

Gilligan (1977, 1982) suggests that there are different trajectories in moral development by gender. She argues that Kohlberg's dilemmas & how he scored them was biased towards a more _____________ approach to morality

masculine

The conscious control of emotions (or self-regulation or inhibitory control) follows from development of the prefrontal cortex & has been shown to improve during these school years (Bunge et al., 2002). This allows for advances in________________, including better mindfulness of thinking (Ardila, 2013) & _____________(understanding strategies to improve memory),

metacognition, metamemory

Self-regulation or inhibitory control is typically quite good by the end of _________________

middle childhood

Social Learning Theory (Bandura & Walters, 1963) sees peers as ___________ & change-agents in that children learn how to behave by observation of their peers & direct peer feedback. Through peer interaction, non-normative social behaviors are essentially ignored or punished & acceptable, appropriate behaviors are rewarded.

models

family and societal influences contribute to children's knowledge base about gender and gender-linked competencies by serving as _____________ and by providing rewards or sanctions for gender-appropriate or inappropriate behavior.

models

collaborative or affiliative speech,

more often used in girls' groups, children's responses are keyed to what someone else has said, expressing agreement, making further suggestions, often in the form of a question rather than declarative or imperative sentences, which seems to soften the suggestion. For example, Carissa might say to a friend as they plan a game, "You want to be the mommy. Why don't we both be the mommy sometimes?"

In the U.S. however, children's continuing health depends upon parents' immigration status when comparing low-income families. In other words, if parents are_______________ their children seem to do fine

naturalized citizens

Once in early grades, many children are able to acknowledge that another's need is a good reason to help (which shows that they are _________________), but often they don't show sympathy or talk about feeling guilty for not helping.

needs-oriented

the _________________parenting style has been shown to interfere with developing self-regulatory skills, resulting in immaturity, problems with self-control, & a tendency to conform to peers

neglectful/lax

(Mikami, Lerner, & Lun, 2010). Peers can be encouraged to initiate more positive interactions with a rejected child through cooperative activities. They may also be taught to clearly communicate that they will not tolerate aggression. The goal should be to create "_____________________" (Bierman, 2004, p. 44) wherein the disliked child can behave more prosocially to modify the peer group's stereotypical schema

niches of opportunity

If parents are ________________, their children are less likely to be doing well since they are less likely to receive regular medical/dental care. These parents are less likely to have health insurance or take advantage of health care programs that may be available for their children

non-naturalized

People seem to use social comparison more in _________________situations or where they don't have an objective standard of performance to compare themselves to.

novel or ambiguous

Early working models of attachment are probably a kind of procedural knowledge. Much of what infants and toddlers know seems to be ___________________ rather than declarative

nondeclarative

television watching by 4- and 5-year-olds does _______________ appear to be associated with long-term attentional problems

not

Flannery, Hussey, & Jefferis (2005) suggest that nearly all young people engage in at least ____ delinquent, or illegal, act (like stealing) during adolescence without police contact. And Ferguson & Horwood (2002) found that boys admitted, on average, to 3 serious delinquent acts & girls to 1 between the ages of 10 & 20.

one

Sexting,

or the sending of sexually suggestive photos or messages, appears to be on the rise. A recent study showed that youth (aged 14-24) who were sexually active were more likely to engage in sexting.

interpersonal orientation

or the way the child characteristically interacts on a social level.

____________________(to the point of being domineering), they are less likely than others to behave pro-socially. And, (no big surprise), after preschool, aggressive children are less likely to behave pro-socially than other

overassertive

The egocentrism of preoperational children will only allow them to see their ___________________, for the most part

own perspective

a significant increase in the use of _____________ (Vicodin and Oxycontin) was reported among 8th to 12th graders between 2002 and 2004

painkillers

Selman's therapeutic technique, called _______________, has been applied to both preventive and remedial work with children and adolescents.

pair therapy

Within_________________ relationships, children could explore conflicting explanations & ideas, learn to discuss & negotiate multiple perspectives, & learn to compromise or reject others' ideas.

peer

Bandura & Bussey's (2004) more comprehensive theory. They propose a theory that takes into account multiple variables & their reciprocal interactions. They implicate 3 categories of variables in particular that interact reciprocally to shape how gender roles are developed, as well as explaining gender differences in behavior

personal influences (these include cognitive perceptions of gender, affective & biological features of the person), behavioral influences (these include learning about & performing gender-linked activities), and environmental influences (these include family, peers, & society)

cognitive control is primarily a function of the _________________

prefrontal cortex

In animals, there is evidence that _______________ do affect neural structures (e.g., Wallen, 2005), and in both animals and humans, there appear to be effects on early behavior. For example, male rats whose exposure to prenatal androgens is delayed not only show a slight demasculinization of their genitalia but they also show more feminized play behaviors as pups

prenatal hormones

Preschool children often exhibit what Piaget called _________________ (see Chapter 3). They have trouble recognizing that their own mental experiences are private and may not be shared by others.

preoperational egocentrism

It is important to note that both males & females produce both of these hormones, although in different proportions by gender. Both also produce _______________ as well, which is involved in the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, & embryonic development.

progesterone

Conflicts over what may appear to be trivial matters still cause stress (Arnett, 2000), and what teens may see as "personal" issues may be perceived as "____________________" to parents as they have consequences for their teens' future.

prudential/conventional

Indeed, Steinberg (2007) proposes a very practical solution of reducing adolescents' access to risky options until they are better equipped to make mature decisions. Examples would be

raising the price of cigarettes, carefully enforcing laws on the sale of alcohol, increasing adolescent access to mental health & contraceptives, and raising the driving age (among others).

Preschoolers can have some difficulty with_________________, distinguishing fantasies from realities. Young children can tell the difference between what is real and what is not and between what it feels like to only imagine something versus to actually experience it

reality monitoring

When it comes to suggestibility (or incorporating misinformation into memory), it can be due to leading questions, deception or other causes. Ceci et al. (2001, 2007) have found that school-aged children are less susceptible to suggestion that preschoolers. This is because they are better at _______________(knowing the difference between fantasy & reality) & they tend to be less affected by leading questions

reality-monitoring

rejected category

receive many negative and few positive nominations. They are typically disliked (low preference) but have generally high visibility (high impact).

For ________________children, research has consistently shown poorer academic performance, greater likelihood of grade retention, more frequent school absences, higher risk of dropping out, higher rates of criminal behavior & drug use. This fits with Dodge et al.'s (2003) description of the "early-starter" with regards to antisocial development: early aggression, peer rejection, as well as more externalizing behaviors

rejected-aggressive

This style of coping is more typically seen in girls & some boys who are stereotypically feminine (passive, nondominant). For boys who use this style (as opposed to a more active problem-solving or distraction, masculine way of coping), they may be more susceptible to peer disapproval, as well.

rumination

Over 80% of the children had clear same-sex play-partner preferences, even though teachers encouraged gender equity, and the stability of these preferences increased over the 6 months of the study. The results also demonstrated that ___________________ seem to have a socializing influence on children

same-sex peers

With repeated experience with a type of event, we develop __________________, or internal schema for a typical such event

scripts

an area of genital swelling develops into a _____________; without the androgens it would have become the labia majora

scrotal sac

Hutchins (1917) published "Children's Code of Morals for Elementary School". In it, he advocated for "10 laws of right living":

self-control, good health, kindness, sportsmanship, self-reliance, duty, reliability, truth, good workmanship, teamwork

Similar to how infants have to separate from parents in order to move onto greater independence in childhood, adolescents need to do the same towards adult independence. Blos (1975) calls this the __________________

second individuation

late-maturing boys

tend to be relatively socially awkward, insecure, & variable in mood

Whereas studies in the West focus on positive self-statements, Diener & Diener (2009) found a greater tendency to value ___________________ in Eastern cultures. These negative self-evaluations are not associated with emotional problems like depression, but serve to motivate efforts at self-improvement

self-criticism & self-effacement

In the context of such rapid neurobiological changes, the adolescent period has been identified by some as a ______________ for stress, even though the precise mechanisms for this phenomenon remain unclear

sensitive period

When the spike in pruning happened earlier in infancy & early childhood, it mostly involved the _____________________

sensory & motor cortices

__________________ capacity does not seem to change much with age. At least for visual information, even infants' sensory memory is similar to that of adults

sensory memory

Crowds reflect the individual's ______________. And, they ". . . demarcate different values and lifestyles that can form the core of an individual's identity

social status

Festinger (1954) coined the name ______________ for how people watch others' performance & use it to judge their own. According to him, people have an inherent drive to asses themselves & know more about their abilities such that if they can't, they will compare themselves to others. Further, depending upon their level of motivation, people will make either upward comparisons (against people who are better than them) or downward comparisons (against those who are worse than them). Motivated people tend to make the former & depressed or unmotivated people tend to make the latter

social comparison

Robin & Trzesniewski (2005)

suggest that for both girls & boys, their self-esteem declines towards late childhood, then levels off in late adolescence, & slowly climbs back up in young adulthood, peaking in the 50's-60's & then declining again

The gender intensification hypothesis

suggests that one way young teens cope with the demands of establishing an adult identity is to fall back on stereotyped notions of masculinity or femininity

immigrant paradox model

suggests that they tend to be more successful than non-immigrant children because their families have strengths (protective factors) that moderate the risks.

It is the third highest cause of death among young people, so it is a major public health concern.

suicide

teens who have more positive perceptions of their relationships with _______________ both do better in school & perform better on achievement tests

teachers

the peer group determines who may be included as a member, how leisure time is spent, and how the members should dress and behave. In some cases, peer group members may use both indirect (e.g., ______________) and direct (e.g., _______________) means to promote adherence to these group norms

teasing, confrontation

lateralization

the 2 brain hemispheres are more specialized or separate in their functions than working in tandem

Roper v. Simmons

the Supreme Court examined whether the death penalty is constitutional with respect to minors (as in, should minors receive the same punishment as adults?).

formal thinking:

the ability to identify, organize, and draw inferences about complex abstract content

rejected-aggressive

they display high levels of instrumental aggression, verbal negativity, & disruptiveness

It is argued that in order to preserve important relationships in their lives, girls/young women learn to suppress their "_______________", in the process disassociating from their true selves , sometimes losing touch with their own feelings & opinions.

voice

amicus brief,

which was referred to as a "friend of the court". Its purpose was to educate the justices on relevant developmental research on adolescent judgment & decision-making. Cauffman & Steinberg (2012) clarified that the brief described that adolescents' level of immaturity makes them less culpable for crimes & suggests a more lenient punishment than for adults, while still holding them responsible for their actions.

At adolescence, the balance of grey to white matter shifts so that _______________matter comprises a higher proportion than at previous points of the life span

white

One of the important contributors to brain growth is that ______________matter increases in volume, a process that continues well into adulthood

white

African American girls are apt to begin puberty a ____________ earlier than European American girls as they tend to be heavier.

year

girls may not ovulate & boys may not produce enough sperm for a ________________

year or more later

Compared to older African American adolescents, _______________ adolescents engaged in more full disclosure.

younger

Both boys & girls gain muscle & fat, but in different ratios (DeRose & Brooks-Gunn, 2006), with girls gaining more fat (particularly on legs & hips). This fat accumulation in girls accounts for __________ of their body weight, and is twice as much as for boys

¼

According to Steinberg (2001), it has been found that the greatest pressure to conform by peers is on personal choices & daily activities (________________).

like appearance & music

When a child has problems with recall, it could be because he did not attend to the information in the first place, because he did not store the information in ________________despite having paid attention to it, or because the child does not have adequate strategies for finding the stored information. Clearly, recall depends on many processes

long-term memory

All of this fits with Gilligan (1993) & Pipher's (1998) conclusion that girls "__________________" in adolescence as they have to change into what others want them to be in order to be accepted. However, Harter et al. (1998) & Sternberg & Monahan (2007) contend that there is no evidence of this in adolescence.

lose their voice

Gilligan (e.g., 1993) and Pipher (1994) describe females as "_______________" when they reach adolescence because they feel pressure to adapt themselves to what others want them to be ( no longer the case)

losing their voice

People diagnosed as having antisocial personality disorder as adults almost always report histories of ____________ problems in childhood and adolescence. Roughly two thirds of 3-year-olds who display extreme problems with impulsivity and defiance continue to show these behaviors at age 8, and these early problems are related to further difficulties

conduct

Much recent attention has been paid to the apparent decrease in self-esteem experienced by females around the time of their entrance to middle school. This phenomenon has been called the "_______________________" by Gilligan and her colleagues

loss of voice

Interactions with the target child after a schema for that child has been constructed are marked by attention to evidence that confirms the disliked child's antisocial characteristics (called ___________________; Gurwitz & Dodge, 1977) and discounting of evidence that indicates a departure from his antisocial role.

confirmation bias

So metacognitive development involves improvement in three kinds of knowledge:

declarative, or knowledge about facts, rules, or oneself as a learner; procedural, or knowledge about how to apply rules and strategies effectively; and conditional, or knowledge of when to apply the rules or strategies

foreclosures decrease and diffusions _____________or remain the same

decrease

Surprisingly, the rate of sexual intercourse among high school students in the U.S. has _______________ from 54% in 1991 to 47% in 2013 (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2014). The Gottmacher Institute (2014) notes that internationally, similar declines are occurring.

decreased

What is considered a "disability" is only because society has ______________ it so. In teaching children with particular academic or intellectual weaknesses, strengths in other areas (like creative & practical forms of intelligence) should be built upon (and taught through).

deemed

Relational aggression

might include social rejection, spreading rumors, teasing, demeaning and humiliating the other in front of peers, and so on

Shrug & Cheek (1987) suggest that cliques tend to lose importance as adolescents progress into high school, calling the process ________________

degrouping

Phillips (1997) examined student math achievement in 23 middle schools, finding that it was the combination of _______________ that were related to increased achievement, not warm student-teacher relations.

demanding teachers & rigorous curricula

Evidence from a study of 23 middle schools demonstrated that the combination of _________________ was strongly related to increased student achievement in mathematics, whereas warm teacher-student relations and communal classroom organization were not

demanding teachers and rigorous curricula

We know that suicide rates differ between ethnic groups, which suggests that different factors must impact on each. There are also a wide range of suicidal behaviors (from ideation to attempts to self-harm to threats), but what they all have in common is their connection to ____________________

depression & substance abuse

Large discrepancies, such as discrepancies between real and ideal selves as children reach adolescence, are associated with ______________________

depression and anxiety

It is not just about speed in remembering information, but also the ___________________ about it that gets stored in long-term memory

depth of understanding

Jacobs et al. (2002) found an interesting qualification: the gender gap in self-esteem depends upon the ______________. For instance, girls have higher self-esteem when it comes to the language arts & boys have higher self-esteem in sports (for example). They further note that these disparities arise in early elementary years but don't increase in adolescence.

domain

Prior experience with a content area (called _________________) can result in more advanced logical thinking about that area

domain of knowledge

It should be noted also that children whose behavior goes beyond assertiveness to being _______________are actually less likely than other children to behave altruistically, regardless of the situation

domineering

boy-groups tend to use __________________ speech (involving commands or restrictions). Although both genders do use both types of speech, it is commonly used in these same-gender groupings.

domineering or power-assertive

Molecular geneticists have discovered that the presence of the long allele version of the ___________ D4 (DRD4) is implicated in higher levels of aggression, novelty-seeking, attention problems, and externalizing disorders

dopamine receptor

Across recent studies, major depression rates for 12- to 19-year-olds range from 15% to 20%, with girls' rates about _______________ that of boys'

double

examples of Risky behaviors

drinking and other drug use, smoking, truancy, sexual behavior, high-speed driving, drunk driving, vandalism, and other kinds of delinquency

Many researchers and theorists have noted a decline in academic orientation and motivation starting in the early adolescent years that for some individuals continues throughout high school or culminates in "_____________________"

dropping out

Leaper & Smith (2004) suggest, this could be because girls' vocabulary growth begins______________than boys & they're more talkative (responsive) or perhaps parents' talking to them more may advance girls' language development more (causal).

earlier

Why this study was so important is that for girls, _____________ puberty is a risk factor for many later health issues (breast cancer, risk of cardiovascular issues, elevated Body Mass Index, insulin resistance, mental/behavioral health issues, etc

early

So...morality is about being able to judge what is right & what is wrong. According to Damon (1988), this is the "____________" with regards to actions & events. There is also a sense of obligation or commitment to behave in ways that are "right".

evaluative orientation

The skills that appear to guide the flow of information are called______________________( working memory, self- regulation (or inhibitory control), and cognitive flexibility. )

executive functions

recent research indicates that some of the negative consequences of poverty on children's academic performance are related to slower development of ________________ in poor children

executive functions

Females' estrogen production surges a bit during this same post-natal period, which is sometimes called "______________" (see Eliot, 2012). After 5 months, both androgen and estrogen production is equally low for boys and girls until actual puberty.

mini-puberty

Whether one is a juvenile or not, when found guilty of a crime, guilt can be _______________ (with culpability & subsequent punishment on a continuum) such that a person is seen as less blameworthy (although still responsible

mitigated

Jackson et al (2006) & Willoughby (2008) suggest that ______________ use of the internet is beneficial & was more predictive of better grades than nonuse or excessive use.

moderate

Moral reasoning has been shown to be____________ related to moral behavior. The more the moral reasoning that is being assessed is similar to the kind of moral behavior

moderately

parenting behaviors may have a ________________effect on teens' peer selection. For instance, parental monitoring & academic encouragement have been correlated with the choice of peers who are more academically-oriented (Mounts & Steinberg, 1995). Similarly, Chung & Steinberg (2006) found that in urban areas, if parents from poor neighborhoods showed diligent parental monitoring & involvement with their children, their children were less likely to join delinquent groups or gangs or become juvenile offenders.

moderating

Parents can exercise authority over _____________ issues (like stealing and justice) or even issues governed by ___________ (such as table manners), especially when conventional rules have prudential consequences (having to do with an individual's health or safety

moral, conventional rules

Males, Gilligan argues, are more likely to use a justice focus (sometimes called the morality of justice), whereas females are more likely to use a caring focus (______________)

morality of caring

Since girls' experiences are not as intense or emotionally involved as boys' in Freud's description, Freud believed that this resulted in females being "______________" to males. (This tended to fit with the view of women at his time.)

morally inferior

It has been suggested that __________________ become increasingly more important to self-concept as children get older. Essentially, they provide the direction to act responsibly. As Damon (1995) suggests, however, there are individual differences in the extent to which morality is so central to one's identity.

moral beliefs

Piaget studied how children think about rules & standards of conduct using __________ about which he would ask them to judge the behavior of the characters & explain what should be done. Also, playing marbles with children, he'd ask them the rules of the game.

moral dilemmas

Erikson (1950/1963) defined ______________ as the essence of the adolescent mind and in so doing, helped make sense of the transitory, inconsistent, and often incomprehensible nature of many adolescent behaviors

moratorium

In______________, the future may be perceived as difficult, exciting, or even anxiety producing, but it can be shaped by one's own decision making.

moratorium

The number of _______________does not systematically increase or decrease over time.

moratoriums

Boys' heart & lung sizes increase ______________than girls', which impact on average differences in physical strength & endurance between them

more

Negative effects on academics and behavior were strongly related to high intensity work (________________), especially when such work is begun during the course of the school year.

more than 20 hours per week

domineering or power-assertive speech

more typical of boys' groups, commands and restrictions are common, as when Duane says, "Don't move that block; build the road there!"

CAH girl raised as boys (although gender identity is different from their biological sex) __________________accept their gender assignment.

mostly

The answer is again, it depends on many factors. For instance, Bean et al. (2003) found that when it came to the global self-esteem & academic achievement of African American youth, it was the support & acceptance of their ______________that was key

mothers

In addition, remember that the self-concept is ______________, like a house with various rooms

multidimensiona;

Successful treatment for conduct problems is _____________(involving the child, the family, the school & peers)

multidimensional

"The idea of a group of friends putting pressure on a single child to do whatever they want the child to do is a _________________"

myth

Berndt & Murphy (2002) go so far as to say that: "The idea of a group of friends putting pressure on a single child to do whatever they want the child to do is a ____________

myth

Recent research suggests that this aspect of memory improvement is enhanced by ______________interactions ( narrative skill) with adults. If parents encourage their children to talk out loud about their experiences, asking questions, helping them with facts about shared events, children are better storytellers. They also have better memory for autobiographical events.

narrative

Rubin et al. (2006) note that being______________doesn't seem to cause any developmental problems.

neglected

Our understanding of how sexual orientation develops is increasingly better informed by research in _______________. Many theories that postulate environmental causes have no empirical support.

neuroscience

" Researchers have found _____________ evidence for the popular concept that different people learn differently (e.g., some visually, some kinesthetically, some verbally), although they might have different preferences for how information is presented

no

Archer and Waterman (1988) found___________ differences between genders in levels of self-actualization, internal locus of control, social interdependence, or moral reasoning

no

Stage 4, the "Intimate/In-Depth/Societal" stage

older adolescents and adults learn to adopt the perspective of the larger society. Perspective-taking ability becomes more abstract and complex. Now the individual can assume the perspective of people beyond the limits of the dyad, namely that of a larger social group. This achievement makes possible the understanding of cultural and other group differences and the increasing appreciation of relativity—that no one person's or one group's perspective is necessarily the only correct one regardless of how deeply valued it might be. Relationships are marked by the individual's increasing ability to balance his needs for intimacy and autonomy while still preserving the friendshi

Bussey and Bandura specify three categories of variables that interact reciprocally to help shape the development of gender role, including gender differences in behavior. These factors include

personal influences (cognitive conceptions of gender, affective, and biological features of the person), behavioral influences (learning of and execution of activities that are gender linked) environmental influences (family, peer, and societal).

When the rules imposed are on _______________, conflict is more likely (Smetana & Daddis, 2002). Van Doorn, Branje, & Meeus (2011) note that these arguments tend to be over mundane matters like household responsibilities, privileges & relationships, curfew, cleaning a room, music volume & choices of media.

personal issues

). Both tend to be found in very young children or immature older children. They might even co-exist, with switching from one to the other.

other-transforming and "self-transforming"

Selman's technique, which is intended for both prevention & intervention, is called ________________

pair therapy

competitive activities allow for greater self-understanding through discovery of _________________.

personal strengths & weaknesses

Little is known about how teens fit themselves (or are fit into) crowds, but Steinberg (1996) offers 3 possible deciding factors

personalities & interests in children as they enter adolescence, types of crowds available, & how parents attempt to manage children's peer relationships.

Taffel (1996) explains,_______________ provide opportunities (or some frame of reference) to establish realistic guidelines together for their teens' social lives (such as curfews, parties, responsibilities for supervision).

parent groups

Demanding parents apparently foster self-discipline and achievement by making maturity demands on their children. They make and enforce rules, provide consistent supervision or ______________, and confront their children when their behavior does not measure up.

parental monitoring

Their attempts to predict the trajectories (or future paths) from age 13 were only ______________successful, but they did find that body image, relations with parents, & frequency of physical activity were significant predictors.

partially

Maggs, Almeida, and Galambos (1995) found that increasing levels of engagement in risk-taking behavior across adolescence (disobeying parents, school misconduct, substance abuse, antisocial behavior) were associated with decreased levels of positive self-concept but with increased levels of ________________

peer acceptance

one of the reasons behavioral skill-based approaches are not successful is because these interventions fail to change the target child's level of ________________, even when the child's actual level of prosocial behavior has increased

peer acceptance

What are the long-term outcomes for children who belong to these different categories?

peer acceptance has been associated with myriad positive outcomes, both psychologically and academically rejected-aggressive children, who often have poorer academic records, are more likely to repeat grades, are absent more frequently, are at greater risk of dropping out, and report more criminal behavior and drug use The strongest linkages, by far, have been found between early aggression and peer rejection on one hand, and later externalizing problems on the other hand—the early-starter model of antisocial development rejected-withdrawn youngsters and have found evidence for later internalizing problems such as depression and loneliness (e.g., Gazelle & Rudolph, 2004). This is especially true for children who have no friendships

The prospective & retrospective data from the Primary Mental Health Project demonstrated that the most significant predictor of later mental health issues was _________________

peer acceptance/peer relationships.

Differences exist cross-culturally in how adults deal with peer conflict. For children from individualistic cultures, the emphasis is on verbal defense, negotiation, & seeking fairness, often with an adult as the mediator. Tobin, Wu, & Davidson (1989) found that in more collectivist cultures, children are not encouraged to deal with things on their own when they experience conflict, but rather for the _______________ to deal with it in order to re-establish harmony

peer group

Efforts to enhance social competence should target not only the peer-rejected child but also the child's ________________

peer group

However, it was the__________________ that had more influence here than the parents with regards to whether experimenting would lead to regular use

peer group

Bierman (1986, 2003) found that greater success could be achieved by combining social skills training for individual children with attempts to enhance the cooperative nature of these children's_______________. Thus, addressing the context within which the socially unskilled child functions, along with the transactional nature of his social interactions, allows for more lasting improvements.

peer groups

children who experience ____________ are judged by their peers as unattractive, deviant, incompetent & socially isolated (LaFontana & Cillessen, 2002). Those at risk for peer rejection are children who have poor communication, language, emotional control & social information processing skills (Menting et al., 2011). Both boys & girls who exhibit behavior problems are at risk for peer rejection, which is also related to increased behavior problems in elementary school

peer rejection

it implies that _________________ in childhood are significant predictors of later mental health and social adjustment.

peer relationships

Moodiness seems to be strongly associated with changes in _______________________ that often accompany sexual maturation

peer relationships, parent expectations, and self-concept

What research findings also show is that adolescents operate according to the principles of group dynamics that govern any social group—namely, they often choose to participate in shared norms, roles, and expectations, a process called _______________

peer selection

When it comes to peer influence (or pressure), like for any social group, teens engage in_____________, which involves choosing to incorporate shared norms, roles, & expectations

peer selection

Cole, Maxwell & Martin (1997) demonstrated how self-ratings by children in grade 6 were much closer to their +_________of them than for children in 3rd grade.

peers' ratings

Piaget tested children's & teens' ability to do hypothetical-deductive reasoning with the ________________

pendulum task

It's when parents impose rules on what their teens perceive as _____________issues (like what you can say to a friend in an email, how you wear your hair, or what music you listen to) that conflicts are most likely to arise

personal

Having attained abstract reasoning skills with the ability to generate & consider multiple possibilities, the stage is set to develop _____________. These are best described as logically organized possible systems (like the ideal political system or the ideal family, etc.), which are intellectual constructions

personal ideals

Wentzel (1997) explained the benefits of a more _______________system of schooling, with teachers perceived as caring & supportive impacting on greater academic effort & prosocial skills in their students

personalized

Following James' (1890) assertion that self-esteem depended upon the amount of successes as compared to desires, Harter (1990) found that for all age groups, overall self-esteem depended upon competence in areas that were ________________

personally important.

But if immigrant children are the majority (as in some schools in the U.S. that are predominantly Hispanic), neither __________________ ethnic identity nor perceived discrimination appear to be a factor in academic outcome.

positive

Anxiety seems to be lowest for ______________

foreclosed

With regards to authoritarianism, conformity, & obedience to authority, those in _______________status were found to be the highest

foreclosed

"ego identity could be said to be characterized by the actually attained but ______________ [italics added] sense of the reality of the Self within social reality"

forever to-be-revised

Adolescents who approach scientific problems by considering every possibility and then carefully testing each one are using ___________________

formal operational reasoning.

The capacity for __________________ can influence many aspects of adolescent life, from the approaches teens take to academic tasks to their views of religion and politics, their self-evaluation, and their relationships with parents and peers

formal thought

life-course-persistent antisocial pattern (early-starter)

former begins in early childhood (with conduct problems, aggressiveness, academic problems), continuing throughout life. Intervention as early as possible is necessary for these children & their families.

Maccoby (1998).

found more specific differences in fathers' attitudes & behaviors towards their sons than daughters: greater disapproval of cross-sex behavior, more likely to roughhouse with sons than daughters, & more likely to be negative or confrontational with sons than daughters. Leavell et al. (2012) found these differences in the U.S. for Black, Latino, & White fathers. Interestingly, they also found that the same fathers tended to read to their daughters more than their sons by the time they were 2 years old.

Cliques

groups of 3 to 9 members. During middle childhood years, they tend to be more informal, flexible in structure & subject to turn-over. Once adolescence hits, they become more close-knit with their own norms of expected behaviors & values (Gest et al., 2007). During early adolescence, cliques tend to be sex-segregated. Once middle adolescence arises, the cliques become more gender-mixed, often providing opportunities for dating.

For adults, it is more of a __________________, where any possibility of negative, disastrous consequences results in an easy decision. They don't tend to weigh the probabilities of positive & negative outcomes like teens seem to do.

global/automatic approach

changes in cognitive ability usually occur ______________, not in startling stage like shifts

gradually

For girls, early sexual maturation is generally associated with ___________ storm and stress, including moodiness and depressive symptoms, than late sexual maturation

greater

This is evidenced in Hoffman's (1982) findings that younger children can empathize with people they know, but older children & teens can empathize with entire________________of people they don't know personally (as in victims of some traumatic event in some distant place).

groups

demandingness

has been linked to "good" behavior & self-control.

. Schwartz & Garamoni (1989) have suggested the best ratio is 2 positive thoughts to 1 negative one for "______________". Kendall (1991) has found that for depressed people, it is more a 1-to-1 ratio. So...more positive thoughts relative to negative ones would appear to be optimal

healthy adjustment

Schneider & Pressley (2013) note that during middle childhood, these knowledge bases are organized using _______________ so that they can remember more & more easily. As Ericsson & Moxley (2013) suggest, having pre-existing knowledge about a subject allows for easier learning about it.

hierarchical networks

When urban parents in poor neighborhoods show ____________levels of monitoring and involvement their kids are more likely to steer clear of joining delinquent groups or gangs and less likely to become juvenile offenders

high

For males, homosexual orientation has been associated with both _________________ levels of androgen exposure

high and low

Prospectively, Anderson et al. (2012) find that in college students, a ____________ status strongly predicts feelings of well-being.

high sociometric

Similarly, Wentzel (2002) found what was most predictive of student achievement & motivation was_____________

high teachers' expectations

The ________status is seen as the least mature form of identity, so it is common in early adolescents. However, it is seen as indicative of maladjustment by late adolescence

identity diffusion

Erikson clarified that identity confusion could also be called "identity diffusion" & some (Marcia et al., 1993) suggest that instead of "identity crisis", it should be "_______________" because of the extended work that adolescents put into it, as opposed to a sudden cathartic event.

identity exploration

When it comes to anxiety, the highest was found for those in ____________________

identity moratorium

Larrieu & Mussen (1986) found that in older children & teens who had a_____________global self-concept, they tended to be more prosocial than others. (Could also be that acting more prosocially goes towards building a more positive self-concept?)

positive

We also know that people who are perceived as more attractive get more positive attention from others (Maccoby & Martin, 1983). They are attributed more positive traits (Dion, Berscheid, & Walster, 1972), & Hatfield & Sprecher (1986) note that they tend to be more successful in life. Because they receive so much more _________________, it makes sense that would see themselves in this much more positive way.

positive feedback

If the focus is on fostering moral thinking, feeling & behavior (the 3 elements of morality),_________________________, there is a greater chance of success.

if the school is a caring community that models respect for all & provides good adult role-models, and if it promotes the values that are shared across diverse groups

Else-Quest, Hyde, & Lynn (2010) did a huge meta-analysis of 69 countries, finding there were specific factors that seemed related to a lack of or less distinct gender differences:

if there was equal enrollment of boys & girls in school, if more women than men had research jobs, & if there were more women lawmakers.

feature of the adolescent's self-focus

imaginary audience personal fable invincibility fable

There is also a belief in _____________ (transgressions will eventually result in punishment, even if no one knows about them, as if higher authority is overseeing). According to Piaget, this is due to the dynamic seen with parents at this age: rules are created by those in authority & must be obeyed. (age 5)

immanent justice

electronic games, whether they are played on a computer or on some other platform, such as an Xbox or Game Boy, can help develop the skills that the game uses.

improvements in vision and attention to motor skills. For example, playing action video games improves the ability to find small details in cluttered scenes or to see dim signals Many studies indicate that electronic games can improve children's visual-spatial abilities, such as spatial rotation skill plays an important role in mathematical problem solving (Newcombe, 2010). Some games are designed specifically for educational purposes, such as improving math skills or vocabulary.

Early ______________ & temperamental differences in children's proneness to anger have been implicated in developing into this pattern, as parents are prone to using greater power-assertive discipline.

insecure attachments

A more recent meta analysis indicates that conflicts with parents occur most frequently in early adolescence. By middle adolescence, they begin to decline in frequency but tend to increase in________________

intensity

Someone with an _______ locus of control believes that she or he have influence over events & outcomes

internal

Those in the identity achievement category were found by Dellas & Jernigan (1987) to have a more ____________locus of control than those in the identity diffusion category, who displayed the most extreme degree of external locus of control. (Locus of control describes how much people believe they have power over events in their lives. ;

internal

When your text talks about false memories, it is about preconceived notions that influence or color what is later remembered. That is an ______________

internal glitch.

he use of psychological control for adolescents results in mainly ________________ problems

internalizing

Keenan & Shaw suggest that all of these experiences leave girls more vulnerable to ______________ behaviors & boys more vulnerable to ____________ behaviors.

internalizing, externalizing

Identity develops within the context of ________________ relationships

interpersonal

acceptance

is being affectionate, praising the child, being involved in the child's life, and accepting the child's strengths and limitations, showing concern for the child's needs, and it is correlated with children's self-esteem and social adjustment.

In the 1960's, there was renewed interest in what was now called "_____________". Programs were developed based on several theoretical approaches. One was Kohlberg's (1966) version of his model of moral reasoning that he expanded upon for educational purposes. The other was Raths, Harmin, & Simon's (1966) "values clarification approach".

moral education

In the mid-1960s, there was a new surge of educational interest in what was now deemed "_______________," fueled by theory and research on moral reasoning and by renewed social interest.

moral education

Prosocial behaviors that incur little or no cost, such as helping a teacher to pick up the papers she has just dropped, are likely to occur regardless of a child's ________________

moral reasoning

when adults closely monitor adolescents, they are ______________likely to engage in problem behaviors

less

the formation of an identity in adolescence, which is the subject of this section, is not the end of the story. Anyone who has counseled both adolescents and adults will recognize that growth and change of self-representations take place throughout the ________________

life span

Early-maturing boys

tend to have more self-confidence, are more popular, & more likely to be leaders (Stojkovic, 2013). have a physical advantage in that they are bigger & stronger, which gives them the edge when it comes to athletics. tend to be sexually active earlier

"self-transforming"

tending to give in or conform to reduce tension

Social cognition

tends to focus on how people think about others & how they reason about social relationships.

happy slapping

the practice whereby a group of people assault a stranger at random while filming the incident on a mobile device, so as to circulate the images or post them online. where a victim is slapped or made to appear silly by one person, filmed by another, and the resulting pictures circulated on mobile phones

Diamond (2005) suggests that there is more than one diagnosable form of ADHD, which is shown in different frontal brain areas being affected. This is true (differential diagnoses), as 3 types have been differentiated in the DSM:

the primarily inattentive-type, the hyperactive-type, & the combined-type.

Programs or projects that are focused on positive youth development may differ, but they have important elements in common (Lerner, Fisher, & Weinberg, 2000):

regular presence of caring adults & mentors, schools that focus on building academic competence & provide vocational preparation, an atmosphere of hope, encouraging positive values, & high expectations

The juvenile system emphasizes ______________ rather than punishment, and it reflects that focus even in the terminology that is used: "petition instead of indictment, respondent instead of defendant, and disposition instead of sentencing

rehabilitation

If you give a group of third graders the job of learning the names of all the states and their capitals, you will probably see them using __________________—repeating the names over and over.

rehearsal

Rejected children can be rejected not only because they aggress against their peers (___________________) but also because they withdraw from them (_______________)

rejected-aggressive group rejected-withdrawn group

Gazelle & Rudolph (2004) have also found that for the ________________ group, they are more susceptible to internalizing problems like depression & loneliness.

rejected-withdrawn

In general, the impact of peer group classification is moderately stable, particularly for the broad dimensions of acceptance and rejection, with the category of peer ______________ being the most stable

rejection

The most stable of all, however, is the peer_____________category, which Denham & Holt (1995) explain is due to the enduring nature of reputations, despite evidence to the contrary.

rejection

Playing the games themselves was _____________to higher levels of aggressive behavior for both boys & girls. (Note that this effect was not true for youth who played nonviolent video games.)

related

Instrumental aggression tends to give way to aggression that is person directed and more hostile than earlier forms (i.e., more strongly focused on hurting the other). This type of aggression can involve physical attacks but increasingly it involves "social aggression" or _______________, which is aimed at damaging peer relationships.

relational aggression

What this suggests is that if parents provide the right ______________, with correct information about how gender is assigned, it advances children's understanding of their own gender identity

scaffolding

Part of the development of gender schemas would appear to be social experiences & watching role-models, but these theorists maintain that it is the ________________ that motivate children to adopt sex-typed behaviors.

schemas

according to these theorists, it is the ______________, not the social experiences directly, that motivate children to adopt sex-typed behavior

schemas

By ____________, children know their gender, and they understand that it is permanent

school age

A great deal of research has been directed to relational aggression in recent years, partly because of the role it seems to have played in some _____________, in which the shooter has been found to be a frequent victim of relational aggression

school shootings

Goza & Ryabov (2009) provided data from the large-scale Add Health study, finding that students had lower graduation rates in low SES schools, independent of race or ethnicity. When there was more ______________diversity, all students had higher graduation rates (especially non-Hispanic White students).

school-wide ethnic

Meichenbaum & Goodman's (1971) development of_________________ was aimed at teaching self-control to impulsive children. A further therapeutic extension of this would be not only learning SIT, but also changing maladaptive (or negative) cognitions/self-statements

self-instructional training

Children already make_____________of specific competencies by the time they are in school, but they also have an overall perception of themselves

self-judgements

Bussey & Bandura (1992) found that at ages 3 and 4, children are already starting to _________________ their gender-related behaviors

self-regulate

Offer (1969) reported that roughly ______________ of teens experienced adolescence as a tranquil period or at least experienced only minor conflicts with parents.

two thirds

Their __________________(having internalized societal/cultural/parental standards) takes over & directs or guides their behavior (Bandura, 1986). They have learned to know the potential consequences of their actions & from advanced perspective-taking skills, they can predict how others will respond

self-regulation

children actively seek to make their behavior consistent with their gender identity, whether or not they experience social pressure to do so. This process is often now referred to as ________________

self-socialization

Knowing what one is thinking is often assessed with "___________________", which is a useful strategy for both the person doing it (to remain self-directed) & for a helper. Knowing what a child is thinking can greatly aid in study skills training, academic counseling, tutoring, & mental/behavioral health counseling

self-talk

Particularly in cognitive-behavioral strategies, ______________helps children realize they do it, how it relates to how they feel & behave, as well as how they can change it to make it more adaptive. It is applied widely to treatments for anger control, anxiety, depression, & ADHD in children (and adults).

self-talk

elementary-school-aged children don't often use_________________ when they study

self-testing

A child with a _____________________style typically gives in to reduce the level of tension. He changes his own behaviors or feelings to conform.

self-transforming

Two kinds of declarative knowledge

semantic, which includes factual information ("the Earth is round"), rules ("red lights mean stop"), and concepts ("an elephant is a large, gray animal") episodic, which refers to our knowledge of the events that we have experienced. When researchers ask children to recall their visit to a doctor's office or when your supervisor asks you to describe a counseling session, they are asking about episodic knowledge

First, adolescents tend to score higher than other age groups on a dimension called _______________, which is defined as "the need for varied, novel, and complex sensation and experiences and the willingness to take physical and social risk for the sake of these experiences"

sensation seeking

Social Information-Processing

set of cognitive-emotional mechanisms that have been found to account, in part, for the link between a host of risk factors & the subsequent development of aggression

one arena in which this adolescence limited behavior has been observed is the perpetration of _________________

sex offenses

Frequent consumption of sexualized media has also been linked to increased_________________—that is, more sexual partners and earlier sexual initiation than for individuals without such media exposure (Brown et al., 2002). This may have something to do with the perception that "everybody's doing it."

sexual behavior

Research shows adolescents to be especially receptive to both ____________________ information

social & emotional

Children who score low on _____________ (behavioral inhibition or shyness) are a little more likely to help others than children who score high on this trait, especially when no one has requested their help, when assisting another requires initiating a social interaction, or when helping involves a stranger

social anxiety

During middle childhood, understanding about the social world becomes more sophisticated. This is called _________________. We already know that children at this age are developing a better understanding of themselves, but now they are becoming better able to understand & appreciate other people's perspectives.

social cognition

Seltzer frames the peer group as where adolescents construct their identity via

social comparison (for self-assessment & self-refinement) & attribute substitution (involving imitation & identification).

The twin processes of ______________ appear to constitute a type of experimentation that is necessary for mature identity construction.

social comparison and imitation

They also noted the _________________ effect such that those who spent more time with same-sex peers became even more likely to display gender-related behaviors over time

social dosage

But most developmentalists argue that sex differences in _____________ are likely to play a large role in the mix of causes for depression

social experience

When children reach elementary school years, aggressive behavior in general declines, but its nature changes. What was instrumental aggression to get what they wanted becomes person-directed & more hostile (with greater intent to hurt). It can be physical in nature, but more & more becomes _____________, with the intent to hurt peer relationships. This is accomplished via social rejection, spreading rumors, teasing, and/or demeaning/humiliating in front of peers

social or relational aggression

Although many varieties of analysis have been used in sociometric studies, such as weighting the nominations, the most straightforward approach is to count the number of positive nominations or mentions a child receives. This number, then, reflects the child's _____________________

social preference score.

Construction of self-concept is a ______________, involving peer assessments, peer acceptance, social comparison, relationships with parents/caregivers & culture

social process

Positive correlations have also been found between popular status and perceived______________

social self-concept and self-efficacy

Boys' hierarchies are based on physicality, girls' depend upon other characteristics, like __________________.

social skill

Rose-Krasnor (1997) suggested that there are 4 aspects to how Social competence is displayed & measured

social skills, sociometric status, relationships, & functional outcomes

Social Learning principles would suggest that the media is a ______________of values

socializer

Once in higher elementary grades, children seem to recognize that helping is required or_________________

socially approved.

But although kids who participated in prosocial activities were unlikely to use alcohol or other drugs in high school, those who participated in _______________ were more likely than most other teens to use alcohol in high school, perhaps because sports participation is also related to high stress

sports

counting on

starting with the first number and counting four more numbers from there. Soon, this strategy is likely to be modified so that the child usually "counts on" from the larger number

Quevedo et al. (2009) found an exaggerated _____________ reflex in adolescents while Hare et al. (2008) saw greater interference of emotional stimuli on completing tasks

startle

Children's preexisting beliefs about gender and work roles—that is, their gender ______________—influence what they will later remember about what they saw.

stereotypes

Outcomes of the experimental part of the study revealed that females more strongly endorsed the ______________beliefs after viewing sexual TV clips than did women who saw nonsexual episodes.

stereotypical

it is late-maturing boys (like the early-maturing girls) who seem to experience more of the "________________"

storm & stress

example of memory strategies

strategic approach to remember the kids in your classroom

Moreno's conceptualization of group processes was with a mixture of ______________________________________. As he saw it, interpersonal relationships within a group could be mapped-out by knowing the particulars of these for each group

positive forces (attractions) negative forces (repulsions), indifference (neither attraction nor repulsion)

When it comes to how groups influence members, the research suggests it is not generally from coercion but more through _____________________

positive reinforcement, modeling, & sometimes discussion or direct teaching

During elementary school, sex segregation intensifies, and it begins to ease off only after_______________, when, drawn together by sexual interest, children begin to participate more readily in mixed-gender activities.

puberty

Bachman et al. (2003) found a negative association between work & school that was bidirectional:

teens less involved in school tended to seek out jobs & when they began working, were even less involved in school

Marcia (1964), following Erikson's definition(s) of identity expression, developed the Ego Identity Interview. It is a standardized, semi-structured instrument that addresses 3 domains that Erikson suggested

vocational choice, religious beliefs, & political ideology (based on samples of male college students). With the addition of females, he added in the domains of work-family conflict, & attitude toward premarital intercourse.

Marcia (1964) constructed a standardized, semistructured Ego Identity Interview designed to assess these three domains of identity:_______________, using samples of male college students.

vocational choice, religious beliefs, and political ideology

The Urban crowd( Denmark)

was characterized by an orientation to musical and cultural activities typically found in urban areas ("hip-hop," "rasta").

example of using Gender schemas

when preschoolers were told either that a boy or a girl had spilled some milk, they judged the behavior more negatively if they believed the child was a boy, apparently based on a "boys are bad" stereotype . when children are shown novel toys described as "girl" toys, girls play with the toys more and remember them better than if the same toys are described as "boy" toys; the reverse is true for boys

semantic ( declarative knowledge)

which includes factual information ("the Earth is round"), rules ("red lights mean stop"), and concepts ("an elephant is a large, gray animal")

attribute substitution

which involves both imitation and identification

Filial piety (see Chapter 5)

which involves the sense of repaying and honoring parents for their role in raising them, appears to influence the developmental course of Chinese early adolescents substantially.

recall

which is being able to remember things that happened in the past (requiring mental representation, from long-term memory)

episodic ( declarative knowledge)

which refers to our knowledge of the events that we have experienced. When researchers ask children to recall their visit to a doctor's office or when your supervisor asks you to describe a counseling session, they are asking about episodic knowledge

The myelination of axons continues such that during adolescence, there is now more ____________ than grey matter (Spears, 2011). This serves to speed up information processing.

white

Egan & Perry (2001) found that in the U.S., the impact of gender identity on adjustment depends upon whether children are part of the __________________

white majority or an ethnic/racial minority.

While the brain is at 95% of its maximum at age 6, the growth during middle childhood is measurable. Much of this is due to an increase in volume of ____________. The myelination of the neurons is what creates it, & it speeds up the transmission of neural signals

white matter

girls with CAH (congenital adrenal hyperplasia),

who were exposed to androgens at high levels prenatally & postnatally. This is due to a defective gene causing overproduction of androgens by their own adrenal glands. They have 2 X chromosomes, female internal organs, but their external genitalia may be "masculinized" (like having an enlarged clitoris that looks like a penis) such that sometimes they are misidentified as males at birth. When diagnosed postnatally, the overproduction of androgens can be reduced medically & surgery can be done to alter the genitalia. However, Money et al. (1972, 1977) suggested that if this was not diagnosed by age 2 ½ to 3, gender identity can be difficult to change.

for sensory information to get into long-term memory, it must be attended to in _____________________.

working memory

When it comes to executive functions (which have everything to do with directing the flow of information), these include

working memory, self-regulation (inhibitory control), & cognitive flexibility.

Steinberg (1996) has some great ideas, suggesting that engaging parents can be via "_________________" for their teen (by being proactive in contacting the school about any problems, meeting with teachers/counselors, etc.). This is a wonderful way of reframing it for parents.

working the system

In Singapore (Sim & Yeo, 2012), with culturally stricter rules for dress & behavior, there is a stronger norm for conformity. Seven crowd categories were described:

"Gangsters" (rebellious in dress, rude to others, little interest in academic), "Nerds" (correspond with U.S. "brains"), "Athletes" (U.S. "jocks"), "Ordinary" (U.S. "normals"), but also "Computer Geeks", "Jokers", & "Loners". Differences exist in perceptions of several of these groups, with "Nerds" viewed more positively in Singapore with its cultural emphasis on academic achievement & filial piety. There was no "popular" group in Singapore like in the U.S. (as no "partying" activities among youth there). "Nerds" & "Gangsters" were the largest & most identifiable groups, "Athletes" were 3rd but less visible than in the U.S.

example of invincibility fable

"I know other teenagers that have had kids, but that can't happen to me" that others who drive drunk may get hurt in auto accidents or that others who have unprotected sex may get pregnant, but they don't believe that they themselves would suffer these consequences.

Some authors, who provide clinical insights into the particular challenges faced by boys, argue that the ___________________" that is enforced in the masculine socialization process works like a gender straitjacket

"boy code

On the whole, girls' discourse strategies are more "conflict mitigating" and boys strategies are more_______—threatening, demanding, interrupting, or ignoring of another's remarks

"egoistic"

Fuligni emphasize that:

"international migration is shaping the nature of child development as powerfully as it is changing the nature of the societies involved"

intersex

"is a general term used for a variety of conditions in which a person is born with a reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn't seem to fit the typical definitions of female or male. For example, a person might be born appearing to be female on the outside, but having mostly male-typical anatomy on the inside. Or a person may be born with genitals that seem to be in-between the usual male and female types—for example, a girl may be born with a noticeably large clitoris, or lacking a vaginal opening, or a boy may be born with a notably small penis, or with a scrotum that is divided so that it has formed more like labia. Or a person may be born with mosaic genetics, so that some of her cells have XX chromosomes and some of them have XY. some type of sexual nondimorphism is present in up to 2 out of every 100 live births. More recently, there has been consensus among some medical groups to replace the term "intersex" with "disorders of sex development" (DSD) in an effort to acknowledge the spectrum of human sexual biology.

epigenetic process

"it is the ongoing interaction of the organism and the environment that guides biological . . . development. Brains do not develop normally in the absence of genetic signaling, and they do not develop normally in the absence of essential and contingent environmental input"

memory strategies

"potentially conscious activities a person may voluntarily carry out" to remember something

it is possible for aggressive children to be rather well liked if, for example, their aggression (dominance and competitiveness) is balanced by strengths in areas like athletics and sense of humor. Rejection is more likely when aggression comes in the form of being a_____________________

"sore loser" or a "hothead."

G. Stanley Hall (1904) suggested that adolescence was a time of _______________".

"storm & stress

sociometric measures

"tests in which children make preferential responses to statements about peers in their social group" (p. 217), resulting in a score that defines a child's social status.

Selman's Friendship Stage 1

("Differentiated/Subjective") is from around age 5 to 9 when there is understanding that others have different viewpoints. Selman suggests that there is still a level of egocentrism (& centration?) in that they don't necessarily take others' perspectives into account. It is still about individual, not mutual satisfaction. Conflict resolution is put in the hands of the one who "started it", still with no reciprocal problem-solving.

Selman's Friendship "Stage 0"

("Undifferentiated/Egocentrism" stage) occurs in preschoolers when their perspective-taking skills are limited. There is limited understanding of their own thoughts & feelings, let alone those of others. Friendships are concrete & based on similarities (like same gender, liking the same toys, live nearby). Conflict tends to be about getting one's own way, not compromise or negotiation, resulting in "fight or flight".

Phinney (1989, 1990, 2003) argues that ethnic identity development can be seen as reflecting the same four statuses that characterize other aspects of identity, indicating the degree to which individuals have explored the meaning of their ethnicity/race in their lives. She asserts that the resolution— identity achievement—is twofold:

(1) reconciling the differences that exist between the ethnic minority group and the dominant group, and (2) coming to terms with the lower status of one's group within the larger society.

Gender roles

(again,, according to the APA) are defined as: "Sets of behaviors & attitudes associated by society with being male & female & expressed publicly by the individual." Again, we are looking at behaviors that are determined as appropriate to society

penis envy

(believing a penis must generate more sexual pleasure because it is external)

Using the complementary processes of assimilation & accommodation, children continue to construct their knowledge, now based on more experience & learning opportunities. They are now able to take into account more pieces of information _____________ that lead to better logical conclusions.

(decentration)

elaboration strategy

(developing or finding a meaningful link between things to remember).

Preconventional morality (Kohlberg)

(elementary school age) is pretty much like Piaget's heteronomous stage (doing what is right avoids punishment, conforms to what authority figures say, or meets own needs).

gender stability

(knowing that gender stays the same). This is usually achieved by age 3 or 4.

conditional knowledge

(knowing when to apply rules or strategies).

Quantity

(more time in school, especially early education/preschool & kindergarten), access to extra learning opportunities, & actual amount of teaching time during the day all have a positive impact. With more exposure to education, the greater opportunity to benefit from it.

false memory syndrome

(not a diagnosis!), which occurs when people's relationships & identity are affected by what they believe are factual traumatic memories (which are actually incorrect). Their basis is often from recovered/"repressed" memories that have been confabulated in a therapeutic relationship. The existence of false memory syndrome is highly controversial

Maccoby & Jacklin (1987) call mixed-gender interactions during middle childhood borderwork, & it is suggested that there exist implicit rules for it. In fact, Sroufe et al. (1993) developed what they saw as 6 such rules from observation of children at a summer camp (as seen in Table 8.2, page 296 of your text). They are:

(opposite-gender) contact is accidental, contact is incidental, contact is for some specific purpose, contact is because an adult requires it, contact is in the company of a same-sex partner, or the contact includes some negative connotation (like teasing).

For sensory information to get to long-term memory, it has to go through working memory

(or be rehearsed/processed/worked-on)

secondary sexual characteristics

(physical traits not directly involved in reproduction but indicative of sex, such as enlarged breasts in females and deeper voices in males)

Once classified, do children maintain their status in the peer group throughout childhood and adolescence?

(popular and rejected) are also the most stable, at least over short periods neglected and controversial status categories show instability even in the short term In general, the impact of peer group classification is moderately stable, particularly for the broad dimensions of acceptance and rejection, with the category of peer rejection being the most stable

Postconventional morality (Kohlberg)

(some adults): what is right is defined by universal principles/standards of justice, not specific rules or laws that are important but the process they serve.

organization strategy

(sorting or grouping)

democracy

(the degree parents encourage psychological autonomy by asking opinions, & encouraging self-expression). It has been correlated with self-reliance, self-confidence, willingness to work hard & overall competence

in girls, the breasts begin to bud _________________

(thelarche).

primary sexual characteristics

(those directly involved in reproduction, such as the genitalia)

other-transforming

(trying to use dominance or coercion to meet own needs)

instrumental aggression

(using force or threat to obtain possession)

Sociometry

(which is the quantitative study & measurement of relationships within a group of people) began with the work of Moreno

hypothalamus

(which we learned initiates things by sending out kisspeptin) also maintains basic body functions like drinking, eating, & temperature, as well as producing hormones.

Many authors note that no matter what the culture, teaching moral principles is necessary for all individuals to function successfully in all societies. The fundamental components are:

1) concern for others 2) sense of justice & fairness (including being willing to take into account the rights & needs of all parties) 3) trustworthiness/honesty 4) self-control (to be able to inhibit own impulses to avoid misbehavior)

Teachers use 5 techniques for Child Development Project

1) focusing attention on examples of prosocial conduct; 2) applying cooperative learning techniques; 3) using both examples from literature & real-life to promote a focus on others' needs & rights; 4) involving children in helping activities; and 5) encouraging self-control & moral reasoning using authoritative discipline.

self-instruction or self-monitoring

10-year-old Amelia, who, having missed a day of school, calls a classmate to get her homework assignments. She knows that she must repeat the page numbers or write them down to remember them. She also knows how to organize her homework for each of the various assignments, for example, by showing all computations when solving math problems. She might even understand that she should do her science homework first because it takes the most time, and she may be able to judge when she has studied her spelling words sufficiently

There were ethnic/racial differences in evidence, with African American boys showing pubic hair development at age _____________, while Hispanic boys began at age 11.43 & Caucasian boys at age 11.47. As compared to a 20 years before, these rates are 6 months to 2 years earlier.

10.25

, males are less likely to survive prenatally, as many more are spontaneously aborted early on in pregnancies (often before the pregnancy is realized) & later through miscarriages. With this, the actual birth ratio of males to females is ____________________

105 to 100.

Fabes, Martin, & Hanish (2003) actually found that at around age 4, both boys & girls spend 3 times the amount of time with children of their own gender than with those of the opposite gender. By age 6, that becomes ____ times the amount. This increases through elementary school & only seems to reduce after puberty with mixed-gender socializing

11

masturbation, especially for males which begins on average between___________________ years

11 and 12

it appears that between the ages of _____________ children transfer at least some of their emotional dependency from their parents to their peers.

11 and 14

the typical decline between the ages of ______________ years in adolescents' willingness to endorse the legitimacy of their parents' claims to authority or to endorse the notion that they (the children) are obligated to follow parental dictates

11 and 17

Between ages_____________, at least some of the emotional dependence upon parents seems to be displaced onto peers. This greater influence of peers appears to be more for anti-social or risky behaviors, and more so for boys than girls

11 to 14

The results support the conclusion that juveniles from _______________are significantly less competent than young adults to stand trial, whereas 16- to 17-year-olds are not significantly different from young adults. Substantially more young teens showed impairments in understanding or reasoning about court-related matters in comparison to young adults. only age and intelligence were significant predictors of competence—neither gender, ethnicity, current status as an offender, nor socioeconomic status was important.

11 to 15

, most who commit serious crimes or are chronic offenders tend to have had first contact with police before age

12

Hyde et al. (2008) found that more recently in the U.S., there is no sex difference seen in math achievement before grade ______.

12

Tinggaard et al. (2012) found that boys tend to enter puberty at around ____ years old, with a range from 9 to 16.

12

historical change has affected math skills such that males and females in the United States today do not differ on most tests of math achievement before grade _____

12

Resistance to peer influence begins to rise in middle adolescence, increasing most between ______________ years, with continuing, shallower gains in young adulthood

14 and 18

Unlike long-term memory, working memory is thought to have a limited capacity. We can pay attention to, and think about, a limited number of meaningful units of information at one time, and material is lost from working memory in____________ seconds unless we engage in rehearsal (i.e., unless we actually keep working with it, making an effort to pay attention, such as repeating it to ourselves).

15 to 30

in 1998, the Supreme Court limited the death penalty to those whose crimes were committed after their _____________ birthday. This was based on a different understanding: that teens are less experienced, less intelligent, less educated, less able to understand the consequences of their actions, & more driven by the emotion of the moment or by peer pressure than adults.

16th

Risky behaviors escalate sharply during adolescence, peaking around age _____ and then dropping off in early adulthood for most individual

17

There are far more males conceived than females, with some saying the ratio is as high as _________________ (Pergament et al., 2002). No one seems to yet be able to explain why.

170 to 100

male conceptions far outnumber female conceptions, with some estimates of the ratio being as high as ______________!

170 to 100

a 2005 U.S. Supreme Court decision prohibited the use of capital punishment for individuals who commit crimes when they are younger than age ____

18

After age __________, the foreclosed & diffused statuses become less common

19

there were overwhelming legislative reforms that reversed the focus on rehabilitation to that of punishment for juveniles. This was in response to public pressure from fears of predatory (irredeemable) teens.

1990s

By late in their ____________ year, babies seem to be able to make perceptual distinctions between the sexes. They can distinguish pictures of men from pictures of women and they can distinguish the voices of men from those of women

1st

Jadva, Hines, & Golombok (2010) found that as young as age ____, youngsters will choose same-sex playmates, gender-specific toys & activities

2

Some children produce a gender label for themselves before age ___. The majority know a self-label by age 2½, and they can identify others who fit into the same category as they do

2

concerns about brain and behavioral development have led the American Academy of Pediatrics (2011) to recommend against use of screen media (e.g., television, videos, and computer games) by children under age _________. Despite such concerns, many parents and other caregivers give infants and toddlers access to these media.

2

Girls tend to play in groups of _______________, while boys play in larger groups.

2 or 3

What both male & female zygotes have before differentiation:

2 sets of ducts (the Mullerian and Wolffian ducts), which are what turn into reproductive structures

Aggressive behavior is evidenced from toddlerhood, but the physical aspect of it tends to decline measurably between ages _____________ (when temper tantrums seem to subside). Simultaneously, verbal aggression is seen to increase. (Note that this corresponds to a time of greater language development.)

2 to 4

Physical aggression usually declines substantially from ages ___________. For example, in one large scale American study "[t]he most frequent form of early aggression, hits others, occurred in about 70% of the sample at ages 2 and 3, but declined to 20% by ages 4 and 5" (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development [NICHD], 2004, p. 42). At the same time, verbal aggression tends to increase. As children grow in language facility, "using their words" becomes a more typical way of bullying others or expressing anger.

2 to 4

Martin et al. (2005) have found that the same-sex division or preference seems to start around age ________ for girls & age ________ for boys, increasing as they get older. And this has been found cross-culturally, whether countries are industrialized or not

2 ½, 3

Gelman, Taylor, & Nguyen 92004) seemed to find that ___-year-olds are basically unaware of gender stereotypes. Around age ___ however, there is an awareness of preferences for toys & activities that are gender-related

2, 3

Offer (1963) found that around _____________ of teens had only minor conflicts with parents & for the most part, it was a period of relative calm.

2/3

Steinberg (1996) has found that upwards of_____________of American parents (no matter their ethnicity) are withdrawing from this conflict. The examples he gives are not knowing how their child is doing at school, who their child's friends are, how they spend their free time (parental monitoring), as well as providing acceptance & support, spending time with their child & even talking about their day.

25%

Steinberg estimates from his and other survey research that about _________________ of American parents across all ethnic groups are disengaging from the struggle.

25%

a nationally representative study involving over 9,000 middle school children in China found bullying to be an important problem, with over _______________ of both boys and girls affected

25%

Partnership for a Drug-Free America (2006) indicate that alcohol use by teens has steadily declined since 1998. Still, in 2005,_____________ of 7th to 12th graders reported binge drinking in the past 2 weeks

28%

We have already emphasized how intensive the sex segregation process is, beginning as early as __________ years of age

2½

Specifically, girls spend their time interacting primarily with girls, and boys spend their time mostly with boys. In settings where there are both males and females of similar ages available, such as schools and playgrounds, and where there is freedom to choose one's companions, this sex segregation process begins by about________________, and it increases with age

2½ for girls and by about 3 for boys

According to the CDC (2006) for instance, ____ million new adolescents are diagnosed with STDs annually & 2 are infected with HIV every hour.

3

But by age _____, most children know something about gender-related preferences for toys and activities, and 4- to 6-year-olds have gendered expectations about people and their behaviors

3

Peers reinforce gender-typed behaviors from as young as age _____________, with imitation, praise or participation.

3

approximately ___ million new cases of sexually transmitted diseases are diagnosed in adolescents each year, and two new young people are infected with HIV every hour

3

by age _____, children are more likely to judge violations of moral rules as more serious than violations of conventional rules

3

By __________________ years old, some differences in emotional expression are emerging, at least in U. S. samples, with boys beginning to hide feelings of sadness and fear more than girls

3 to 4

Most children seem to have gender stability by ____________ years old—a girl knows she was a girl yesterday and expects to be one again tomorrow

3 to 4

At age ______________, no long-term attentional problems from TV watching, but Geist & Gibson (2000) found that watching violence on TV does contribute to short-term attentional problems.

4 & 5

By ________________years, children's theory of mind includes knowing that people can have mental experiences that are not all the same from one person to another. So, their preoperational egocentrism recedes, and their ability to take another person's perspective begins to improve.

4 to 5

It appears that 4-year-olds, whether or not their parents have encouraged gender-stereotyping, seem to follow it quite rigidly. It seems that between ______________years of age, children have already internalized expectations of people & their behavior by gender.

4 to 6

Steinberg (1994) found that parents of adolescents go through their own perilous transition and that _____________ of them experience strong feelings of powerlessness, rejection, and personal regrets when their children become adolescents

40%

Steinberg (1994) weighs in, suggesting that _____________ of parents themselves are going through strong feelings of powerlessness, rejection, & regrets as their children transition into adolescence.

40%

u.S., births to unmarried mothers are much more common for Mexicans (________________of births in 2006) than for Asians (11% in 2006). South Asian parents are more likely than Mexican parents to have completed high school and to be fluent in english. These and other differences influence the likelihood that families will live in poverty once in the u.S. Approximately 33% of Mexican families but only 8% of South Asian families live in poverty

46%

Examples of differences in variables that can affect family functioning found in the U.S. include:

46% of births to unmarried mothers were from Mexican immigrant mothers as compared to 11% from Asian immigrant mothers; immigrant parents from South Asia were more likely to have completed high school & be fluent in English than immigrant parents from Mexico. These are among the factors that affect the likelihood immigrant families will live in poverty. For instance, Jung et al. (2012) found that 33% of Mexican immigrant families versus 8% of South Asian immigrant families were living in poverty in the U.S.

Kochanska et al. (2010) found that from as young as___ years old, good behavior is predicted by a child's view of him or herself as a moral person

5

Longitudinal research indicates that for many children the "difference" is really a delay, especially in the growth of the cerebral cortex. The middle prefrontal cortex shows the greatest delay, with growth for ADHD children lagging behind typically developing children by as much as ______________years

5

Males' androgen production begins surging at ___weeks of gestation; the surge ends at about 28 weeks. There is another surge just after birth, peaking at 1 to 2 months, and then declini

5

children diagnosed with ADHD (_____________ of school-aged children diagnosed with this)

5 to 10%

stage 1 (Selman)

5 to 9 years Unreflective sharing of expressive enthusiasm Differentiated/Subjective One-way, unilateral power; orders or obedience

At least____________ of rejected children are of the aggressive type

50%

Cable TV and video game consoles are present in ________________ of bedrooms

50%

It is important to note that around_________________ of those diagnosed with ADHD in childhood seem to outgrow it by late adolescence/early adulthood (suggesting brain development "catches up"). For those who don't outgrow it, Mackie et al. (2007) have found that there is progressive loss of brain volume in some areas like the cerebellum

50%

as many as___________________ of young adolescents also have sexual experiences with members of the same sex, primarily displaying and touching genitals, and engaging in mutual masturbation.

50%

According to Hattie (2003), the factors that account for student achievement are:

50% due to the student (characteristics), 5-10% due to the home (expectations & encouragement), 5-10% due to the schools, 5-10% due to peers, & 30% due to teachers*

In societies without formal schooling, children are given real work to do by age __________________, tasks that are essential to the community (such as watching younger children, planting, or shepherding).

6 or 7

What percentage of 3rd to 12th graders have a TV in their bedrooms? If you guessed slightly more that ___out of 10 (71%,), you're correct.

7

A large-scale, nationally representative study by the Kaiser Family Foundation (2010) and its reanalysis by race (Northwestern University, 2011) shows that U.S. 3rd to 12th graders increased their total daily media consumption from 6 hours and 21 minutes in 2004 to ______________ by 2009, approximating the hours of a typical adult work day.

7 hours and 38 minutes

Jung et al. (2012) found that compared to native White mothers, Mexican immigrant mothers read to their preschool children less but Chinese immigrant mothers read to them more. It has been suggested that this could be due to parents' education, as ______________of Chinese immigrant mothers had more than a high school education as opposed to 33% of Mexican immigrant mothers.

93%

sexual orientation stats

93% identified themselves as heterosexual, 1.3% as gay or lesbian, 3.7% as bisexual and 2.5% as not sure of their sexual identity

ethnicity moderates the role of body image in self-esteem. For example, some studies show that_________________ report more positive body images than White youth. Body ideals among African Americans are more consistent with actual body characteristics, which serves as a protective factor for adolescents

African American youth

Researchers in Denmark, for example, found four major crowd categories:

Alternative, Urban, Conventional, and Achievement-Oriented

what causes sensational seeking and risky behavior

At puberty, proliferation and then pruning of dopamine receptors creates a new pattern of receptor distribution throughout the brain (Steinberg, 2008). Dopamine is an important neurotransmitter in the processing of emotion, and puberty triggers ". . . a rapid and dramatic increase in dopaminergic activity . . . which is presumed to lead to increases in reward seeking cognitive control system develops more slowly than the emotional system, and perhaps more importantly, connections between the cognitive control system and the emotional system develop slowly, continuing to grow through the mid-20s. adolescent egocentrism supports the fiction that risky behavior is exciting but not potentially catastrophic reward (mediated by the striatum) and avoidance (mediated by the amygdala) systems peers

early vs late maturing boys

Being larger and stronger than other boys gives early-maturing boys an edge in socially approved male activities, such as athletics, whereas late-maturing boys are at a distinct disadvantage in the same activities. Generally, early-maturing boys are more confident than late-maturing boys, more popular, and more likely to be leaders among their peers. Late-maturing boys are more likely than other boys to be socially awkward, insecure, and variable in mood (Simmons & Blyth, 1987; Simmons et al., 1987). As with girls, early maturing boys tend to have first sexual intercourse somewhat earlier than other boys (

the Center on Media & Human development (2011),

Black, Hispanic, & Asian groups are exposed to media by on average 4 hours a day more than Whites. They also found that boys tended to consume or be exposed to more media than girls on average 1 more hour a day. To get a more realistic picture, the researchers decided to combine exposure to multiple forms of media (since simultaneous use is so frequent), resulting in an average high of 10 hours, 45 minutes a day. We also have to take into account that this study did not include time spent on cell or smart phones in any way...

The findings for_______________girls in pubertal onset represented the greatest increase relative to studies conducted 10 years earlier, even though the absolute numbers were lowest for this group.

Caucasian

social preference score

Children would be asked to choose the classmate(s) who they would most like to play with, work with, or sit next to in class. Although some weight the nominations, most simply add up the number of times a child is positively mentioned.

While the movement toward separation and independence becomes stronger over the course of early adolescence in many countries, the same is not completely true for adolescents in _________________

China.

but Pomerantz et al. (2009) found significant differences for second individuation in ______________. Loyalty & reverence for parents' seems to impact on this different trajectory.

Chinese adolescents

_________________also improve, allowing better categorization & organization of objects based on their physical properties

Classification skills

As Connolly et al. (2004) suggest, it is a safe environment in which to learn how to interact with the opposite sex

Cliques

____________association can be related to potential negatives & positives: drug & alcohol use, sexual behavior, academic commitment, achievement, as well as internalizing & externalizing psychiatric symptoms

Crowd

Many children from immigrant families are __________ students. In the U.S., they may enter school with no knowledge of english or they may have some facility in english in addition to their native language. Generally, ELL students, especially from Hispanic families, perform more poorly than native White children academically when they begin school in the u.S.

ELL

____________ boys seem to be less moody and less likely to exhibit depressed mood than later maturing boys

Early -maturing

millions of children (mainly kindergarten to grade 5) in U.S. schools are ___________________

English-language-learners (ELL).

chinese

Even though they may be unable to help with schoolwork due to language difficulties, long work hours or lack of academic skills, they will designate an "anchor helper" for that role. Successful peers are used as role-models & extended family "co-parents". Possibly because of these beliefs & practices, children of Chinese immigrants tend to outperform native White children from the same SES.

biological influences on homosexuality

Exposure to masculinizing hormones can affect the sexual orientation of human females. Girls who are exposed to high levels of prenatal androgens (congenital adrenal hyperplasia, or CAH; are often found to have a greater frequency of homosexual experiences and fantasies than their non-CAH female relatives For males, delayed exposure to masculinizing hormones during prenatal development has been found to affect sexual behavior in several nonhuman mammalian species

__________________disorders are more often reported in boys, except for adolescent conduct disorder

Externalizing

Oedipus complex.

First, they direct their sexual urges toward their mothers because they are most strongly attached to their mothers as primary caretakers. Then, this desire for the mother, to usurp her time, to be physically close to her, puts a boy in competition with his father for her affections. The boy fears that his more powerful father will retaliate with a physical punishment that fits the crime— castration. Finally, the boy is so terrified by the prospect of his father's retaliation that he redirects his energy into pleasing his father by identifying with him. This identification process involves both imitation and internalization. Identification explains why boys adopt sex-typed behaviors: They are acting like their fathers. It also explains how boys form a superego, a kind of conscience: They internalize their fathers' values

Why are levels of parental monitoring and control so strongly associated with reduced levels of delinquent behavior among Black and other minority teens, even when parents appear to be authoritarian rather than authoritative in their style

First, we have seen that in some cultures and ethnic minority groups, where control is perceived as normative, parents who use control tactics are nonetheless high on warmth (Collins & Steinberg, 2006). Second, if a family lives in a low-income neighborhood where the real dangers of risky behavior may be all too obvious to youngsters, an authoritarian style might be read by a child as an expression of concern.

There are also a number of other specific characteristics of parenting that seem to foster children's altruism.

First, when parents have strong prosocial values, their elementary-school-aged children are more likely to be seen by peers as prosocial Second, adult modeling of prosocial behavior seems to influence children's altruism providing children with opportunities for prosocial action seems to help encourage a commitment to altruistic action

Despite the support that these cognitive approaches to explaining moral development have received, their usefulness is limited in several ways.

First, young children have a greater capacity for moral reasoning than Piaget's theory indicates. For example, although young children judge people's actions by their physical consequences (such as how many cups are broken) more than older children do, still they are capable of focusing on the intentions behind behavior if those intentions are made salient young children do not necessarily treat all rules and standards as equally important just because they are specified by parents or other authority figures. Finally, there are areas of functioning that individuals or families might have standards about—such as choices of friends or recreational activities or participation in family life—which are not governed by formal social rules in Western societies. We'll call these personal rules

__________________ is thus maintained by ongoing social influences operating through psychological mechanisms such as motivation, expectancy for success, and self-efficacy. These internal mechanisms have been constructed in the process of interacting with a world in which gender is a highly salient social category.

Gender-linked behavior

Country and Cultural Factors

General educational level of adults Access to quality preschool education Kindergarten attendance Valuing/training of self-regulation Quantity of instruction per year (including after school/weekend instruction) Achievement tests and "exit exams" Low grade retention

_______________ are strong protective factors, as Sullivan (1953) noted they provide friendship, enhance perspective-taking & empathy, practice for problem-solving, validation by same-age peers, enhance feelings of self-worth, security, & relatedness. the same time, peer problems are a risk factor, with these issues commonly found in children diagnosed with _______________.

Good peer relationships, conduct disorders

In general, gender identity seemed to have less impact on social adjustment for the minority group children. For example, although gender contentedness was just as important for Black children's adjustment as it was for White children, it was not especially important for ____________children

Hispanic

even though Black and Hispanic children felt more pressure for gender conformity than White children did, it did not seem to cause adjustment problems. In fact, _____________ who felt a great deal of pressure to conform had fewer internalizing problems than other boys

Hispanic boys

"Baby X" (who they don't know & don't know the sex of).

If they thought it was a boy, they were more active with "him" (like bouncing him); if they thought it was a girl, they were more gentle with "her". Similarly, the baby girls would be described as "sweet' and "pretty", but the baby boys would be described as "big" and "strong".

christakis and his colleagues have found a link between infant/toddler viewing and later attention problems

In one study, the more television children watched before age 3 the more likely they were to have difficulty regulating attention at age 7

Even though all children, regardless of culture, are likely to experience some peer conflicts, societies differ in how adults intervene

In societies that value individualism, such as the U.S., children are often encouraged to verbally defend themselves, to negotiate, and to seek fairness for themselves, often with an adult acting as arbitrator. In more collectivist cultures, such as China and Japan, children at odds with peers are not likely to be singled out or to be encouraged to act on their own behalf. Rather, adults are likely to expect the peer group to manage the conflict and to establish harmony among themselves, bringing each child's behavior into line with group expectations

information processing

In this view, there are no qualitative, stagelike changes that characterize most of a child's thinking or processing. There are some changes with time, however, mostly in the amount and efficiency with which information can be processed. With increasing age, children can work with more information at once, and the strategies that children use to organize, understand, or remember information may also change.

Following this approach, there are not qualitative changes in reasoning that occur, but rather changes in the efficiency of cognition. The structural organization is already in place & doesn't change, but the amount & efficiency of information-processing does. More specifically, with age there is an ability to work with more information simultaneously & different strategies are used to deal with information

Information Processing

_____________________ researchers focus heavily on what children do with information of particular kinds: what they pay attention to, how they encode it, what and how much information they store, what other information they link it with, how they retrieve it. In other words, information processing theories are focused on the mechanics of thinking

Information processing

puberty activation

Kisspeptin triggers the activation of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH), which stimulates the pituitary and sets the reproductive axis into motion. The release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary stimulate other endocrine glands to increase their hormone production as well. These glands include the gonads—testes in males, ovaries in females—that now increase their production of both masculinizing hormones (androgens, such as testosterone) and feminizing hormones (estrogen). Interestingly, both kinds of hormones (as well as progesterone, which is involved in the reproductive cycle) are produced in males and in females, but they are produced in different ratios, so that increases in androgen production are much higher in boys than in girls, whereas estrogen production increases much more in girls.

____________________school size is correlated with lower scores on standardized test scores and higher drop out rates

Large

_________________can help encode new material expected to have to remember later or can help retrieve information already stored.

Memory Strategies

__________________ can also be taught, so that children are more likely to use them if they have been taught (Kurtz et al., 1990). However, they may not necessarily generalize the strategy to new situations.

Memory strategies

All fetuses develop two sets of ducts, called the ______________ducts, which can differentiate into reproductive structures

Mullerian and Wolffian

An example of an effective program is_____________. It is for adolescent offenders who are risk for incarceration & its focus is family-based.

Multisystemic Therapy (MST)

Newcomb, Bukowski, & Pattee (1993) found them to be less aggressive overall than children in the average category, as well as less visible & less sociable. Despite this, they tend to be seen as likeable by their peers. They suggest that this group simply chooses not to interact with their peers, as they don't seem to be socially anxious.

Neglected

______________________ to one thing and not to another is very difficult for preschoolers

Selectively attending

An updated curriculum was released in 2011 which is divided into individual grade-specific sections. It is intended to be taught 2 or more times a week, for a minimum of 20 to 30 minutes each time. It is essentially integrated into the classroom environment and curriculum so that skills learned are reinforced & generalized to other contexts. There is considerable research supporting the efficacy of this program for both skills development (prosocial) & prevention (of emotional & behavioral difficulties).

PATHS (Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies)

Larson and Richards (1994) used a technique called the experience sampling method to gauge adolescents' moods

Participants in their study wore beepers throughout their waking hours. When they were beeped, they made notes about what they were doing, thinking, and feeling at that moment. In the course of a day, adolescents reported more mood disruptions, more feelings of self-consciousness and embarrassment, more extremes of emotion, and less happiness than younger children or adults. In addition, their emotional reactions to the very same events tended to be more intense than those of other age groups.

________________ is an abstract concept that generally is difficult for children to reason correctly about before age 11 or 12 (e.g., Inhelder & Piaget, 1955/1958), but with continuous materials like liquids younger children seem to have an intuitive sense of it

Proportionality

large scale study by Steinberg

Roughly 20% of students belong to popularity-conscious crowds ("populars" and "jocks"), who are moderately achievement oriented and may engage in some illicit behavior, such as drug use. About 20% belong to "alienated" crowds ("druggies" or "burnouts"), who are even less invested in academic success and who may be involved in heavy drug use and delinquent behavior. "Average" crowds, comprising about 30% of students, are not openly hostile to academics but, like the populars, are only moderately concerned about grades. In majority White high schools, some crowds are defined primarily by ethnicity (roughly 10% to 15% depending on the school), and academic achievement differences exist among these ethnically defined crowds. Less than 5% of high schoolers belong to crowds characterized by high academic achievement. These students are unlikely to use drugs and may form strong ties with teachers.

Without the ____________ gene and the male hormones, the default developmental path for all the indifferent structures is in the female direction (ovaries, clitoris, and so on

SRY

_______________provides the codes for a transcription factor that binds to regulatory DNA. In doing so, it activates genes that begin producing other proteins initiating the development of gonads into testes.

SRY

Based on the premise that perspective-taking is so crucial, the focus here is not just on competence (knowing it), but also applying it (performance or social functioning). It has been adapted for use in schools to help establish & build good social relationships throughout the school community. It has even been applied in middle and high schools to reduce racism & promote intercultural understanding

Selman's Friendship Framework ( pair therapy)

Changes in the Adolescent Brain

Sex differences are also in evidence, with boys' brains larger than girls' & the amygdala growing faster & larger for boys. (The amygdala has been implicated in memory processing, decision-making, & emotional reactions.) At the same time, the hippocampus grows larger & faster for girls. (The hippocampus has been implicated in transmission of short-term to long-term memory & in spatial memory for navigation purposes.)

Example of collective egocentrism

Shauna might reason, for example, that if her boyfriend and his friends aren't worried about getting caught in some illegal scheme, then neither should she worry.

Steinberg advocates a commonsense solution:

Smaking risky options less available to youth until they have greater maturity in making decisions. "Strategies such as raising the price of cigarettes, more vigilantly enforcing laws governing the sale of alcohol, expanding adolescents' access to mental-health and contraceptive services, and raising the driving age would likely be more effective in limiting adolescent smoking, substance abuse, pregnancy, and automobile fatalities than strategies aimed at making adolescents wiser, less impulsive, or less shortsighte

_________________is extremely important to peer group acceptance. It is broadly defined in the research literature as effectiveness in social interaction, with the effectiveness as judged by self & others

Social competence

________________ are most useful when they also include negative nominations, or children's mention of peers with whom they do not want to work or play. Researchers have found that children who are rejected by peers cannot be identified without the inclusion of negative nominations

Sociometric techniques

What do we know doesn't work? "_______________" teens (not considering what they think, as well, they'll stop listening), quick-fixes, not using developmentally-appropriate interventions, & not accessing outside supports

Talking at

Does violent video game play have the same causal relationship to aggressive behavior and cognitions across cultures?

The answer appears to be yes.

imaginary audience

The belief that all others are watching you Because she is so sure that others are as interested in her as she is, she feels extremely self-conscious, acutely aware of her looks and her behavior in the presence of other

invincibility fable

The idea that one cannot be harmed in the same way that others can It's like tunnel vision. feeling of being invulnerable, even immortal increases in risk taking at adolescence

Multisystemic Therapy (MST)

Therapists spend an average of 60 hours with families in their homes over a 4-month period. They are part of a treatment team, with availability to families 24 hours a day. Techniques used include behavioral, cognitive, & family therapy with their aim to strengthen family relationships, reduce negative symptoms, & support positive adjustment for the youth & their family. Creating a strong community support system for the family is considered critical for long-term follow-through. The research shows the program does reduce recidivism & the need for placement. Curtis & Ronan (2004) found that 70% of youth & families involved demonstrated improved functioning.

The Incredible Years

There are 3 levels to the parent training component that progress from parenting skills & discipline to parent communication & anger management skills, conflict resolution, home-school relationships, supporting educational achievement. This involves parents meeting in small groups for discussion, watching videos, & role-playing skills. For children, their curriculum (Dina Dinosaur Social Skills Curriculum) uses child-size dinosaur puppets & videos to engage them in practicing emotional & social skills. For teachers, the program uses video, group discussion & practice to help them deal with difficult behaviors

Popular:

These children are known for their perspective-taking skills, as they can easily take on a group's frame-of-reference without needing to focus others on them or their needs (Putallaz & Wasserman, 1990). Other characteristics include: assertiveness (without antagonism or disrupting others), high levels of self-regulation & self-control, greater cognitive & problem-solving abilities, particularly good at clear communication & following others' conversations, higher social self-concept & self-efficacy

Studies comparing structural MRIs for children with and without ADHD have found differences in several brain areas

These include the frontal lobes, where normative growth is associated with improvements in attention and other higher order cognitive processes. Other areas include the parietal lobes, basal ganglia, corpus callosum, and cerebellum

Average children

They are at neither extreme on the impact or preference dimensions. They show lower levels of social competence than popular children and less aggression than rejected-aggressive youngsters. As with the neglected group, no problematic outcomes are associated with this sociometric category.

Why the vulnerability of males?

They are more susceptible to hereditary diseases, which also continues on into the childhood years. The Y chromosome being smaller than the X chromosome, it doesn't have most of the genes found on the X chromosome. Males are much more likely to suffer from one of the many x-linked recessive disorders (baldness, color blindness, Duchenne's muscular dystrophy, fragile X syndrome, hemophilia, night blindness).

Electra complex.

They direct their initial sexual desires toward their fathers, even though they too are more strongly attached to their mothers. That is because they experience penis envy, a desire to have what they naively assume is the greater genital pleasure that must come with having the external genitalia of a male. Then they find themselves in competition with their mothers, although their fear of their mothers' displeasure is not so great as a boy's because they assume that somehow they have already been castrated. They do not understand that their genitalia are simply more internal than are a boy's. Eventually, they identify with their mothers to make peace, although because they do not fear castration, they do not identify as closely with their mothers as boys do with their fathers. Thus, girls too become gender typed in their behavior and form a superego. However, neither process is as intense for a girl as it is for a boy.

Neopiagetians

They explain or revise Piaget's stages using information processing concepts. Some of the issues NeoPiagetians have with his theory are: that he doesn't explain or operationalize fully why development from stage to stage occurs; his theory doesn't provide sufficient explanation of individual differences; and universality of development (as shown in domain-specific, unevenness of development) is questioned Case (1985) is one example of this, as 4 stages similar to Piaget's are re-conceptualized, using changes in working memory capacity to explain the transitions from one stage to another.

Willoughby, Adachi, & Good (2012) provided an excellent example of this with a longitudinal study on Canadian adolescents' video game play & its impact on later aggressive behavior through their high school years

They found consistent video game play significantly related to aggressive behavior, even after controlling for other media use, quality of parenting, academic & school variables, sports involvement, depression, & deviant behaviors

Simmons and Blyth (1987) present evidence for "cumulative stress" theory

They interpreted these findings as resulting from an interaction between the stresses of puberty and the cumulative stresses inherent in multiple school changes.

crowd membership

They represent different values & lifestyles that "can form the core of an individual's identity"

closed identity domains

They speculate that in these domains, adolescents "do not find it so useful to reflect intensively on their commitments because they can assert very little influence on them

Moratorium

This is a state of exploration, but with no commitment. It is their exploration that differentiates them from those in identity diffusion. They are trying to work towards the future, sometimes shifting in goals & behaviors, while experiencing anxiety and excitement at the same time. Erikson (1950, 1963) described this status as the essence of the adolescent mind, so that this period of trial and error results in a personally constructed identity. This constructed identity is a personal revised set of goals that has not been predetermined. The future is perceived as exciting, difficult & anxiety-provoking, but something they have decided on their own

adrenarche

When children begin to show sexual attraction at when the adrenal glands increase their activity just before puberty, at about age 10 young adolescents begin to seek out opportunities to socialize in mixed gender groups

Teen pregnancy has continued to decline since the 1990s, which Ventura & Hamilton (2011) suggest may be due to reduced sexual activity or more widespread use of condoms. Despite this, the ____________ still has the highest rate of babies born to teen mothers in all developed countries (with Great Britain second but still half that of the U.S.).

U.S.

Cross-culturally, research supports Kohlberg's view of universal progress through from preconventional to conventional. However, the cross-cultural findings show differences at his higher levels. Interestingly, for those who reach stage 5 (postconventional), they tend to be __________________

Western, middle-class & urban in origin.

Crosscultural differences are more likely to be found at Kohlberg's higher stages: The few who reach Stage 5 of the post-conventional level are most often _________________________

Western, middleclass, urban adolescents and adults

The Kaiser Family Foundation (2010) did a large-scale study that was re-analyzed by race (Northwestern University, 2011), finding that media consumption had risen for the 3rd to 12th graders they studied

Whereas in 2004, the average daily exposure to media was 6 hours & 21 minutes, by 2009 that had risen to 7 hours & 38 minutes (roughly equivalent to an adult work day). This was not just during the week, either, but continued on weekends (thus surpassing the typical adult's work-week). This included computers, TV, video games, music, & movies, with 71% of these children & youth having a TV in their bedrooms.

With testosterone (and other hormones), the_________________turn into male structures like the seminal vesicles.

Wolffian ducts

___________________ (unlike long-term memory) seems to have limited capacity. It can deal with a certain amount of information but it is lost in 15-30 seconds or so unless it is rehearsed (continues to be worked-on).

Working memory

In females, the 23rd pair, called the sex chromosomes, consists of two large ___ chromosomes

X

In males, the 23rd pair is mismatched: There is one

X chromosome and one much smaller Y chromosome

The problem for males is the mismatched sex chromosomes. The smaller Y chromosome does not carry most of the genes that the X chromosome does. There are a slew of _____________________

X-linked recessive disorders

females are typically carriers of____________________, but males are typically the victims

X-linked recessive disorders

males are much more likely to suffer from these disorders than are females

X-linked recessive disorders

If an X-carrying sperm fertilizes the egg, the zygote will have an _____________pair and will develop into a female

XX

Fertilization by a Y-carrying sperm will give the zygote an __________ sex chromosome pair, and a male will be the outcome

XY

Shavelson, Hubner, and Stanton (1976) proposed a highly influential theoretical view of the self . In this model (see Figure 7.1), children's general self-concept can be divided into two main domains:

academic and nonacademic self-concepts

Responsiveness has been further subdivided into

acceptance Democracy

noncompetitive activities increase feelings of ___________________

acceptance & belonging

At Stage 3, the "Mutual/Third-Person" stage

adolescents of about 10 to 15 learn to view each other's perspectives simultaneously and mutually. Rather than simply viewing each other's perspective in a back-and-forth approach ("first me, then you"), adolescents can mentally step back to take the perspective of a "third-party observer" even as they themselves remain a member of the pair. What this allows is a more detached view of the proceedings, somewhat like the way a disinterested spectator might construe a social interaction. Egocentrism is further reduced insofar as the adolescent can view the interchange between himself and his friend and reflect on it from the outside looking in. Friendship at this stage is characterized by mutual support and shared intimacy and not seen just as a means of obtaining what either party desires as an individual. Consequently, conflict resolution strategies are marked by more attention to the mutuality of the relationship. There is an awareness that problems do not always reside within one of the participants but that they are the responsibility of both parties to address. Harmonious resolution of the conflicts that are inevitable in relationships is perceived to strengthen both parties' commitment to that relationship. Adolescents at this stage are more capable of understanding that a friendship could break down because "it just didn't work out between us" rather than because "she wasn't nice to me."

On average, children begin to show sexual attraction at ___________, when the adrenal glands increase their activity just before puberty, at about age 10

adrenarche

Staff & Uggen (2003) have found that jobs which teach vocational skills where teens work alongside_____________ have the benefit of promoting positive attitudes towards school & work, academic motivation & achievement, as well as low levels of drug & alcohol use & delinquency.

adults

antisocial personality disorder (apD) is typically reserved for _________________

adults

in social situations, teens are more likely to make risky choices when they can't yet incorporate their own with _______________ perspectives.

adults'/parents'

Peer interaction seems to benefit moral reasoning, as Tesson, Lewko, & Bigelow (1987) demonstrated that more popular children with good social skills display more ______________ levels of it (as least for boys). At the opposite end of the spectrum, Bear & Rys (1994) found more aggressive boys (who also have poorer peer relationships) displayed weaker needs-oriented reasoning.

advanced

As in other studies of this type , _____________was the characteristic that best predicted rejection by the other children when all other differences were controlled.

aggression

Generally, across Western and non-Western cultures, ____________ is associated with peer rejection, and helpfulness is associated with popularity

aggression

We also know that testosterone is linked with _____________, so that higher levels prenatally & postnatally could account for the more aggressive behavior seen in boys than girls

aggression

When it comes to _______________, it tends to result in rejection in most cultures, but as Rodkin & Roisman (2010) suggest, in North America it is not necessarily so. If they are also socially skilled, aggressive children may fit the controversial category or may even be seen as popular

aggression

Longitudinal studies show the rejection seems to be as a result of the __________________.

aggressiveness

moratorium

also display a lack of commitment, but they are distinguished from the identity diffused by virtue of their exploration. In other words, these adolescents and young adults are straining toward the future, looking for what they might make of themselves. They may demonstrate frequent shifts in goals and changes in behavior, along with the anxiety and exhilaration that accompany active experimentation. Consequently, these exploratory periods may look like "crises" to the observer.

Interestingly, low income chinese parents are unlikely to be involved in their children's school activities (such as helping with homework) because of long work hours and/or lack of the necessary language or academic skills, but they frequently designate an "___________________" for that purpose such as an older sibling or other relative.

anchor helper

In particular, for males, aggression and dominance seeking can increase testosterone, an _____________

androgen

The key to the determination of physical sexual characteristics is the amount and timing of ______________production. "If these hormones are not present in adequate amounts or over the correct temporal intervals, the natural tendency to retain female characteristics prevails

androgen

By the third month, _______________ are influencing the growth of male external genitalia from a whole set of "indifferent" structures. For example, the indifferent genital tubercle becomes a penis; in the absence of androgens it would have become a clitoris.

androgens

The cells of the testes begin to produce many masculinizing hormones, including _____________hormone (AMH) and testosterone, one of several male hormones called androgens), which circulate throughout the body and influence the development of many different kinds of tissue.

anti-Mullerian

Strongest cortisol rises were shown for adolescents during the ________________ period, highlighting the potentially important role that perceptions of stress play in activating the stress response at adolescence

anticipatory

Copious research has shown the connections of poverty, substandard housing, low levels of parental education, teen parenting, parental substance abuse, family or friend membership in gangs, exposure to violence, as well as frequent residential moves to family stress & development of _________________

antisocial behavior.

Ernst et al. (2006) also suggests that adolescents' increased sensitivity to stress is involved (as evidenced by her Triadic Neural Systems Model (page 393 of your text, Figure 10.7). With reward seeking literally related to the brain's __________ & stress sensitivity related to the ________________, the reduced executive functioning found during this period represents underdeveloped cognitive control so that there is a push-pull & imbalance (explaining the lability of teen behavior).

approach system, avoidance system

Permissive parents ( indulgent)

are high on responsiveness but low on demandingness,

Characteristics of popular children

are notable for their use of perspective-taking skills. Upon entering a group, these children can adopt the group's frame of reference and join in without calling undue attention to themselves or to their own needs . They can be assertive, but they are not deliberately antagonistic or disruptive to others . In this, they demonstrate high levels of self-regulation and self-control. also manifest greater cognitive and social problem-solving ability than do children from other groups.

Preschoolers' self-concepts

are simple & undifferentiated. There is no ability to accommodate opposing characteristics yet. Due to their tendency to egocentrism, they cannot yet see themselves through others' eyes (perspective-taking). Their self-evaluations lack others' assessments of them. As Davis-Kean, Jager, & Collins (2009) suggest, their self-evaluations may be overly positive because how they assess themselves may not conform to reality

Popular children

are socially skilled & valued by their peers, tending to have positive characteristics like helpfulness, assertiveness, & trustworthiness (Robertson et al., 2010). They are also skilled in emotional regulation & providing emotional support to peers (Rose & Asher, 1999).Developmentally, young children's social skills predict their peer acceptance in both late childhood & adolescence (Blandon et al., 2010).

Rejected children

are the least socially skilled of all the groups and also the most heterogeneous category. Can be aggressive or withdrawn demonstrate high levels of instrumental aggression, verbal negativity, and disruptiveness are more likely to demonstrate lower levels of perspective taking, self-control, and positive social interaction skills. Particular deficits in information processing, marked by perceptions of hostile intent or hostile attributional bias approximately 50% are aggressive , another 10% to 20% are extremely withdrawn are at special risk for peer victimization

Average children

are those who receive an average number of positive and negative nominations (near the mean for the group on preference and impact).

Neglected children

are those who receive few nominations, either positive or negative. This latter group is characterized by its low level of social impact

Synaptogenesis, pruning, and myelination ( In adolescence)

are thought to contribute to increased voluntary control of attention, more effective integration of information, and maturing of other executive functions

Hoffman (1982)

argued that children have a biological predisposition toward empathy, the earliest hint of which may be the contagious crying of some infants—that is, their tendency to cry when they hear other babies crying

contemporary psychoanalysts now suggest that development of the conscience is due to the strength of ______________ between parent & child, as well as the child's need to keep the parent close.)

attachment

the ________________parenting style (especially using psychological control) has been linked cross-culturally to low self-esteem, depression, poor academic competence, antisocial behavior, & overall inhibition of development of autonomy

authoritarian

Steinberg, Dornbusch & Brown (1992) found that for Asian American, African American, & Hispanic youth, ___________parenting was not as good a predictor of academic success as it was for White teens.

authoritative

As children and adolescents have more experience in egalitarian relationships with their peers, their moral thinking becomes more _______________, meaning that they begin to understand that rules are based on social agreements and can be changed. Advancements in perspective-taking skills, which also are benefited by interactions with peers, help young people understand that rules and standards are not just a function of authoritarian dictates but that they promote fair play and cooperation, serving to establish justice.

autonomous

The adolescent-onset or late-start pathway

begins at adolescence & Moffitt (1993) considers it due to a reaction to adolescence.

The formal operational stage

begins at approximately age 12 and lasts into adulthood. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts. Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge during this stage

The life-course- persistent pattern

begins in early childhood and continues throughout life. In general, this pattern is associated with early conduct problems, aggressiveness, and academic difficulties, as typified by Shauna. For this particular package of problems, early intervention for children and families is most effective

early-elementary-school-aged youngster

begins to organize the characteristics of the "Me-self" into sets of categories that display some coherence. For example, the child might relate being good at drawing, at coloring, and at cutting as an indication that she is good at art. However, the child still does not accommodate sets of characteristics with opposing features (e.g., nice versus mean). Given her tendency to perceive personal qualities as good and to discount the subtlety of coexisting negative attributes, the child's thinking about herself may still have an all-or-nothing quality that is often unrealistically positive. There is little discrepancy between the "real" and the "ideal" selves. Gradual improvements in perspective taking ability, however, allow the child to begin to evaluate her own behavior according to others' standards. The child's anticipation of another person's reaction, be it as a reward or a punishment, becomes internalized (Harter, 2012). As others' rules or standards become internalized, they become adopted as self-regulatory guidelines and form the basis for the looking-glass self.

If a child is already disliked (not accepted) by their peer group, Dodge et al. (1986) found that they are more likely to be judged negatively for the same _____________committed by a popular peer (who is not so judged).

behavior

During middle childhood, _______________ is an important domain of self-concept, which is also related to global self-esteem.

behavioral conduct

Gender stereotypes (according to your text) are:

beliefs that males & females have different behavioral tendencies or personality traits (by virtue of their gender). Some of these have been validated by research & others have no basis in fact.

Societies with _____________ socializing practices permit and encourage high levels of individual freedom of expression, have fewer social constraints, expect less community responsibility, and thus tolerate a wider variety of socially deviant behaviors.

broad

two types of rejected

called rejected-aggressive), (called rejected-withdrawn).

Selman's Friendship Stage 4

called the "Intimate/In-Depth/Societal" stage which is seen in older teens & adults. Now it is not just the perspective of the other, but the societal perspective is adopted. This is much more abstract & complex, requiring the ability to understand the perspective of unknown others. With this comes an understanding of cultural & other group differences, an acceptance of the value of other possible perspectives. Now, there can be a balance achieved between personal needs for intimacy & autonomy & commitment to the friendship.

Neglected children

can be distinguished from children in the average group primarily because they have somewhat lower levels of peer interaction are less aggressive than average children, are less likely to be highly visible within the peer group, and show less sociability, but they are perceived by their peers as relatively likeable. They simply do not choose to participate very actively within their group of peers are similar to those in the average group in their ability to have friendships and are as likely as other children to have a best friend

attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

can show atypical variations in brain development . Between 5 and 10 percent of school-age children are diagnosed with ADHD based on one or more of a cluster of symptoms that are especially problematic for school performance: poor attentional control, restlessness or hyperactivity, and impulsivity

In Stage 1, the "Differentiated/Subjective" stage,

children from about 5 to about 9 come to understand that others have viewpoints that are different from their own, but they are generally not able to coordinate these perspectives simultaneously. In other words, they can't maintain their own perspective and that of someone else at the same time. So even though they understand that their peers have different points of view, they still may act as though their own perspective or that of an "authority" is correct. They are able to understand, for example, that they can be the subject of another's thoughts, but they generally do not have the capacity to judge how their behavior is being evaluated by that other person. Dyami, for instance, might understand that his friend Kono has a viewpoint or a perspective on him, but Dyami has little insight into what Kono's view of him is really like. We might say that interpersonal perspective at this age is unilateral or one-way. friendships may be defined by the behavioral and psychological rewards they provide for the individual child and not in terms of the mutual satisfaction afforded both members of the dyad. Eight-year-old Pavla might describe a friend as someone who helps her with her homework, doesn't fight with her, and doesn't walk away from her when she's upset. Notice the mix of behavioral (homework help) and psychological (social support) characteristics that are directed toward the benefit of one person

importance of social relationships

children to experience & learn about others' points of view. foster development of the self-concept contribute to a sense of connectedness & security

How teens find a niche among the available crowds is not completely understood (Brown, 1990). Steinberg (1996) suggests three determining factors:

children's personalities and interests as they enter adolescence; the types of crowds available; and the ways that parents attempt to manage their children's peer relationships

Research tells us that early conduct problems in children are serious, they need to be treated early, & interventions should be multifaceted. In fact, Kazdin (1995) suggests that if children's antisocial behavior isn't reversed by the end of grade 3, it will become__________________

chronic.

The more extensive the webs of information in your long-term memory, the more likely you are to find ways to ______________information meaningfully in working memory.

chunk

When adults teach children how to use memory strategies such as ___________________, children retain more information.

chunking

Concrete operational children can understand __________________(including subcategories). Again, this speeds up cognitive processing & makes thought processes more efficient.

classification hierarchies

The ____________ boundaries are somewhat permeable, and the membership may fluctuate

clique's

By middle childhood, voluntary social or friendship groups of three to nine members, called ________________, become more common, although they are still rather informal. At this age the group's structure is flexible, and member turnover is common. The importance of cliques reaches a peak in early adolescence, followed by a general decline in importance over the course of high school (called degrouping;)

cliques

The innermost circle is the relationship with ___________

close friends

Foreclosure, on the other hand, has been renamed ____________________because it signifies a high level of present commitment with low levels of coexisting exploration

closed commitment

Meeus and his associates (1999) found that individuals tended toward foreclosure in areas over which they had little control (e.g., school or work), which these authors called ________________

closed identity domains

SRY gene (sex-determining region of the Y chromosome)

codes for a transcription factor that binds to regulatory DNA, turning on genes that start the production of other proteins responsible for the development of gonads into testes

Researchers have found that the influence of the group is not usually a result of ____________________ pressure, however. Instead, normative social processes, like positive reinforcement, observational learning, and in some cases discussion and information exchange seem to be important

coercive

Identity achievement,

comprises individuals whose development has been marked by exploration and commitment to certain alternatives. They have decided on a game plan, so to speak, which may be revised as needed. Their identity has been constructed by their own efforts to shape and transform their earlier selves

Patterson developed a model of _________________that demonstrates how children learn to behave aggressively (see Figure 7.5, page 277). In this, children learn by negative reinforcement to avoid negative consequences by whining/complaining/tantrumming, which makes parents give up on enforcing compliance. This reinforces the adults (no more negative behaviors), so they learn to avoid it by giving up on demands for compliance. This is typical of families with antisocial children, where they learn to be aggressively noncompliant in order to control their parents.

coercive family interaction

Ruminating about problems includes both

cognitive (self-focused cognitions) and affective (increased emotional reactivity) elements

the self is a _____________. As such, it will depend upon level of cognitive development, which is notoriously uneven. Development tends to be domain-specific

cognitive construction

Brain imaging has even shown that when adolescents are making risky choices, there is greater activation of parts of the emotional system than that seen in children or adults (Casey et al., 2008). So it appears that the _______________system matures more slowly than the emotional system, resulting in emotion winning over reason/self-control.

cognitive control

We already established that sex self-segregation starts at a very early age, as girls and boys show a strong tendency to play separately from each other. It may be due to ____________(know own gender identity, value same-sex group more).

cognitive processes

Forming a concept of oneself as either a boy or a girl is a ____________

cognitive task

those strategies that help children generate alternative interpretations, come up with alternative solutions to problems, or increase perspective-taking skills are typically carried out under nonthreatening, nonemotional, intellectualized conditions (called "_____________";

cold cognitions

Leaper & Smith (2004) found that girl-groups tended to use more __________________speech (where responses tend to be to what someone has said).

collaborative or affiliative

As you can see, girls' groups and boys' groups have different cultures to which the members, regardless of their individual characteristics, must adapt. A good example of this difference is the degree to which they use_______________

collaborative versus domineering discourse techniques

Arnett (1992) suggested that peers provide not only role models for deviancy but a kind of ___________________

collective egocentrism

Peers' support for or against risky behavior is highly influential. Not only are they role-models, Arnett (1992) even suggests that they provide a type of ________________. Their reasoning feeds off of each other.

collective egocentrism

When we look at the broader culture where children live, Eisenberg et al. (1998) demonstrated that_______________cultures tend to promote prosocial values & behaviors more.

collectivist

According to Harter (2006), when it comes to self-esteem, differences seen in this age-group are from a combination of

competence (in important areas or domains, the better the competence, the higher the self-esteem) & support (the more social support, the higher the self-esteem).

Early on, this sense of obligation is partly influenced by rewards or punishments from parents, teachers, and other adults. Gradually, a slate of standards and principles—a _______________—is internalized (see discussion of self-regulation in Chapters 4 and 5) and becomes the primary guide to action, so that a moral adult could even behave in ways that are disapproved by others if she judged the behavior to be right.

conscience

when young children judge moral culpability they usually pay more attention to ___________________

consequences

Research findings tend to support Piaget's view that younger children focus on ____________& older children focus on_________

consequences , intentions.

Kohlberg (1966) suggested that gender identity changes partly due to developments in general cognitive ability, like logical thinking. It is suggested that gender is______________ in much the same way as volume or number & that is achieved sometime between ages 5 & 7 (due to the development of logical thinking).

conserved

Labouvie-Vief (2015), Kuhn (2008) & even Piaget himself (1972) demonstrated that formal operational reasoning is not ____________ across people or domains, but varies by context, experience, motivation, situation, & task.

consistent

Children in the ___________________category display high levels of aggression like the rejected-aggressive group, but they have more positive characteristics that balance this out. They tend to be more sociable & display better cognitive ability that seem to make them more attractive to peers.

controversial

young adolescents move to ___________________, more consistent with Piaget's autonomous level, in which what is right depends on others' approval or on the need to maintain social order.

conventional morality

According to Ruble et al. (2006), boys compete with each other more than girls, while girls tend to focus more on ___________________

cooperation & turn-taking.

We have already learned that higher _________________levels are related to higher stress levels. The rapid synaptogenesis, rapid brain reorganization & continued neuron myelination leave the brain more sensitive to cortisol. It is suggested that this results in greater vulnerability to psychopathology

cortisol

She also found that even with high expectations, _________________ from teachers was clearly related to lowered motivation & poor achievement. This finding was true across gender, race, & ethnicity.

criticism or negative feedback

Many studies confirm that association with a ___________ can be linked to youngsters' drug and alcohol use, sexual behavior, academic commitment, achievement, and even the types of psychiatric symptoms they display, such as externalizing and internalizing problems

crowd

Social status is reflected in ____________ membership. They represent different values & lifestyles that "can form the core of an individual's identity"

crowd

Steinberg (1996) found that students' _____________ affiliation was highly correlated with their later grades and delinquent activities. So, crowd membership made a unique contribution to these outcomes over and above early developmental characteristics.

crowd

Evidencing that greater sophistication in understanding, even by age 10, children know that differences exist in how their _____________judges males & females. Intons-Peterson (1988) found that at this age, children were able to perceive the devaluation of female-typical behaviors. (Perhaps explaining why females are more susceptible to depression beginning at this age.)

culture

You might think of crowds as actual peer "_____________" that represent approaches to behavior, attitudes, and values.

cultures

Although physical sexual maturation impacts on sexual behavior, so do many other factors. These include:

curiosity (internal factor) or partner/peer pressure to have sex (external factors

Piaget attributed the _____________skill of school-aged children (their ability to pay attention to more than one thing at a time) to the speeding up of mental activities with practice, and modern research does support the idea that practice can accelerate information processing

decentering

Schraw & Moshman (1995) indicate that improvement in 3 kinds of knowledge promotes metacognitive development. These include

declarative knowledge (knowing facts, rules, oneself), procedural knowledge (how to apply rules & strategies effectively), & conditional knowledge (knowing when to apply rules or strategies).

Gray-Little and Hafdahl (2000) summarized the existing data on this subject and concluded that Blacks and other minority groups demonstrate a higher level of ________________ than do Whites

ethnocentrism

Foreclosure

describes a category of individuals who make commitments with little or no exploration of alternatives. This status, along with diffusion, may also characterize young people entering adolescence who incorporate the values and goals of significant others, such as their parents, without reflection. Their commitments are, by definition, premature, preordained by family obligation or constrained by circumstance. example A very early marriage or settling very early on a career might be examples of this

Friendship valuing

describes the emotional attachment or investment that the child makes in a friendship

Individual therapy, group therapy, boot camps, wilderness programs, etc. have limited effectiveness on conduct problems(Henggeler, Schoenwald, & Pickrel, 1995). If anything, Dishion, McCord, & Poulin (1999) suggest that group therapy can make matters worse, as it increases their antisocial skill-set (called "__________________").

deviancy training

Working memory capacity improves as there is a greater ability to pay attention to more information at once. This is often shown with _______________ (used in standard intelligence tests).

digit span tests

If a child has a lot of knowledge about a particular_____________, say dinosaurs or chess, his ability to think logically about problems within that domain may be more advanced than in other content areas ( Domain of knowledge)

domain

Waterman (1993) and Marcia (1980) report that most of the work of identity development, as measured by transitions into and out of status categories, takes place during _____________. This is particularly true for students who attend colleges or universities, settings that facilitate exploratory processes. The results of Meeus's (1996) longitudinal study, however, indicate that the high school years are also a time of active identity formation

early adulthood

Risk factors for early sexual activity include

early pubertal maturation, poor parental monitoring, poor school performance, perceived parental attitude as permissive, & sexually active peers

Understand that "assessment" (as this is all framed) is as much a therapeutic process. The idea here is to create some dissonance, to motivate them to reflect & consider alternative ways of thinking, as well as dealing with risks. Obviously, the ultimate goal is more______________, careful decision-making

educated

the more _______________ the society, the fewer gender differences we tend to find.

egalitarian (equal)

Remember, people of any age have survived (with varying levels of success) by the time they come for counseling. They have coping strategies, some of which they have forgotten (that have made them resilient in the face of hardship). Among your tasks is_______________to help build their confidence in themselves again when faced with a new challenge they may not have encountered before

ego strengthening

In a study of the role of adolescent egocentrism in identity formation, O'Connor (1995) found that more ______________ is associated with more exploration and, ultimately, with a greater likelihood of identity achievement, especially in males

egocentrism

Lapsley (1993; Lapsley & Murphy, 1985) argues that the social realities of adolescence—the need to separate from parents, to form an adult identity—are at least as important in explaining the _______________ of the adolescent. He contends that the imaginary audience may be an expression of intense anxiety associated with individuation and that the personal fable may be a useful fantasy for reducing some of that anxiety

egocentrism

Sullivan (1954) followed up on Piaget, also believing that within peer relationships, children learned about reciprocity, mutual respect & equality. He saw friendship during the early childhood ("juvenile") years up until age 8 as still driven by _____________ in order to gain acceptance & popularity, but when they reached around age 8 (what he called "preadolescence"), that changed considerably

egocentrism

Morality requires a complex interweaving of three elements—___________________—that do not always work together in perfect harmony

emotions, cognitions, and behaviors

Hoffman (1982) & others suggest that ______________is the foundation of helping behavior. It requires perspective-taking, to be able to recognize & appreciate how a person is feeling

empathy

socially competent children who are popular with peers tend to show greater_______________________

empathy and prosocial behavior

many toddlers show signs of _________________ as early as 18 to 24 months, beginning when they demonstrate self-recognition while looking in a mirror. By age 3, sympathy, pride, and guilt appear to be part of the emotional repertoire as well

empathy and shame

Both __________________seem to propel some prosocial acts from the time that toddlers begin to clearly differentiate self from other

empathy and sympathy

example of chunking

expert chess players look at a chessboard set up as if in the middle of a chess game, they see meaningfully related chunks consisting of four or five chess pieces each, allowing them to, in effect, rehearse the positions of 20 to 25 individual pieces without exceeding their working memory capacity. Novices see only individual pieces, allowing them to rehearse the positions of only about 5 to 7 pieces

Effective teaching also tends to engage children in activities of many different kinds to promote the kind of conceptual understanding that's needed. For example, it helps to give children many different and _________________examples from their experience (e.g., for fractions, sharing an apple by cutting it into equal parts).

familiar

Leavell et al. (2012) specify that "_______________ channel their children toward gender-typed activities well before their children have a clear understanding of gender roles".

fathers

white matter

fatty myelin sheaths that form around the axons, insulating them so that electrical impulses travel faster from one neuron to another

Signorella and Liben (1984)

found that elementary school children with strong gender stereotypes were more likely than children with less stereotyped beliefs to misremember who had played what role in the pictures they had seen when gender and occupation were not traditionally matched. So, for example, if they had seen a woman doctor, the children with strong stereotypes would be likely to remember that it was a man they had seen instead, or that the woman had been a nurse

Seltzer (1982) suggests that peers become so important because they share the state of ________________ (anxiety & instability), which fits with Schacter's (1959) assertion that when people are under stress, they associate with those in similar circumstances for support.

frameworklessness

The body changes in appearance, adult sexual needs emerge, hormonal shifts may heighten irritability, the capacity to reflect on the future and on the self expands bringing its own brand of egocentrism, and demands for autonomy increase. All of these changes are supported by dramatic alterations in the adolescent brain. These profound shifts can produce a state of instability and anxiety unique to adolescence, which Seltzer calls ______

frameworklessness.

It has even been shown that having even one good ______________is a protective factor against environmental risks

friend

These 3 components impact on friendship outcomes (making & keeping friends), which is a more common or typical pathway to social functioning. They can also affect the biological predispositions & sociocultural factors in the future. They are, however, limited by a child's current social cognitive capacity (thus, they will change with time & maturity).

friendship understanding friendship skills friendship valuing

More typically, effects of nature & nurture integrate or combine with a 3rd area of influence (psychosocial development). These are the skills, values & understanding necessary for friendships (interpersonal relationships). Here we have:

friendship understanding (what friendship means, changes with age), friendship skills (behaviors that help friendships, like assertiveness, communication, conflict resolution), & friendship valuing (emotional investment in a friendship).

It is important to note here that popularity & friendship are not the same thing. No one needs to be popular to have friends. As such, peer acceptance & friendship are not the same thing or dependent upon each other. As Ruben et al. (2006) have shown, in adolescents, loneliness is more due to lack of _____________ than low peer acceptance.

friendships

play a part in when and whether adolescents become sexually active

from social class and ethnicity to religious background, geographic setting (urban versus rural), popular culture (as portrayed in movies, music, teen magazines, and Internet sites), and the quality of sex education in schools

in one study, intelligence as measured by standardized intelligence tests was correlated with more gray matter (thicker cortex) in the_________________ for men, but in women intelligence was correlated with more gray matter in different parts of the frontal lobes

frontal and parietal lobes

Adolescent "information management" is accomplished by:

full disclosure, partial story-telling (omitting details), changing the subject, avoiding conversations, or lying

The X & Y chromosomes are not only different in size, but also in _______________, as most of the genes on the two are not matched with each other.

function

Good instructional practice, including psychoeducational training, involves five basic elements:

gaining the child's attention and motivation; activating what the child already knows about the material to be taught, such as using familiar examples or analogies; presenting the new material in many ways; providing adequate, meaningful, and interesting practice to ensure retention; and giving task-specific feedback that scaffolds the child's progress.

Research with ______________ children suggests that social assignment to a gender category can influence gender identity.

gender atypical

A third step appears to be recognizing that gender category membership is permanent, that it could never change, even if one's behavior or appearance were changed to resemble the other gender. This is called ______________

gender constancy

These are both seen as important social markers of sexual maturation

girls experience menarche (their first menstrual cycle) & boys experience spermarche (first ejaculation).

It follows that having achieved _________________, there should be greater flexibility& less stereotyped thinking about gender differences. In other words, dress can change but that doesn't change gender (so that gender stereotypes are seen as only social conventions, not necessary to maintain their gender). And in fact, the research shows just that...greater flexibility in thinking about gender in middle childhood.

gender constancy

In countries where cultural attitudes strongly favor ____________, such as Iceland, there are as many (or more) girls as boys among top math performers.

gender equality

establishing basic_________________(i.e., learning one's own gender category) seems to be sufficient to foster a drive to learn about gendered behavior and a tendency to make gender-typical choices

gender identity

Once ________________ is established, children are increasingly likely to make gender-based choices over what may be more attractive choices

gender stability

The research seems to suggest that contrary to Kohlberg, children just need to have developed a gender identity (boy/girl) in order to stimulate the drive to learn about gender-appropriate behavior & to make gender-typical preferences (Weinraub et al., 1984). It has been found, however, that when they have achieved _______________, they will make gender-appropriate choices, even if other alternatives are more attractive

gender stability

Many of us believe that males and females have at least some different behavioral tendencies, and some people believe that there are major differences in the distribution of personality traits between the sexes. Such beliefs about sex differences are called _____________

gender stereotypes

How advanced a child's thinking will be and what kinds of content a child can think logically and strategically about depend on many factors, including ____________________

general knowledge and quality of instruction ( Domain of knowledge)

It should be noted that there are other influences on degree of advancement, including _____________________

general knowledge and quality of instruction.

Antisocial behavior

generally distinguished by its intent to harm or injure another or by the perpetrator's disregard for the harm it might cause others . It might include physical, verbal, or social attacks (aggression) or it might involve acts like cheating, lying, and stealing

Further to this, Taffel (1996) makes an excellent suggestion of including peers in the actual guidance process. This would be accomplished first of all by building a "_____________" of close friends (like one that is done for family) & sometimes bringing them into therapy (kind of like "family therapy")

genogram

For successful teaching (whether academic or psychoeducational), there are 5 key elements:

getting the children's attention & sparking their motivation; connecting what is being learned to what they already know; using a multimodal approach to presenting new material; creating enough opportunities for practice that are interesting & relevant for learning to be retained; scaffolding progress with useful feedback.

Depressive (internalizing) symptoms escalate in both girls & boys, but more so for ________________

girls

It has been shown that by the time they reach early adolescence, _______________ feel more dissatisfied with their bodies & appearances than boys, but for boys this becomes more central a little later (Harter, 1999, 2012). We have to remember that girls tend to hit puberty earlier than boys & experience the physical changes significantly sooner.

girls

although depressive symptoms increase for both girls and boys after puberty, they increase more for ________; boys show more increases in aggressive, delinquent behaviors than girls

girls

This has been found to be true even when parents are neither warm nor democratic. As long as there are high levels of parental monitoring, especially for minority teens, this is a protective factor from________________ (Hoeve et al., 2009). It has been suggested that parents requiring absolute obedience to authority without question may be perceived as doing so out of love & affection by some children. It could also be perceived as being done out of concern

high-risk behavior

Epidemiological evidence shows that homosexual males tend to have disproportionately_________________ of older brothers compared to heterosexual males

higher numbers

In adolescence, pruning occurs primarily in areas of the brain that are related to ________________

higher-order functions

Asian, Latino, & non-Hispanic White students: they were more likely to graduate if their peer networks were more _______________(less diverse).

homogeneous

Another complication in interpreting hormone-behavior connections is that whereas androgens may increase aggressiveness, one's experiences, such as family conflict, may change _____________ levels

hormone

Rejected children also display: weaker perspective-taking, self-control, & positive social interaction skills. Their social cognition tends to include the __________________

hostile attribution bias

Once able to use formal operations, adolescents can consider problems, create & test hypotheses systematically, & draw conclusions. This is called

hypothetical-deductive reasoning.

controversial

identifies a relatively small group of students who receive many positive and many negative nominations (high impact, average preference). They have been named controversial because they share many of the characteristics of both popular and rejected youngsters. They are seen by some peers as aggressive but as class leaders by others.

beginning at about age 3, vague sexual desire for the opposite-sex parent puts the young child in competition with the same-sex parent, who is much more powerful than the child and thus a frightening competitor. The child's solution to this no-win situation is to ____________ with the same sex parent. (Freud)

identify

studies that have addressed gender differences report that as children get older, particularly as they approach adolescence, greater ______________ of gender-inconsistent behavior is expressed for males than for females. Boys are more likely to be rejected for behaving in feminine ways, whereas girls who behave in masculine ways are more likely to be accepted by their peers

intolerance

Theorists like Kohlberg (1966) explain that when children achieve gender constancy (due to more advanced logical thinking), they are driven to learn more about being male or female & to behave gender-appropriately. Even without any external pressure to do so, this self-socialization is _________________

intrinsically motivated.

Seems to be an __________________relationship developmentally: aggression declines with age, prosocial behaviors increase with age.

inverse

Foreclosure's perspective on the future

involves meeting the expectations of a "prearranged set of ideals, occupational plans, and interpersonal forms" (Marcia, 1993, p. 8). These individuals proceed into the future with the goals and values of early adolescence relatively intact and experience fewer difficulties along the way

parental monitoring

involves parents' awareness of their teens' whereabouts & companions. It has been positively linked to academic achievement, overall well-being, & reduced sexual activity. At the same time, it has been shown to discourage delinquent activity & substance use in youth from all ethnicities

Identity Diffusion

is a state of not yet having explored or committed to a sense of self. It is often found in young teens as they begin the process of identity development. Although expected during early adolescence, if it persists, it can cause problems into young adulthood. The result may be not trusting themselves to find & commit to a worthwhile direction in life, or they might not find a need to do so. The alternative is that they fit themselves into a highly controlling environment that controls them, like a gang or a cult. The most common shifts found in identity status are from identity diffusion to identity foreclosure

Metacognition

is awareness of & thinking about one's own mental processes, a type of self-knowledge. You may remember that it is a component of theory of mind.

Self-esteem

is based not only on self-concept, but also on the importance a person gives a particular ability or area of competence

recognition

is being able to differentiate between new & previous experiences (long-term memory).

Selman's Friendship Stage 3

is called "Mutual/Third-Person" (ages 10 to 15). This is another big leap, with the ability to not only see each other's perspectives, but to see both through the eyes of a third-party "observer". It allows for some emotional detachment & perhaps a more realistic, rational, less biased view of situations. Friendships now are aimed at mutual support & shared closeness, not on individual needs alone. Conflict resolution relies on mutuality such that amicable solution strengthens the relationship.

Selman's Friendship Stage 2

is called "Reciprocal/Self-Reflective", between approximately ages 8 & 12. This is a big one...not only are children at this stage aware of others' perspectives, but they learn to put themselves in the others' place to evaluate intentions & actions. Now they are truly "through the looking glass", as they can see their own behavior & motivation as another sees it. It is now a two-way reciprocity.

early-starter pathway

is characterized by early oppositional, noncompliant, aggressive behavior that continues, expanding & increasing in severity over time. Moffitt (1993) calls it "life-course persistent".

social impact

is computed by adding up the total number of nominations, both positive and negative. This measure indicates the degree to which the child gets noticed within his group

Episodic knowledge (Declarative knowledge )

is constructed around time & space (what happened, where, when). knowledge about experienced events

Antisocial behavior

is defined by its intent to harm or injure another or lack of regard for harm to others (Dodge, Coie, & Lynam, 2006). It is typically seen as aggression (verbally, physically, or socially), but it also includes behaviors like cheating, lying, & stealing. When we look at the aggressive aspects of it, there are 2 types: instrumental (used to gain something) & person-directed.

The nonacademic self-concept

is divided into social, emotional, and physical self-concepts

Academic self-concept

is further divided into specific school subject areas such as math, science, English, and social studies. More recently, developmentalists have proposed the addition of other components such as artistic self-concept

Peer acceptance

is how much a child is seen as socially acceptable by peers. It is increasingly seen as important during these school years. LaFontana & Cillessen (2010) explain that evaluations by peers are extremely important for self-validation, self-esteem, & self-confidence

Decentration

is necessary, and that happens with multiple interactions with others. This skill allows children to realize that others have minds different from theirs, & their and others' minds can work together towards mutual understanding & problem-solving. This newfound awareness is the cognitive ability to enter into relationships that are close & reciprocal, as well as problem-solve so to consider all parties' interests

Constructed identity

is not based upon a predetermined set of expectations, but represents either a personal redefinition of childhood and early adolescent goals and values or perhaps something very different from them.

Sympathy

is not just about recognizing how the other feels, but about having concern for the other, as well.

Sensation seeking

is related to the maturing of emotional brain systems and the relative imbalance that exists between appetitive functions (approach behaviors) and control (executive functions).

teen's awareness of their personal meaning of risky behavior

is seen as the bridge between acknowledging facts that they have been told & their actual behavior. It is knowing what the behavior means to them personally that is so critical, as is their maturity in understanding the reasons for others' perspectives.

Democracy

is the degree to which parents encourage children's psychological autonomy by soliciting their opinions or encouraging self-expression, and it is most closely linked to children's self-reliance, self-confidence, willingness to work hard, and general competence

rejected-withdrawn

is the most socially anxious & tends to behave socially inappropriately. They are socially inept, sometimes behaving oddly, awkwardly, unpredictably or embarrassingly.

self-concept

is the perception of self that develops from accumulated social experience not a passive process

In chinese and other South Asian groups, a "___________________" is typically the highest cultural value, meaning that learning is seen as bringing "honor, respect, and everything good in life

learning model

Stage 0, or the "Undifferentiated/Egocentrism" stage,

is typically manifested in preschool children before about age 5, when perspective-taking capacity is quite limited. Youngsters at Stage 0 have little appreciation for the thoughts and feelings of either themselves or others. Friendship is defined in very concrete terms, without an understanding of the other person's psychology. For example, a preschool child might define a friend as someone who lives next to you, who gives you gifts, who shares toys with you, or who likes you. Young children typically establish friendships with children who are like themselves in concrete ways, such as age, gender, race, and ethnicity (see Kawabata & Crick, 2008; Rubin & Coplan, 1992). Conflicts between friends are not perceived as disagreements that occur between two parties with two different and legitimate points of view but are viewed as struggles to get one's own way. Lacking much ability to consider another's perspective, children typically resort to flight ("Go away!") or fight ("I'll get you!") strategies to resolve conflicts as they seek to preserve their interests.

social cognition

it focuses primarily on the ways people think about other people and how they reason about social relationships

moral sense, or morality

it is a capacity to make judgments about what is right versus what is wrong and second, it is preferring to act in ways that are judged to be "right." In other words, morality involves both an "evaluative orientation" toward actions and events (Damon, 1988) and a sense of obligation or commitment to behave in ways that are consistent with what is right

The actual chemical in the brain that signals the beginning of puberty is _______________, which originates in the hypothalamus.

kisspeptin

The recent discovery of a chemical in the hypothalamus helps us understand what triggers the beginnings of puberty deep inside the brain. This signaling chemical was named ________________, because it was discovered in Hershey, Pennsylvania, home of the famous Hershey Kiss

kisspeptin

gender constancy

knowing that gender is permanent (can't be changed, even if act or dress as opposite gender). This still may not be fully understood by older preschoolers. Research is mixed, but children may still not be sure of this even as they enter school.

When it comes to discussing emotions with their daughters & sons, Bussey (2013) found that when dealing with their daughters, mothers would _____________ for them, essentially teaching them how to identify the feelings of others

label emotions

Brown (1990) defined adolescent crowds as

large "reputation-based collectives of similarly stereotyped individuals who may or may not spend much time together

adolescent-onset or late-starter pathway called adolescence-limited

late starters, whose experience with delinquent activities begins at adolescence, is less likely to result in adult criminality. antisocial behavior, although serious, seems to be more reflective of a difficult or exaggerated reaction to the adolescent period

it is ______________ boys who seem more affected by storm and stress

late-maturing

Children whose body fat is unusually low, such as those who are malnourished or who are heavily involved in athletics, are likely to begin puberty______________ than other children

later

We have already established that girls seem to decrease in self-esteem when they enter into middle school. Gilligan (Brown & Gilligan, 1992) calls this "_______________", meaning that girls gradually silence their authentic, domineering & often willful selves in order to identity with & fit into culturally pre-set roles, expecting them to be self-sacrificing & pleasing to others. The process, Gilligan calls "_________", which is made up of blocks that contain all of the negative messages society sends young women about their bodies.

loss of voice, hitting the wall

Bear and Rys (1994) found that boys who tended to be aggressive and to have poor peer relations were also ___________in needs-oriented reasoning. One explanation may be that children with poor social skills have fewer opportunities for positive peer interactions, contributing to a lag in the development of their moral-reasoning skills.

low

Brooks-Gunn (1991) & Malina (1983) have demonstrated that if body fat is unusually _____________ (as in those who are malnourished or heavily involved in athletics), they tend to enter puberty later than others

low

Trivits and repucci (2002) examined recidivism rates across a wide range of studies of adolescents and adults convicted of sex crimes, such as rape, child molesting, and exhibitionism. on the whole, adolescents' recidivism rates over many years ranged from about 8% to 12% and were substantially ________________ than those of adult offenders, which ranged from about 20% to 40%.

lower

Stimulating/engaging environments

make a difference, such as family educational level, smaller classes, minimal use of retention to reduce boredom, & more dedicated instruction at school as opposed to solitary homework have been demonstrated to have a positive impact. This is more child-centered.

More _____________ are spontaneously aborted early in pregnancy, often before a woman knows that she is pregnant, and more are miscarried later in pregnancy. As a result, the actual birth ratio is about 105 males to 100 females

males

Although most crime statistics indicate that males are disproportionately involved in these offenses, evidence points to increasing delinquency among girls, especially those who _____________ early

mature

Many theorists have argued that metacognitive awareness at least partially accounts for the increasingly effective use of strategies that develops through _________________ into adolescence.

middle childhood

at this stage as at all others, brain development is an epigenetic process involving the interaction of genetics & environment

middle childhood

Gilligan used dilemmas that were complex, practical, real-world scenarios in her research. She found no significant differences in care versus justice orientations between men & women but did note some tendencies in that direction. However, she did find that both men & women are concerned about both justice & caring. In fact, the combination of the 2 is seen as _______________ (which has been substantiated by Turiel, among many others).

mature moral reasoning

Ruminative strategies

may include isolating oneself to dwell on a problem, writing in a diary about how sad one feels, or talking repetitively about a negative experience with the purpose of gaining increased personal insight

Persons whose identity is diffused

may not trust their ability to find and commit to a meaningful path in life, or they might deny their need to do so. They may lack a sense of optimism about the future and, "many a sick or desperate late adolescent, if faced with continuing conflict, would rather be nobody or somebody totally bad, or, indeed, dead" (Erikson, 1968, p. 176). Alternatively, they may situate themselves within a highly controlling environment that dictates the conditions of their behavior and the nature of their views such as joining a gang.

As Siegel & Scovill (2000) explain, what was seen as a social issue through into the 1960s became "________________" in the 1990s. They assert that if the problem is seen as within the adolescent, parents & society have no responsibility for it.

medicalized

Since that seminal work, the use of _______________has been developed to combine the results of similar studies in order to get an average estimate of the difference seen in a population.

meta-analysis

researchers have acquired a valuable analytic tool for assessing the effects of variables such as sex. It's called _____________, in which the results from a large number of studies on the same question—such as, "Are there sex differences in physical aggression?"—can be combined to produce an average estimate of the difference in a population

meta-analysis

cells carrying the XY chromosome pair have a higher ______________rate than XX carrying cells, so they divide more quickly and prenatal growth is faster

metabolic

the XY chromosomes have a higher _____________ rate than the cells with the XX chromosomes (so they divide faster & prenatal growth is faster, as well).

metabolic

. Applications both educationally & clinically to improve problem-solving & perspective-taking skills require using _______________ capacities to examine how one thinks & to monitor one's own thinking.

metacognitive

improved _____________skill seems to benefit scientific thinking, making it possible for some teens to evaluate their theories or beliefs objectively, in the light of evidence,. Such skill also contributes to more careful planning and evaluation of one's activities

metacognitive

As in memory development, the shift toward using more adequate math strategies, more often, seems to depend partly on __________________—the child's growing understanding of his own strategies and his increasing awareness of how effective those strategies are (Kuhn, 2000b).

metacognitive development

peer influence on risky behavior tends be greater and lasts longer, declining only after ________________

mid-adolescence

In ___________________, the dimensions of importance include academic or scholastic competence, athletic competence, physical appearance, peer acceptance, and behavioral conduct

middle childhood

At Stage 2, the "Reciprocal/Self-Reflective" stage

older children master a critical developmental task. Between late childhood and early adolescence (about 8 to 12), they become more cognizant of the perspectives of others and learn to put themselves in another's place as a way of evaluating intentions and actions. Children can now actually assume the psychological position of another and reflect on their own behavior and motivation as perceived by someone else. Eleven-year-old Keisha, who doesn't really want to go swimming at her friend Amber's house because she'd prefer to spend the afternoon watching TV, might agree to go anyway. Keisha, seeing Amber as a person who is rather easily hurt, reasons that if she declines the invitation, Amber might think that Keisha doesn't like her or that she doesn't want to be her friend. This more sophisticated level of perspective-taking ability reflects two-way reciprocity ("I think; you think"). children can grasp more highly differentiated patterns of motivations and emotions and make finer discriminations between thoughts and feelings. They can conceive of the fact that people, including themselves, can experience conflicting motives and feelings and can feel one thing but act in a completely different way. In our earlier example, Keisha wants to spend some time alone but she also wants to preserve her friendship with Amber. She may simultaneously feel liking and impatience toward her friend. She may decide to go swimming and cover up her true feelings of disinterest in the activity. Conflict resolution between children at this stage reflects the growing awareness that both parties must give a little to reach a solution.

Crosnoe & Fuligni (2012) define a child as being from an immigrant family if at least _____________ of the parents was born outside of where they live. In the U.S.

one

We have talked about how the authoritative style of parenting seems to work best for adolescents, as well as it does for children. Hoeve et al. (2011) even found that if only ______________ parent in the household has this parenting style, it buffers the negative outcomes associated with the other

one

preschoolers focus on _______________ salient dimension of a situation at a time, and so they often miss the important relationships among aspects of a situation.

one

Crises in more ________________, such as those involving personal relationships, were found to be shorter, under more personal control, and more likely to result in achieving commitments

open identity domains

Antisocial behavior can be both overt, such as hitting, and covert, such as cheating. When these behaviors are serious enough to warrant a diagnosis in children and adolescents, _____________________ are the most likely classifications depending on the nature, duration, and severity of symptoms

oppositional defiant disorder (oDD) or conduct disorder

hostile attributional bias

or hostile attribution of intent, characterizes aggressive individuals who tend to perceive threats even in neutral situations

Rumination

or self-focused attention may be defined as a stable, emotion focused coping style that involves responding to problems by directing attention internally toward negative feelings and thoughts

Schneider & Bjorklund (1998) have found that 9 & 10-year-olds tend to reliably use _________________, but elaboration strategies tend not to be used without prompting until adolescence

organizational memory strategies

To really learn, as opposed to memorize, helpful teaching strategies involve information that is _________________, is related to what children have already learned, & emphasizes its relevance

organized

A child with an ______________________ style characteristically tries to dominate or coerce a friend into meeting his needs. He acts to change or transform the other and can be bullying, aggressive, or manipulative

other-transforming

Mead believed that to define oneself, a person needs to put himself, metaphorically, in another person's shoes and then consider his own actions in the light of that alternative perspective. This uniquely human operation, which lies at the heart of self-recognition and self-knowledge, has been called __________________, and no relationship survives for very long without it.

perspective taking

Your job is to understand what it means to them, what is their personal motivation that drives them to do it. This is where your use of ________________ helps with truly empathizing. It is also important to reflect on your own personal perspective, apart from theirs

perspective-taking

With respect to _______________, the greater use of & capacity for them has been linked to reduced aggression. It has been demonstrated that aggressive children tend to misattribute the motives of others (which seems to trigger their aggression). This suggests that their perspective-taking is not well-developed.

perspective-taking skills

Smetana (1989) also noted that parents teach girls more than boys to take others' ______________ & feelings into account in conflictual situations.

perspectives

In the U.S., when it comes to children from Hispanic immigrant families, even though they may be more likely to be disadvantaged in SES, they have an advantage in _____________________. This is evidenced in fewer birth problems (lower infant mortality, fewer low birth weight), & fewer acute & chronic illnesses (like asthma).

physical & mental health

In 1974, Maccoby and Jacklin surprised most observers by concluding that there were only four behaviors, skills, or tendencies that clearly differed for males and females:

physical aggression, language skills, math skills, and spatial skills

Maccoby & Jacklin (1974). From their review of what was out there, they came to the conclusion that there were only 4 behaviors, skills, or tendencies that were reliably different between males & females. These were

physical aggression, language/verbal skills, math skills, & spatial skills

sexual dimorphism

physical differences between the sexes

What is clear is that girls are less likely than boys to use ___________ of aggression

physical forms

Similarly, Eisenberg et al. (2006) found that ____________ children tended to show greater empathy & prosocial behavior. (Could also be that having greater empathy & more prosocial behavior made them more popular?)

popular

Depending upon social preference & social impact scores, children can be sorted into categories. The one most commonly used is that of Coie, Dodge, & Coppotelli (1982), which has 5 categories:

popular, average, neglected, rejected, & controversial

Based on their scores on the dimensions of social impact and social preference, children can be classified into a variety of sociometric categories. Contemporary researchers most often use the methodology and categories identified by Coie and his associates , which include five subgroups:

popular, average, neglected, rejected, and controversial

The fraternal birth order theory

posits that the maternal body begins to develop antibodies to male-linked (Y-chromosome) proteins during gestation. This antibody response accumulates with each successive male pregnancy and has an effect on prenatal brain development. Certain differences in areas of the brain, like the hypothalamic nuclei, have been related to sexual differentiation (Swaab, 2008). Bogaert (2006) found that this FBO effect held up across cultures and socioeconomic groups, and even when male siblings were raised in different households ( immunology)

by adulthood, some people move to________________, in which right is defined by universal principles or by standards of justice, not by the particular rule in question

postconventional morality

prior knowledge can lead to false memories, based on __________________

pre-existing beliefs.

A major transformation occurs around age 8, when children enter the stage Sullivan called "________________." During this period, children's needs for increased interpersonal intimacy are met through the establishment of an intense, focused interest in same-sex age-mates or "chums." These relationships teach preadolescents that the needs and perspectives of other persons must be considered as carefully as their own. Seeing one's preadolescent self reflected back in the context of a "chumship" permits the validation of one's thoughts, feelings, and beliefs

preadolescence

At the first level, elementary school children usually show ______________, roughly corresponding to Piaget's heteronomous level, in which what is right is what avoids punishment, what conforms to the dictates of authority, or what serves one's personal interests

preconventional morality

The concrete operational child has mastered __________________, as they can now take on & understand others' perspectives. However, they have a hard time separating out objective fact or reality from their own beliefs, assumptions or theories. If they already believe a theory, they have a difficult time comparing a theory against the hard evidence.

preoperational egocentrism

The superego, which emerges in the _______________ period, is the source of moral emotions, such as pride in good behavior and shame or guilt about bad behavior, and once a child has a superego, it is these emotions that impel moral functioning, like an internalized system of rewards and punishments

preschool

preschoolers seem to use other skills in ways that we might call "___________________." When they know that they will be asked to remember something later, sometimes they do things differently than they might otherwise. For example, researchers gave 4-year-olds a set of toys to play with. They told some children that later they would be asked to remember what some of the toys were. These children tended to play with the toys less and to name them more than children who were not given such instructions

prestrategic

girls beginning to hide feelings of ________________ more than boy

pride

For example, you may know how to shift the gears in a standard transmission vehicle, but you might have a difficult time explaining how to do it. Many physical skills are based on this kind of unconscious, nondeclarative knowledge, which we usually call _______________

procedural.

The first cognitive change that contributes to memory improvement is that children can process information more quickly as they get older.

process (Processing speed)

On one hand, children might at first use a strategy quite sporadically often showing a _________________, meaning that they might fail to use it even in situations where it is ordinarily helpful.

production deficiency

When a child voluntarily acts in ways that seem intended to benefit someone else, we credit her with _________________

prosocial behavior or altruism

Among Pipher's excellent points is the need to "_____________" family time, away from work & any form of media. She advocates for family rituals/traditions & celebrations that strengthen a sense of belonging & solidify bonds. It is critical for families to have dinners together (at least once a week, if not every night) with the TV or any other technology turned off, just to be able to talk & share.

protect

Digit span tests

provide the standard demonstration of this change in working memory capacity. You may recognize them as a typical part of most intelligence tests. A series of digits are presented to the test participant, who must immediately repeat them in the same order. A child of 2 years can usually reproduce about two digits accurately; by the time he is 7, he will probably be able to remember a five digit string. Adults, on average, can recall about a seven-digit string (hence, the standard telephone number; Dempster, 1981).

both_______________ social forces help shape children's patterns of expectations about how genders behave

proximal and distal

One of the oldest social influence theories of sex role development is Freud's _________________

psychoanalytic theory

o indicate that individuals in both the achievement category and the foreclosed category experience high levels of ________________ well-being

psychological

Early, outward signs of puberty are usually the appearance of

pubic hair in both sexes (pubarche), the growth of the scrotum and testes in boys, and the budding of breasts in girls (thelarche). Menarche in girls (first menstruation) and spermarche in boys (first ejaculation) usually occur near the end of the process and are often treated as important social markers of sexual maturation

In understanding these findings, Gray-Little & Hafdahl (2000) came up with the explanation that for African Americans & other minority groups, their ______________ is more strongly related to self-concept than for other groups

racial identification

Popular children

receive many positive nominations and few negative nominations from their peers (high preference, high impact). Generally, they are well-liked members of the group and have relatively high visibility among their peers

When describing the development of infant memory, we discussed recognition & recall, with _________________ developing first

recognition

Strategies that can lead to greater suggestibility include ___________________(suggesting that an already-given answer is questionable or "wrong"), an aggressive/accusatory/urgent tone (creates pressure/emotional distress), rewards/inducements (encourages to respond, even if no memory), & stereotype induction (which involves repeatedly saying that someone is bad & eventually, they will come to believe it).

repeating questions

Children who are unassertive are usually prosocial when it is ______________________ of them, not when they must take the social initiative themselves. Their prosocial behavior seems to be based more on compliance than that of assertive children

requested

Jessor (1993) & other prevention researchers suggest one approach to deal with promoting successful adolescent development is to see it from the perspective of interrelated risk & protective factors. Indeed, this approach both builds ______________* (or the ability to successfully adapt to situations in the face of adverse situations or social disadvantage) & deals with __________

resilience, risk

The compensatory relationship between the length and width of the clay snake is a kind of __________. In essence, one change reverses the effects of the other change

reversible relationship

he achieves concrete operations, a young child might learn the following two number facts: "2 + 1 = 3" and "3 − 1 = 2." But only when he recognizes________________is he likely to realize that the second fact is the inverse of the first and therefore that they are logically connected

reversible relationships

The hyperactivity of both__________________, in the context of an underdeveloped cognitive control system (mediated by the PFC), can help explain the sometimes inexplicable highs and lows of teenage behavior.

reward (mediated by the striatum) and avoidance (mediated by the amygdala) systems

Many studies suggest that as you amass knowledge of a subject, you understand new information in that domain more quickly and more completely. Some researchers describe the formation of a _________________among the pieces of information in long-term store. For example, a counselor's concept of "therapy" might be part of a detailed web of stored information. We fit new information into this web, allowing us to retrieve it later through many routes and making it more accessible than if there were fewer connections.

rich web of well-organized connections

The physical roughness seen in boys' play is called ________________ but Maccoby notes that most boys are not typically aggressive

rough-and-tumble

Good-natured physical roughness is called ______________, an almost exclusive property of boys' play with boys

rough-and-tumble play

Experimental studies have found that this type of heightened self-focus increases the duration and intensity of depressive episodes, particularly in adolescent and adult females (Greenberg & Pyszczynski, 1986; Ingram et al., 1988; Morrow & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1990), who are much more likely to exhibit this style of coping than are males

ruminate

Girls may be more subject to depression than boys not only because they face more challenges but because they often adopt a coping style,_______________, that increases the risk of depression

rumination

Girls' Ineffective Coping Styles

rumination

Since individual intervention is so difficult to do (Remember Romeo & Juliet? How well did that turn out?), it is suggested to work more at the macro-level (with changes in the family, school & societal environment) to help impact on peer group formation. Steinberg (1996) even advocates for a general refocusing of attention & energy on _______________ when it comes to school, not on socializing, organized sports, outside employment, etc.

schooling

Knowledge base increases with age, as there are already-established __________in place of typical events

scripts

For adolescents, the task of establishing adult independence requires separating from caregivers on a new plane, a process traditionally called the "_________________ (Blos, 1975). Adolescents rework their views of their parents, deidealize them, and loosen, somewhat, their emotional dependency

second" individuation

Both ___________________ processes help to form & maintain peer groups

selection & influence

It is suggested that preschoolers have little or no memory strategies. They have not yet developed ______________to help them remember

selective attention

When it comes to attentional skills, Savage et al. (2006) noted that between ages 6 & 10, children begin to use __________________ to be able to focus on relevant information & ignore other information better than younger children who are more easily distracted.

selective attention

Younger children did not seem able to use _______________ to help them with the memory task

selective attention

Longitudinal research supports these characterizations, although it tends to be from studies on males, as they tend to externalize significantly more than females (Moffitt et al., 2001). However, more recent research has shown that this dual pathway is exhibited in girls, as well but they tend to experience comorbid depression & anxiety. Eme (1992) calls this "_______________".

selective female affliction

When girls show antisocial aggression in childhood and adolescence, they are also much more likely to have comorbid depression and anxiety. This phenomenon has been called "__________________

selective female affliction

Marsh (1994) clarified that both data from internal & external sources are assimilated & accommodated through a process of comparison to ______________

self & others.

middle childhood to early adolescence

self-assessments are integrated with and modified by feedback from their environment in multiple contexts. They can now accommodate opposing characteristics & move from categorizations to attributing more abstract traits to themselves. With realistic comparison of their competencies with others, self-esteem dips because they are no longer as unrealistically positive about themselves.

Developmentally, once children are able to ________________, they start to form a gender schema, and they begin to notice more & more differences between males & females

self-categorize

The most advanced stage (seen in some adolescents) involves relating helping to one's self-respect & consistency of values. Eisenberg, Lennor & Roth (1983) & Eisenberg, Spinrad & Sadovsky (2006) suggest that at this most advanced stage, their moral values are becoming an essential element of their _________________

self-concept

In 1917, W. J. Hutchins published the Children's Code of Morals for Elementary Schools, emphasizing "ten laws of right living":

self-control, good health, kindness, sportsmanship, self-reliance, duty, reliability, truth, good workmanship, and teamwork

Rather than being concerned with self-esteem as it is usually measured (e.g., rating oneself high on statements such as "I am proud of who I am"), people in Eastern cultures place more value on __________________

self-criticism and self-effacement

Harter (1999; 2012) clearly documents the powerful association between physical appearance and overall __________________for older children, adolescents, college-aged students, and adults.

self-esteem

Faced with their increased sexual interest, most adolescents begin to explore their sexuality. The earliest and most common activity throughout adolescence is__________________, and the next step tends to be masturbation, especially for males masturbation, especially for males (see Collins & Steinberg, 2006) which begins on average between 11 and 12 years

sexual fantasizing

With increased sexual interest comes sexual exploration. The first, most common way of exploring their sexuality seems to be via ______________, then masturbation (particularly for males)(Colling & Steinberg, 2006). On average, this seems to begin between ages 11 and 12 years of age.

sexual fantasizing

Interestingly, this memory for numbers in sequence is dependent upon how long the words are in each language for numbers...so that Chinese children remember more because the words for numbers in Chinese are __________________

shorter

by age 2

show signs of being able to discriminate some actions as more female- or male-typical by late in their second year, toddlers show some ability at labeling male/female, understanding lady/man & girl/boy. Some even label themselves as "boy" or "girl" before age 2, with most knowing it by 2 ½ & able to categorize others into the same label

PATHS (Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies)

shown to be effective at teaching problem-solving & conflict-resolution skills. It is a sequential series of 131 lessons for kindergarten to grade 5 As a comprehensive prevention program intended to promote emotional well-being, it includes peers, teachers, & parents. Its specific targets are developing emotional literacy, self-control, & social problem-solving skills. its aim is also to reduce aggression & behavior problems in the classroom, which improves the learning environment for students.

Chen, Ruben, & Li (1995) found that popular children in China tend to be _____________________ (like the rejected group in North America). This seems to be changing, however, as studies have suggested a link there to social problems & depression so that (as Chang et al., 2005 note) cultural change is impacting on the previous connection between shyness & popularity

shy, cautious, & restrained

In the classroom, Suls & Miller (1977) found that children are more likely to make comparisons with those who they see as _________________to themselves in whatever ways they think are important or meaningful.

similar

Seltzer (1982)describes nine basic characteristics that define this age group in contemporary society. Among them are

similar chronological age and educational status and shared coping with feelings of aloneness and the loss of past certainties

Moral conduct usually depends upon the __________. It also doesn't depend upon moral reasoning or training.

situation

When sex differences are consistently found, they usually turn out to be _____________ in size.

small

_______________schools have been shown to promote prosocial behavior among teenagers (Barker & Gump, 1964) and more community activism among their adult graduates

smaller

Paus et al. (2011) in fact support this assertion with their findings that brain imaging to assess the connectivity between areas of the cortex involved in self-control in 12- to 18-year-olds found that those who scored high on resistance to influence displayed more _____________ than those who scored low on resistance to influence. In other words, there was more networking for those who were able to resist it

structural connectivity

Using a technique called the experience sampling method, Larson & Richards (1994) examined teens' moods

study participants wore beepers all day while they were awake. When beeped, they were to make notes about what they were doing, thinking, & feeling at that moment. Relative to adult or child participants, the teens experienced more mood disruptions, more feelings of embarrassment & self-consciousness, more extreme emotions, & less happiness. When it came to any event, their emotional reactions were more intense than either children or adults

What influences the outcome of a crisis

successful accomplishment of earlier psychosocial tasks, availability of positive role models with achieved identities, and support for exploration of alternatives

Leithwood and Jantzi (2009)

summarized the data on school size, concluding that elementary schools of 300 to 500 students or less and secondary schools of 600 to 1,000 had the highest levels of achievement

According to Freud, it is the_______________ (which appears during preschool years) where moral emotions originate (pride/shame/guilt). Now having a superego, these emotions prompt moral functioning.

superego

For Freud, it is the identification process that is critical because it includes imitation of parent's behaviors & internalization of the parent's standards & values. This is what creates the________________

superego

During the next stage (later elementary to adolescence), their needs-based reasoning includes expressing _____________

sympathy and guilt

It now appears that in many parts of the cortex, puberty is correlated with a "growth spurt" in ________________, followed by a long reprise of the pruning process that lasts, for some parts of the brain, into early adulthood.

synaptogenesis

DeLoache and her colleagues (2010)

tested the effectiveness of a best-selling DVD designed and marketed for infants from "12 months and up." The video shows a variety of house and yard scenes and repeatedly presents labels for household objects. Parents enthusiastically endorse the video in marketing testimonials. Yet babies who watched the video at least four times a week over 4 weeks performed no better on a test of the target words than babies who never viewed the video. In a condition where mothers were asked to teach the target words to their babies "in whatever way seems natural to you" over a 4 week period, children performed substantially better on the final word test than babies who had watched the video

stereotype induction

that is, slanting the interviewee's view of an individual. Sometimes interviewers will encourage children to make revelations by indicating that the alleged perpetrator is a bad person or does bad things. But in studies where this strategy was implemented, young children were found to produce incorrect, negative recollections of such an individual's behavior more often than children who were not exposed to the induction

A study by Ward (2002) employed both correlational and experimental methods to study whether television's messages influenced attitudes about sexuality in a multiethnic sample of older adolescents. This study confirmed that the three beliefs investigated in this study—__________________—were very strongly related to heavy TV viewing and to personal involvement with TV.

that men are driven by sex, that women are sex objects, and that dating is a recreational sport

This is all interpreted by Katz & Walsh (1991) to mean that children will end up viewing men as "_________________"

the custodians of gender-role norms

the endocrine system,

the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, the thyroid gland, the adrenal glands, the testes & ovaries.

The result of this adolescent egocentrism is 2 phenomena: _____________

the imaginary audience & the personal fable.

neoPiagetians

these theorists explain Piaget's stages, or revise the stages, using many information processing concepts (e.g., Case, 1985, 1992; Fischer & Bidell, 2006; Halford & Andrews, 2006). For example, Case (1985) specifies four stages comparable to Piaget's, but explains the transition from one to another partly in terms of increases in the capacity of working memory. Another example, offered by Halford and colleagues , analyzes many of Piaget's tasks in terms of "complexity theory." Instead of assessing logical problem solving as dependent on how concrete or abstract the contents, they suggest that the difficulty children have with problems depends on the number of variables that must be related to each other, that is, the size of the "processing load." The idea being that younger children can process fewer variables at once than older children.

By early elementary school, many children express recognition that another person's need is a good reason for helping—_______________—but they often do not express sympathy, nor do they talk about feeling guilty for not helping

they are needs oriented

children diagnosed with ADHD

they show atypical brain development, with differences in the frontal lobes (which are associated with attention & more complex cognitive processes, as well as parietal lobes, basal ganglia, corpus callosum & cerebellum)

tled the "child Development Project" (Developmental Studies center, 1996),

this program has the advantage of having been the focus of several evaluation studies. Designed for kindergarten through sixth grade, the program has as one goal to integrate ethical development with all aspects of social and intellectual development. To establish four core values (fairness, concern and respect for others, helpfulness, and responsibility), teachers use five techniques: focusing children's attention on prosocial examples of conduct; applying cooperative learning techniques; using examples from literature as well as real-life incidents to encourage a focus on others' needs and rights; involving children in helping activities; and encouraging self-control and moral reasoning by using an authoritative disciplinary style

Concrete operational children also understand_________________, having the ability to infer relationships between 2 objects by understanding their relationship to a third object. (ie. Line 1 is smaller than line 2, line 2 is smaller than line 3, so line 1 must be smaller than line 3, without having to visually compare the 2)

transitive inference

Rejected-withdrawn children

typically do not show aggression. These children annoy others by their strange or immature behavior, social awkwardness, and failure to "get" the rules governing social conventions. Because these are the children who are most likely to be victimized, self-reports of their own distress, loneliness, or social anxieties provide the most reliable estimate of problems. Some overlap in symptoms can exist in peer- problem profiles. Some victims can also be aggressive, for example, the "provocative" as opposed to "passive" victims described by o lweus (1993) . These children retaliate aggressively to the taunts and teasing of their peers who are aggravated by their obnoxiousnes

Others have suggested that more video viewing is due to parents trying to soothe or distract youngsters with more difficult temperaments (Brand, Hardesty & Dixon, 2011). In other words, their later attentional difficulties are due to their _____________________, not amount of TV viewing

underlying temperaments

) Development is _________________ There are variations between and within individual children. We all tend to have strengths & weaknesses.

uneven.

Intelligence is not ________________, but encompasses many skills

unidimensional

For children with _____________ parents in general, they tend to show the lowest school grades

uninvolved

The_____________has the world's largest prison system and incarcerates more people than any other country (Currie, 1998; Walmsley, 2007). From 1982 to 2003, the number of individuals employed in the u.S. justice system increased by 86%. Total criminal justice expenditures increased 418% from 1982 ($36 billion) to 2003 ($185 billion). The number of incarcerated individuals has shown a steady increase since the 1980s, and, in 2005, more than 7 million people in the united States were either on probation, on parole, in prison, or in jail awaiting trial

united States

Early maturing girls

would be bigger & heavier than many children their age (which may lead to body dissatisfaction). A more sexually developed body may leave them more open to teasing. Also, Peterson (1988) found these girls were sometimes even rejected by their less mature female peers early-maturing girls seem to have more behavior problems than others, especially with involvement with older boys (Gowen, Feldman, & Diaz, 2004). There is also some evidence of a slight tendency to have sex for the first time sooner

But fertility—ovulation in girls and adequate sperm production in boys—may not be achieved for a _______________ or more after these outward manifestations of maturity

year