LING 3400 Final Exam

Differences between restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses

Restrictive Clause: My husband who is a techie loves video games. -Here, I am specifying which husband. A sentence punctuated this way implies I have more than one. Nonrestrictive Clause: My husband, who is a techie, loves video games. -Here, I am giving extra information about an already specific noun, my only husband. A restrictive clause modifies the noun that precedes it in an essential way. Restrictive clauses limit or identify such nouns and cannot be removed from a sentence without changing the sentence's meaning. A nonrestrictive clause, on the other hand, describes a noun in a nonessential way. Nonrestrictive clauses provide additional but optional descriptions that can be excised from a sentence without altering its meaning or structure. Kaylee, who just graduated from high school, is an accomplished figure skater. While the nonrestrictive clause who just graduated from high school offers a good description of the subject of this sentence, Kaylee, the sentence retains its meaning without it. Kaylee is an accomplished figure skater.

What are infinitives?

"...nonfinite means that a verb is not preceded by TENSE in its own main verb phrase (MVP)." (Klammer p.361) "The prototypical infinitive phrase in English is to plus a form of the verb that is unmarked for tense or number..." (Klammer p.361) An infinitive usually begins with the word "to" and is followed by the base form of a verb (the simple form of the verb that you would find in the dictionary). Examples of infinitives include to read, to run, to jump, to play, to sing, to laugh, to cry, to eat, and to go. Verbs followed by infinitive complements often express something that is hypothetical, unreal, future, unfulfilled, and/or not experienced. e.g. I want to ski on the weekends. (the activity of skiing is unskilled and future, and therefore hypothetical/unreal)

How to recognize infinitive phrases

-Components •"To" marker and base form verb (some are missing "to) •Subject is usually missing (& shared with another NP in the main clause) -Do Not confuse with prepositional phrases Examples: -Lilly wants to stay at the party. -Jack is building a table to fit in that corner. -She gave a present to him.

Tests for infinitive phrases

-How do you know this is an infinitive phrase? »Check if "to" can be inserted »Check if the verb is uninflected & agrees with an object-case pronoun »Change the verb tense in the main clause to past. If the tense of the verb you suspect is an infinitive does not change, then it is an infinitive phrase. »Ex: I'll watch you perform a magic trick. •I watched you perform a magic trick. •I watched while you performed a magic trick.

What is a "base"?

A base is what prefixes & suffixes attach to A base is a meaningful core But not all bases are free morphemes Examples of bound bases are -ject in many words & -vert in other words

Adjectival infinitive phrases

An adjectival infinitive phrase modifies a noun or pronoun. In other words, it acts like an adjective. For example: "As long as she's here, I'll always have a friend to talk to me." The infinitive phrase to talk to me modifies (or describes) the noun friend. The best way to survive Professor Peterson's boring history class is to stab your thigh with a sharp pencil if you catch yourself drifting off. To survive Professor Peterson's boring history class = adjective (modifying way).

What are examples of structure class words?

Determiners, auxiliaries, qualifiers, and pronouns

An example of a construction with a determiner would be: A. The puppy B. A puppy C. This puppy D. One puppy E. All of the above

E.

What is pragmatics?

How speakers use language in ways which cannot be predicted from linguistic knowledge alone; language in contexts

What is "morphology"?

Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words.

Create other parts of speech using the world "flist." Create a noun meaning "someone who steals artifacts." Adverb from flistish from verb flist, an adjective other than flistish from that adjective, an adverb From either adjective above, a noun meaning "the quality of stealing items from a museum."

Noun - flister (prototypical suffix meaning a person who does something -er) Adverb - flistly (prototypical suffix meaning an adverb -ly)

What are examples of form class words?

Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs

Dangling or Misplaced Modifiers

-When cleaned up, I don't mind our apartment so much. -Having violated the rules, the contest was cancelled. -Linda played the piano wearing a new dress. -With below market prices, customers snatched up the products. -Grunting and barking, I walked the dogs.

Instances where words are used as infinitives and gerund complements

-But I always tend to imagine what these characters and their voices would sound like. -"To imagine" = infinitive -I don't have to imagine very hard how you must be feeling. -I can't imagine starting to taper off in a few months. ○Used in with a gerund complement here -It's hard to imagine a more serious set of allegations than those contained in the complaint. -Various forms of can you/you can before "imagine" -Can you imagine doing it live on television? -I can't imagine going against my brothers. -I can't imagine spending five and a half minutes let alone five and a half years... -"And then you start firing from the back window." -"Start" used with gerund "firing" -"Janis started writing down the lyrics to the song ..." -Past tense of "start" used with gerund "writing" -"When you start to recognize your body responding to something..." -"Start" used with infinitive "to recognize" ●I would love to see you actually try to ground that in historical fact. ○"Love to see" = infinitive ●If shopping on Amazon has taught us anything it's that people love to know what other people think. ○"Love to know" = infinitive ●I now love watching her interact with other kids and adults with confidence. ○"Love watching" = gerund ●I love going to sleep deliriously happy and waking up the same way. ○"Love going" = gerund ●To get better insight, I suggest to use a logarithmic scale vertically (times). ●"Suggest to use" = infinitive ●So, you suggest to anticipate conflict. ●"Suggest to anticipate" = infinitive ●In a similar technique, some gardeners suggest taking a clean, clear soda bottle and cutting the bottom off of it. ○"Suggest taking" = gerund ●I suggest trying that. ○"Suggest trying" = gerund ●They won't cry, unless I forget to feed them. ○"Forget to feed" = infinitive ●Otherwise I forget to breathe. ○"Forget to breathe" = infinitive ●I'll never forget going to the beach a few months after having my first baby,... ○"Forget going" = gerund ●I'll never forget sitting outside in the yard and watching a hawk... ○"Forget sitting" = gerund

What are the right inflectional morphemes?

1) Plural noun -s e.g. apple + -s (apples) 2) Possessive noun -'s e.g. Anna + 's (Anna's) 3) Present tense (third person singular) verb -s e.g. run + -s (runs) 4) Past tense verbs -ed e.g. danced irregular verbs = verb + vowel change ("eat" becomes "ate") 5) Past participle verbs -en & -ed e.g. walked and eaten 6) Present participle -ing e.g. baking 7) Adjective modifier (comparative) -er e.g. smaller 8) Adjective modifier (superlative) -est e.g. smallest

What are subclasses of adverbs?

1.Manner e.g. The woman worked steadily/quickly/slowly. 2. Time e.g. The students came yesterday/late. 3. Place e.g. Your friend called here/there. 4. Degree e.g. Humans are amazingly/incredibly bright. 5. Frequency & Number e.g. This class meets often/twice/seldom. 6. Duration e.g. She still/briefly thinks about it.

Distinguishing Particles, Prepositions, and Adverbs Decide whether the italicized words in the following sentences are prepositions, adverbs, or verb particles. Provide evidence for your decision. Example Moon, a Siberian husky, had run off and figured out how to get home many times before her owner took her on a road trip through Nevada. Off -> adverb, modifies run, can be deleted Out -> phrasal verb particle, forms a single unit figure out, whole unit can be substituted with a single verb eg. learned/realized On -> preposition, takes the object a road trip, cannot be deleted without loss of meaning, modifies took Through -> preposition, takes the object Nevada, cannot be deleted without loss of meaning, modifies road trip

1. She had always come back promptly when she ran away from home. Back → adverb, modifies come, can be deleted, can answer question where (eg. Where did she run away? From home), can be replaced with other adverbs away → adverb, modifies ran, can be deleted, can answer where, can be replaced by other adverbs from → preposition, modifies ran, takes object home, cannot be deleted without loss of meaning *alternatively, you can analyze away from as a phrasal preposition that modifies ran and takes the object home 2. While driving along with his three dogs, Moon's owner decided to stop for a while. Along → adverb, modifies driving, can be deleted without loss of meaning, can be replaced by other adverbs with → preposition, modifies driving, takes the object his three dogs, can't be deleted without loss of meaning for → preposition, modifies decided to stop, takes object a while, can't be deleted without loss of meaning 3. Moon ran away when her owner let her out at a rest stop near Railroad Valley. Away → adverb, modifies ran, can be deleted without loss of meaning, can answer question where, can be replaced by other adverbs out → particle, part of phrasal verb let out, cannot answer question where without change in meaning, cannot be deleted without change in meaning at → preposition, modifies let, takes an object a rest stop, can't be deleted without loss of meaning near → preposition → modifies rest stop, takes an object Railroad Valley, can't be deleted without loss of meaning 4. Her owner searched for her and waited for several hours, but, finally, he had to give up his search and drive on. For → preposition, modifies searched, takes an object her, can't be deleted without loss of meaning for → preposition, modifies waited, takes an object several hours, can't be replaced by adverbs up → particle, part of phrasal verb give up, particle can move, phrasal verb can be replaced by simple verb abandon, can't answer question where on → adverb, modifies drive, can be deleted without major change in meaning, can be replaced by other adverbs, can answer question where 5. The day Moon disappeared, the owner was on his way home to Ely, Nevada, 77 miles from the rest stop. On → preposition, modifies was, takes object his way home, can't be deleted without loss in meaning, to → preposition, takes object Ely, Nevada, can't be deleted without loss of meaning from → preposition, modifies 77 miles, takes an object the rest stop, can't be deleted without loss of meaning 6. After a week had gone by and Moon hadn't come back, her owner decided she was gone for good. By → particle, part of phrasal verb gone by, can't be replaced with an adverb, can be replaced by simple verb passed, can't answer question where back → adverb, modifies come, can be deleted without loss of meaning, can answer question where, can be replaced by another adverb for → preposition, modifies gone, takes object good, can't be deleted without loss of meaning, can't be replaced other adverbs, can't answer question where 7. Eight days after she disappeared, her owner found out that she was back in Ely. Out → particle, forms phrasal verb found out, can't be replaced with an adverb, can be replaced by simple verb discovered back → adverb, modifies was, can be replaced by other adverbs, can be deleted without loss of meaning in → preposition, modifies was, takes an object Ely, can't be deleted without loss of meaning *alternatively, you could analyze back in as a phrasal preposition modifying was and taking the object Ely, since in this example back does not have the mobility that other adverbs have, and when replaced by a different adverb that new adverb would have more mobility. For instance, compare how much more mobile again or once more would be in place of back. 8. He got a call from the veterinary clinic that had cared for his dogs in the past. From → preposition, modifies call, takes an object the veterinary clinic..., can't be replaced by other adverbs, can't be deleted without loss of meaning for → preposition, modifies had cared, takes an object his dogs, can't be moved past object, can't be deleted without loss of meaning, can't be replaced by a synonymous simple verb in → preposition, modifies had cared, takes an object the past, can't be deleted without loss of meaning, can't be replaced by other adverbs *It is possible to analyze for as the particle in a phrasal verb cared for, but because there is no simple verb that corresponds exactly to the hypothetical phrasal verb (maybe treated or nurtured?) and the particle can't move like a typical phrasal particle, I interpreted it as a preposition 9. An Ely family, who had taken Moon in, called up the clinic when they found a clinic tag around her neck. In → particle, part of phrasal verb taken in, can be replaced by simple verb sheltered, particle can move before or after object up → particle, part of phrasal verb called up, can be replaced by simple verb phoned or rang, particle can move before or after object around → preposition, modifies found, takes an object her neck, can't be deleted without loss of meaning 10. She was in good shape; apparently she either fed on rabbits during her trip back or people along the way provided her with food. In → preposition, modifies was, takes an object good shape, can't answer question where, can't be replaced by other adverbs on → particle, part of phrasal verb feed on, can be replaced with simple verb ate during → preposition, modifies fed on, takes an object her trip back along → preposition, modifies people, takes an object the way

Differences between relative and nominal-that clauses

1.Relatives are adjectival modifiers 2.that-clauses occupy an NP position, so you can substitute a noun for it (it/something). You cannot do this for relatives 3.Relatives follow a noun. -that clauses may or may not follow a noun. 4.The" that" in -that nominal clauses can be deleted if you are testing if the clause can stand alone (You know (that) I don't want to read the book). I don't want to read the book; whereas, the following can't have "that" deleted with the same test: The oranges that we bought today are sour. We bought today. Deleting "that" here creates an incomplete clause. •That everyone gets together makes Thanksgiving the best holiday. •Lizzie wore the sweater that Grandma made for her. •My brother hates that Uncle Brie always calls him George. •I'd like another slice of the pie that Aunt Glenda brought. •I am relieved that someone remembered to bring ice cream.

What is a compound-complex sentence?

A complex-compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. Here is my example: Though my friend prefers watching comedy films, she rented the latest horror movie, and she liked it very much. The dependent clause in this sentence is "Though my friend prefers watching comedy films." The first independent clause in this sentence is "She rented the latest horror movie." The coordinating conjunction in this sentence is "and." The second independent clause in this sentence is "She liked it very much." Because pumpkins are in season, she is going to make pumpkin pie; I will eat that pie.

What is a nonrestrictive clause? Give an example of one.

A nonrestrictive clause (also known as a nonessential clause) is a type of adjective clause that provides additional information about a word whose meaning is already clear. A nonrestrictive clause often begins with the word which and are always set off with commas. A nonrestrictive element describes a word whose meaning is already clear without the additional words. It is not essential to the meaning of the sentence and is set off with commas. Example: The children needed sturdy shoes, which were expensive. In this sentence we learn an extra fact—the shoes were expensive. Qualities of a nonrestrictive clause: Additional information; the noun is already specific Set off from the main clause with commas. Relative pronoun can not be deleted from a nonrestrictive.

What are phrasal verb particles? Give examples.

A phrasal verb is a verb that is made up of a main verb together with an adverb or a preposition, or both. Qualities of phrasal verbs: -Function as one unit of meaning and cannot be omitted -Particles can often move; the whole can be substituted by one word. Ex: Jackie looked up the etymology of the word. Other examples include: -add up -break in -dress up -fall apart -fall down -fill in -get up -go over -hold on -look out -try on

What are prepositions? Give examples of them.

A preposition is a word or group of words used before a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to show direction, time, place, location, spatial relationships, or to introduce an object. Some examples of prepositions are words like "in," "at," "on," "of," and "to." Qualities of prepositions: -Signals a noun & shows relationships between words -Often has an object, creating a prepositional phrase Ex: Jackie looked up the road to see oncoming cars.

What is "the prototype theory"? Why is this important in linguistics?

A proposal that the way humans make sense of the world is to have superordinate term associated in one's mind to which we compare all other examples we come in contact. The prototype theory helps us find prototypical parts of speech such as adverbs and adjectives. In Klammer et al's first chapter, he coins the concept of a "prototype theory." Prototype theory suggests that words of a specific class can share all the same characteristics but have fuzzy borders. For instance, "funny" is a prototypical adjective because it shares elements characteristic of other adjectives such as ending in -y, having the ability to change into a comparative or superlative (e.g. funnier, funniest), and having the ability to be intensified by words like "very" and "quite."

What are relative pronouns?

A relative pronoun is used to connect a clause or phrase to a noun or pronoun. The clause modifies, or describes, the noun. The most common relative pronouns are who, whom, whose, which, and that. Connect clauses to the rest of a sentence, like a subordinating conjunction; has an antecedent. Pronominal: Who, whom, whose, which, & that, (function adjectively); Relative adverbs where, when, why function adverbially within their own clauses but adjectively within the main construction. Ex: We visited [the place] where Vikings had landed.

Watermelons grow well in the moist climate of Georgia. The previous sentence is what kind of sentence? A. Intransitive B. Linking Verb "Be" plus adverbial of time/place C. Linking verb plus adjectival subject complement D. Linking verb plus nominal subject complement E. Transitive

A.

Gerunds

Always nominative •Electing him was a big change. (Subject) •They regret buying that little sports car. (D.O.) •Eleanor's hobby is collecting coins. (Subject complement/ predicate nominative) -Compare to: Eleanor's junk is collecting dust. •He supports himself by working as a waiter after school. (Object of Preposition)

What are some tests for adverbial subordinate clauses?

An adverbial subordinate clause is a dependent clause introduced by a subordinator. Punctuation: Because he was shy, he didn't speak. He didn't speak because he was shy. 1.Rarely required if at the end 2.Set of by a comma if at the front. Other tests: 1. Some adverbial clauses can appear either at the beginning or end of the sentence. Because he was shy, he didn't speak. He didn't speak because he was shy. 2. Sentence containing the clause can sometimes be transformed into a Wh-? Why didn't he speak? 3. A single adverb can sometimes substitute for the independent clause. After he reads them, he recycles the newspapers. He recycles them then. 4. Can fit in the adverb test frame. The man told his story ______. He bought a new car _______.

What is an appositive clause?

Appositives. An appositive is a noun or a noun phrase that sits next to another noun to rename it or to describe it in another way. e.g. Hermione Granger, a witch at Hogwarts School, is accomplished at spells. The core of this sentence is Hermione Granger is accomplished at spells. A witch at Hogwarts School is an appositive noun phrase that gives us additional information about Hermione Granger.

"Because people like being terrified while feeling safe, entrepreneurs have been attracting tourists to the falls over the years." In the previous sentence, "being terrified" is A. a past participle phrase functioning as a noun/direct object B. a gerund phrase functioning as an object of a transitive verb C. a present participle functioning adverbially D. a present participle functioning adjectivally. E. None of the above

B.

What is "He blustered; he roared; he pleaded, and he begged" in the sentence A. simple sentence B. a compound sentence C. a complex sentence D. a compound-complex sentence

B.

Coordinating Conjunctions are as follows: A. neither, nor, either, or, before, finally, nevertheless, otherwise, yet, since B. so, yet, or, for, and, nor, but C. who which, why, that, whom, when, how D. foremost, although, nonetheless, because, once, yet, so tha

B. A are correlatives; B are coordinating conjunctions (FAN BOYS); C. are interrogative or relative pronouns and D. are subordinating conjunctions

The boy ate every day at five. The previous sentence contains what type of verb: A. transitive verb B. intransitive verb C. linking verb D. modal verb

B. An intransitive verb is defined as a verb that does not take a direct object. That means there's no word in the sentence that tells who or what received the action of the verb. While there may be a word or phrase following an intransitive verb, such words and phrases typically answer the question "how?" An intransitive verb has two characteristics. First, it is an action verb, expressing a doable activity like arrive, go, lie, sneeze, sit, die, etc. Second, unlike a transitive verb, it will not have a direct object receiving the action. Here are examples of intransitive verbs: Huffing and puffing, we arrived at the classroom door with only seven seconds to spare. Arrived = intransitive verb. James went to the campus cafe for a steaming bowl of squid eyeball stew. Went = intransitive verb. To escape the midday sun, the cats lie in the shade under our cars. Lie = intransitive verb. Around fresh ground pepper, Sheryl sneezes with violence. Sneezes = intransitive verb. In the evenings, Glenda sits on the front porch to admire her immaculate lawn. Sits = intransitive verb.

"In 1968 one of the first Europeans to visit Niagara Falls wrote about the horror felt while standing next to the falls and looking down." In the sentence above, the phrase "to visit Niagara Falls" is what kind of construction? A. A prepositional phrase B. A nominal infinitive phrase C. As adjectival infinitive phrase D. A phrasal verb with a verb particle E. None of the above

C.

In the sentence, "My family finds chocolate delicious,"the word "delicious" is: A. a predicate adjective modifying the subject B. part of the adverbial phrase C. an adjectival object complement D. none of the above

C.

Tom Petty gave the Snickers bar to the trick-or- treater.In the above sentence " to the trick-or-treater" is a: A. Direct object and also a noun phrase B. Indirect object and also a noun phrase C. Adverb phrase transformed from the deep-structure indirect object (as Klammer and Chomsky would argue) D. Nominative complement to complete the direct object and give more information about it. E. None of the above

C. Here, we have a prepositional phrase functioning as an adverb phrase. Transformational generativists would argue that there is a deep structure of an indirect object that has been transformed to an adverbial phrase (from "Tom Petty gave the trick-or-treater the the Snickers bar" to "Tom Petty gave the Snickers bar to the trick-or- treater").

What is the word "where" in this sentence? She was looking for the place where she left her book. A. Relative pronoun B. Preposition C. Relative adverb D. Adjective

C. Relative adverb "Where" introduces a relative clause. Its antecedent is "the place," but since in its own clause it is functioning adverbially (it tells us about the location of her leaving her book) so it can't be an adjective or a relative pronoun.

In the sentence "The boys declared Quinten king." "king" is: In the rationale, explain your answer. A. a direct object B. an indirect object C. an object complement D. a predicate adjective

C. nominal object complement For question #4, "king" is an object complement because it is necessary to complete the sentence and it adds more information about the preceding object, that being, "Quinten." Also referred to as the predicate nominative, "king" completes the verb and renames the subject of the verb.

What are correlative conjunctions?

Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to join words, phrases, or clauses. The correlative conjunctions are either...or, neither...nor, both...and, not only...but also, whether...or. Examples include: both...and, either...or, neither....nor, not only...but also

Below is an example of:(The) ________ seem (s) all right (inevitable/necessary) A. A noun determinant B. A rule of thumb C. A verb structure class D. A frame sentence

D.

The candy got snatched by the bully who was targeting smaller trick-or-treaters. The previous sentence is: A. An active-voice sentence B. A subjunctive mood sentence C. An active-voice sentence with a direct object transformed into an adverbial phrase D. A passive voice sentence E. None of these

D.

What are the two different schools of thought within linguistics and how do they differ?

Empiricism - the camp of scholars interested in studying the specific facts of language structure by analyzing and chronicling what is produced in speech and writing Rationalism - the camp of scholars that are interested in finding out what is universal to all humans or innate

True or False: Intransitive verbs always have adverbs that follow them.

False

True or False: All adjectives can be made comparative or superlative by adding {-er} or {-est} morphemes.

False because there are some odd cases. Remember we have some cases because of length of syllable structure (as well as sound) that can not take the -er or -est endings. For example, beautifuler* would probably not be produced by L1 speakers, but more beautiful probably would. For adverbs, think of quickly. Would you produce quicklier* or more quickly?

True or False: When I entered the classroom, the student was asleep. In the previous sentence, the word "asleep" is an attributive adjective.

False; "asleep" is a predicative adjective because it follows the noun

True or False: Form-class words consist of nouns, verbs, articles, prepositions, and adjectives.

False; Form-class words are nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverb. Articles and prepositions are structure-class words.

True or False: The whole pizza was eaten by my roommates. In the previous sentence, "whole" is a predicative adjective.

False; This adjective is attributive and must precede a noun.

What is the difference between form and function?

Form refers to the part of speech a word is. Function refers to the purpose of a word within relation to those surrounding it in a sentence. For instance, in the sentence "Happy is a fabulous word," the form of "happy" is an adjective, but the function of it is nominative (noun phrase of the subject). Another example: While "funny" has typically been referred to as an adjective in form, its function can reflect something different from that of an adjective. For instance, in the sentence, "Funny is an important word," the word "funny" is a noun; therefore, recognizing the need to distinguish between form and function in language. Form and function within language speak to the variety of ways in which a word can be used for different purposes. In Chapter 1 of Klammer's textbook, he mentions the controversy surrounding the word "contact." Originally, the word "contact" was agreed upon by speakers of English only as a noun. When enough people decided to adopt the idea that "contact" can be used as another part of speech, it became accepted in the dictionary to also take on the form and function of a verb.

What are the tests you can use to identify an adjective? Formal proofs? Functional proofs? What are the subclasses of adjectives?

Formal Proofs: 1. May have an adjective-making morpheme. e.g. {-y} in "funny," {-able} in "lovable" 2. Can be made comparative or superlative with an inflectional morpheme e.g. Softer, softest {-er}, {est} Functional Proofs: 3. Can be qualified e.g. rather soft 4. Can be comparative or superlative by using more or most. e.g. more beautiful, most beautiful 5. Can fit both slots in the frame sentence. The _____ man seems very ______. The ______ (noun) seems very ____. Attributive and predictive are the two subclasses of adjectives. Adjectives in the first position - before the noun - are called ATTRIBUTIVE adjectives. Those in the second position - after the noun - are called PREDICATIVE adjectives. Notice that predicative adjectives do not occur immediately after the noun. Instead, they follow a verb. The (attributive)man was very (predicative). Attributive and predicative (sleepy, hot) Only attributive (entire) The entire pizza disappeared. Only predicative (alive) The spider was alive.There also gradable adjectives (we can intensify these) An example is rather late and somewhat early. But some adjectives, do not seem able to be qualified. Examples are *very dead or *very endless, yet we do speakers qualify items such as these all the time—The so very pregnant woman in the corner looks ready to pop. Also, remember that some adjectives require complements. For example, Klammer discussed "fond" in which "My brother is fond" does not work, but "My brother is fond of frozen yogurt" does work.

What are the tests you can use to identify a verb? Formal proofs? Functional proofs? What are the subclasses of verbs?

Formal proofs: 1. Has verb-making morpheme. e.g. -ize, -ify (energize, classify) 2. Can occur with the present-tense morpheme. e.g. energizes, classifies 3. Can occur with the past-tense morpheme. e.g. energized, classified 4. Can occur with the present-participle morpheme. e.g. energizing, classifying 5. Can occur with the past-participle morpheme. e.g. had criticized, was quantified, has fallen Functional proofs: 6. Can be made into a command. e.g. Energize this crowd! 7. Can be made negative. e.g. They did not classify the files. 8. Can fit in the frame sentence. They must _______ (it). They must _______ good. The subclasses of verbs include transitive, linking, and intransitive.

Analyze these verbs in terms of how they differ in their usage: --Have •A bright green bird has nested there. •Kelly has the dictionary. ---Be •The professors are sure that the contest is happening next year. •Many articles were written during that time by only one famous scholar. ---Do •Do you leave tomorrow? (question support) •They didn't want to get a chinchilla. (negative formation) •That sun does look powerful hot. (emphasis) •She'll eat healthier if you do. (Pro-verb) •I'll do the laundry tonight.

Have: 1) functioning as an auxiliary 2) functioning as a main verb Be: 1) functioning as a main verb? 2) functioning as an auxiliary Do: " " Have can be a main verb meaning to possess, to be characterized by, to be ill with, to eat, to give birth to, to display a quality or trait. Examples: Wendy has bad teeth and platinum-colored hair. (to be characterized by) For be, remember that as a main verb, it can connect predicate adjectives/modifiers and predicate nominatives to the subject. You are crazy. You are my son. Jack has cancer (to be ill with). I had the chocolate fondue with marshmallows. (to eat or consume) Julie had a beautiful boy! (to give birth to) You had lots of courage in your oral exam. (display a quality or trait). Be careful of do. It can perform many auxiliary or grammatical functions, but it can also be a main verb with a variety of meanings such as:Jack does the work without complaining (to perform) A full night's sleep did you a lot of good (to cause) I wonder what Mary did after college (to work at—vocation) She did her makeup. (to apply cosmetics) Shirley did her living room in pink. (to decorate) We all do laundry on Wednesdays. (to wash).

What are the five basic sentence types?

I. Intransitive e.g. The child is singing loudly. "sleeping" = intransitive verb (main verb) "is" = auxiliary II. Linking Verb Be plus adverbial of time or place e.g. The child will be there. "be" = main verb "be" "will" = auxiliary (modal) "there" = adverb of place III. Linking Verb plus adjectival subject complement e.g. The child seems sleepy. "seems" = the linking verb IV. Linking Verb plus nominal subject complement e.g. The child is my cousin. "is" = linking verb V. Transitive e.g. The child chewed the cashew. "chewed" = transitive verb

What is the difference between "true verbs" (main verbs) and "helping verbs" (auxiliaries)?

In the examples of -ing and -ed forms which we looked at, you may have noticed that in each case two verbs appeared: [1] The old lady is writing a play [2] The film was produced in Hollywood Writing and produced each has another verb before it. These other verbs (is and was) are known as AUXILIARY VERBS, while writing and produced are known as MAIN VERBS or LEXICAL VERBS. In fact, all the verbs we have looked at on the previous pages have been main verbs. Auxiliary verbs are sometimes called HELPING VERBS. This is because they may be said to "help" the main verb which comes after them. For example, in The old lady is writing a play, the auxiliary is helps the main verb writing by specifying that the action it denotes is still in progress.

What is "Standard American English"?

Languages change, especially what is considered standard and nonstandard. "Standard American English" is a social construct, but there are some prototypical descriptions about English that we can discuss—such as that it is not a pro-drop language or that it usually has adjectival modifiers that come before the nouns they modify. In describing English, we will need to go back to prototype theory. the form of the English language used in the United States in formal and professional speech and writing, as taught in schools and heard on newscasts, adhering to fixed norms of spelling, grammar, and usage in written and spoken contexts, and neutralizing nonstandard dialectal variation. Abbreviation: SAE Klammer et al. make a good point in discussing the differences between languages that have academies to define and legislate the standard... America does not have such an academy; however, many states have chosen an official language (but not all). Even still, these states have not mandated a defined standard; thus, showing how there is no real standard dialect within English

Who was Leonard Bloomfield and why was he relevant in the field of linguistics?

Leonard Bloomfield was a descriptive linguist known for developing "structuralism." He was famous for creating procedures to describe languages and scientific approaches to analysis. He was probably the originator of corpus linguistics. He was also interested in chronicling unwritten languages, particularly Native-American languages. Leonard Bloomfield was the "father of structuralism" and describing languages, particularly Native American languages, that were becoming Moribund.

What is the difference between linguistics and traditional grammar?

Linguistics = descriptive, spoken language is primary, and does not force language into other languages' framework Traditional grammar = prescriptive, written language is usually prized above the spoken, and traditional English grammarians use Latin rules to explain English

Give an example of the same verb (with 3 different sentences) that could function as a linking verb, an intransitive verb, and a transitive.

Linking: He grew tired. Intransitive: He grew a lot. Transitive: He grew a cactus.

When would the nativeness principle be more favorable? What about the intelligibility principle? For who?

Nativeness principle: Students who plan on mixing with native speakers in the professional world may seek native pronunciation Those who plan on immigrating to inner circle countries may want to perfect native accent Those with weaker language identity may strive for native pronunciation Intelligibility principle: Learners looking to use English as a lingua franca to communicate with outer circle/other expanding circle speakers will solely aim for intelligibility Those with a strong language identity may not need nor want native pronunciation (Jenkins Interview) Both principles can be applicable to students for different needs. Take a balanced approach and teach both standard English alongside World Englishes. Teach both! 1. Consider the Context -Teacher's own education, attitudes toward models, the model's prestige or usefulness, [and] availability of materials and tests -There is no single correct answer! 2. Value learners' English -Help their learners understand that the chosen variety is just one type of English, and that the learners' own English is valuable even though it may differ significantly from what is presented in class. 3. Prepare learners for intercultural communication -Expose them to different varieties -Focus on teaching both strategic and intercultural competence skills (e.g. slowing the rate of speech and articulating clearly) Neither of the principles is perfect.

Analyze this set of sentences through form and function. •Homer needs some new shoes •Homer needs some baseball shoes •Homer needs some walking shoes.

New = adjective modifying "shoes"; adjective functioning adjectivally Baseball = noun modifying "shoes"; noun functioning adjectivally Walking = verb modifying the noun "shoes"; verb functioning adjectivally

Take the following sentences and combine them to make two different sentences--one in which there is a dependent clause functioning adverbially and one with a dependent clause functioning adjectivally.

No flowers are easier to grow than impatiens. Impatiens require little food. Impatiens don't attract pests. Adverbially functioning dependent clause - No flowers are easier to grow than impatiens, because they require little food and don't attract pests. Adjectivally functioning dependent clause - No flowers are easier to grow than impatiens, which is a type of flower that requires little food and doesn't attract pests.

Who coined the phrase "poverty of stimulus" in language acquisition?

Noam Chomsky

What are qualifiers and some examples of them?

Qualifiers and intensifiers are words or phrases that are added to another word to modify its meaning, either by limiting it (He was somewhat busy) or by enhancing it (The dog was very cute). Qualifiers affect the certainty and specificity of a statement. Qualities of qualifiers: •Precede the adjectives or adverbs they modify •Usually fit into the following frame sentence: -- The handsome man seems _____ handsome. very quite so pretty rather Other examples of qualifiers include: -very -quite -rather -somewhat -more -most -less -least -too -so -just -enough -still -almost -fairly -really -pretty -even -a bit -a little -a (whole) lot -a good deal -a great deal -kind of -sort of

What was Ferdinand de Saussure's major contribution to the field of linguistics?

Saussure was known as "the Father of Modern Linguistics." He focused on language description and how language items are interlinked, structured, and patterned. He took a relativist position and looked at each language in its own right—out of which was born the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis—the hypothesis that languages actually mold the world view of their speakers to a significant degree.

What is "second language acquisition"?

Second-language acquisition (SLA), second-language learning or L2 (language 2) acquisition, is the process by which people learn a second language. SLA exhibits features of both the new language (L2) and the native language (L1) of the speaker. The vast majority of English speakers are not native to the language, meaning that they most likely learn it as a second language. English is stated as the "lingua franca" in business, trade, diplomacy, and other spheres of global activity.

Who is Sir William Jones and what were his contributions to the field of linguistics?

Sir William Jones is famous for analyzing Sanskrit and then taking that analysis to develop Proto-Indo-European or the idea of an originating language for many languages he was familiar with including Latin and Germanic languages. He was interested in language commonalities. Sir Jones was extremely interested in historical linguistics, as were many 19th c. linguists. He was particularly intrigued by similarities he found in ancient Sanskrit and other languages he was studying. From this, he surmised that there must be an common origination of languages, and thus the search to reconstruct Proto-Indo-European became a his fascination.

What is grammar comprised of?

Sound patterns (phonology), word patterns (morphology), and meaning patterns (semantics)

What are examples of different dialects in English?

Southern (including AAVE), Northern/New England, and Midland - known as the three major regional varieties in the U.S.

What is the difference between structure and form class words?

Structure-Class Words: •Mostly "closed" class (few additions) •Grammatical meaning & relationships •Often referred to as function words, but, they don't lack content or lexical meaning. •Do not usually undergo change in form Form-Class Words: •"Open" class (exponential additions) •Contain lexical meaning •Can undergo morphological change

Analyze this sentence. 1. Eight Belles, the runner-up in the 2008 Kentucky Derby, collapsed one quarter-mile past the finishing line.

Subject: Eight Belles, the runner-up in the 2008 Kentucky Derby MVP: collapsed Verb Expansion: past + COLLAPSE; simple past She collapsed on quarter-mile past the finishing line.

What are tense, mood, and aspect?

Tense is whether a verb is in a present, past, or future state. e.g. He is my husband. He was my husband. He will be my husband. Aspect defines how the flow of time is viewed in the sentence. The aspect of a verb is determined by whether the verb expresses a fact, an ongoing action, a completed action, or the end of an ongoing action. Perfect or Progressive The perfect tenses describe a finished action. They are present perfect, past perfect and future perfect. The perfect progressive tenses describe an action that was in progress but was then finished. In contrast, the progressive indicates an action that is ongoing. Have/Has -ing I have been writing a book for a while. She had been writing a book for a while Mood (or mode) regards the relationship of the verb with reality and intent. Indicative Imperative Subjunctive Indicative (Statement) Imperative (Commands) Subjunctive (contrary to fact or wishes)

What is the Bollinger principle?

The Bolinger Principle (named for linguist Dwight Bolinger, who first articulated it) suggests that there is a time relationship entailed in the meanings. When the action of the main verb precedes the action of the direct object, the infinitive is used. When the action of the direct object precedes that of the main verb, a gerund is used. When the meaning of the main verb makes the distinction clear, such as with start or begin, either form is acceptable with no significant difference in meaning evident. The explanation extends to certain verbs, too. For example, both hope and expect are actions that must precede their objects, and only the infinitive is an acceptable complement for these verbs. However, this simplistic description of Bolinger's principle is flawed, for the verb anticipate, which is like hope and expect in its forward-looking meaning, takes the gerund only (I anticipate winning, not I anticipate to win). Nevertheless, even a partial explanation can be welcome for students, and this may allow the next step to occur. Bolinger's Principle actually goes further to suggest that there is a difference in nuance if not in actual time relationship. The gerund suggests an actual, fulfilled activity, whereas the infinitive refers to a hypothetical, unfulfilled activity. The subtle difference will go unrecognized by most learners, but it may be helpful for a few.There is another case where a hybrid verb form functions in roles that are typically filled by other words. Take a look at the activity on the next page to see examples.

What is syntax?

The arrangement and form of words in a language (order)

What does/can a main verb phrase include?

The auxiliary and the main verb The auxiliary includes: tense - present or past e.g. modal "may" + perfect HAVE + {-en} + progressive BE + {-ing} + main verb may have been studying

A. Look at the following data from a language learner. Discover if there are any patterns that you can discern. What might they be? Explain to the language learner where s/he has gone awry and some steps that might help create well-formed interrogatives. The information in the parentheses is to help you understand what the language learner intends to say/mean. You go to the talk next week? (asking student next to him about an announcement in class). She having a good time in Spain? (asking about another student who is studying abroad). You like teaching linguistics? (asking me if I like teaching linguistics). You are from Kentucky? (asking me if I am from Kentucky). You have been to Vietnam? (asking me if I have been to Vietnam). When Jay's birthday? (asking when a mutual friend's birthday is) Whose is that bag over that? (asking about a bag left in the classroom) Someone is coming? (asking which people are coming) This color blue? (asking about the type of color of a sweater)

The first pattern that I noticed about this language learner was the lack of clarity in his/her interrogative question constructions. There are two kinds of interrogative sentences: yes/no questions and wh-questions. Yes/no questions test whether or not an assertion is true. Wh-questions assume the truth of a statement, asking the listener to provide missing information. The first step of creating yes/no questions involves moving the first auxiliary verb to the front of the sentence. The language learner is missing the modal "will" at the beginning of the first question. The new question would be written as "Will you go to the talk next week?" Once again, in the second sentence, the question is missing the auxiliary verb "is." The third sentence is a special case. If there is no auxiliary verb or main verb be present, then the auxiliary DO must be inserted and placed at the beginning of the question. For the third question, the language learner does not include the do-support auxiliary at the beginning of the question. It is needed at the beginning of this question to indicate that it is an interrogative sentence. DO would be used as a substitute auxiliary here and inflect to show past tense, resulting in the new question: "Do you like teaching linguistics?" The fourth sentence could be mistaken as a declarative sentence rather than an interrogative one. Since this question is asking whether or not a person is from Kentucky, this sentence is testing the truth of an assertion; therefore, it should be reworded with the auxiliary verb "are" at the beginning of the sentence and the pronoun "you" following it. Once again, the fifth sentence could also be misconstrued as a statement, so in order to make it an interrogative sentence, the first auxiliary verb "have" must be placed before the pronoun "you." Whenever there are two auxiliary verbs (in this case "have" and "been") in a sentence, always place the first one ("have") at the beginning of the sentence in order to transform it into a question. The first step in constructing wh-questions is inserting DO as an auxiliary verb, if the unknown is not the subject and if there is no auxiliary verb. The sixth sentence does not contain an auxiliary; however, it should. The auxiliary verb "is" should be placed in between the wh-word "when" and the subject "Jay's birthday." In the seventh sentence, the interrogative word "whose" functions as a determiner preceding the noun "bag"; therefore, the questions should be rewritten as "Whose bag is that over there?" Since this question is asking about the location of a noun, it would not make sense to use the determiner "that" in this context. Instead, using the adverb "there" would make more sense. For the eighth sentence, since this question asks for specific missing information, it would make more sense to use the wh-word "who" in place of "someone" or simply replace "someone is" with "which people are." While "someone" could function in place of a wh-word word as the subject here, this question asks about people in a plural sense; therefore, it would make the most sense to precede a noun such as "people" with the question word "which." I would suggest to the language learner that he or she should change the ninth sentence and more accurately transform it into a question by adding the auxiliary verb "is" at the beginning of it. One suggestion I would give to this language learner is clearly understanding the differences between yes/no questions and wh-questions. Yes/no questions simply ask for a confirmation of something, whereas wh-questions ask for missing information. Additionally, interrogative words such as who, what, when, where, how, and why are used to begin wh-questions. These words are used for the constituent representing unknown information. An easy way to determine the grammatical function of the interrogative word in a wh-question would be to substitute an indefinite pronoun or expression such as someone, something, or somewhere for the question word. For instance, in the question "Who will decide the outcome of the bet?", you could analyze the use of "who" by replacing it with the indefinite pronoun "someone." For cases where there is no auxiliary or be verb, remember to insert the DO auxiliary. Here would be an example of a transformation in which DO would be necessary: "They played together." into "They did play together." into "Did they play together?"

Noun substitution test

The seventeenth century witnessed a profusion of English dictionaries. Something witnessed something. S NP VP MVP complement MV tense + MV (past) + witness

What is morphology?

The study of the makeup of words or the smallest units of meaning that make up words

True or False: Bases in English morphology of a word are always free.

This is false. Remember our examples of -ject. Ject does not serve as a free morpheme or word in the world, but it is a base for many words, such as deject, subject, deject, interject, object, and abject. -Spect is another, such as in items prospect, inspect, and suspect. We also briefly discussed -vert (subvert, convert, divert, invert....)

Difference between subject complements and DO/IO sentence structure

Transitive verb sentences: I was sad throughout the holiday season.("Was" is a linking verb, showing no action. This means we're dealing with a subject complement and not a direct object.) I have been happy for months now.("Have been" is a linking verb, showing no action. "Happy for months now" is, therefore, a subject complement and not a direct object.) The apartment seems colorful, light, and airy.("Seems" is showing no action and is, therefore a linking verb. This makes "colorful, light, and airy" a subject complement.)

What is an allomorph?

Variant of a single morpheme (can be inflectional or derivational) - Meaning must be the same, but pronunciation as well as spelling can differ -Examples: shopper, operator -Remember that there are phonologically conditioned allomorphs of inflectional morphemes, even when they aren't spelled differently such as "stated" &"stayed" or "boys" & "snakes."

What is a comma splice? How do you fix comma splices?

When you join two independent clauses with a comma and no conjunction, it's called a comma splice. Some people consider this a type of run-on sentence, while other people think of it as a punctuation error. Here's an example of a comma splice: Koala bears are not actually bears, they are marsupials. A comma splice occurs when you use a comma to join two complete sentences without placing an appropriate joining word between them. A comma splice is when two independent clauses are incorrectly joined by a comma to make one sentence. To avoid comma splices, you first need to be able to identify an independent clause. To fix comma splices, you can add a coordinating conjunction. e.g. He is a complainer, no one likes him. Because he is a complainer, no one likes him. No one likes him because he is a complainer.

True or False: The word understanding has the same number of syllables and morphemes.

While "understanding" has four syllables (un-der-stand-ing), it has two morphemes (understand-ing) Another example: "happy" is a two syllable word (hap-py) but has one morpheme.

What is the difference between main verbs and auxiliaries?

Writing and produced each has another verb before it. These other verbs (is and was) are known as AUXILIARY VERBS, while writing and produced are known as MAIN VERBS or LEXICAL VERBS. ... Auxiliary verbs are sometimes called HELPING VERBS. This is because they may be said to "help" the main verb which comes after them.

What is backformation?

a word that is formed from an already existing word from which it appears to be a derivative, often by removal of a suffix (e.g., laze from lazy and edit from editor ). In linguistics, back-formation is the process of forming a new word (a neologism) by removing actual or supposed affixes from another word. Put simply, a back-formation is a shortened word (such as edit) created from a longer word (editor). "Burgle" from "burglar"

Nominative functioning as an adjective complement

•I bet my cousin was happy something. •I bet my cousin was happy that we went to her wedding. Klammer analyzes this as an NP constituent to an adjective... your thoughts on this?

Present participles as adjectives

•Interesting -very interesting, more interesting (than) • This is interesting to me. This is very interesting to me. This is more interesting to me than that.

What is a morpheme? How can you identify/locate a morpheme? What is the difference between it and a syllable?

•Morphemes are concerned with meaning •Smallest unit of meaning; although in some languages this is difficult to tease apart. -Syllables are concerned with sound =Usually defined as the smallest unit of uninterrupted sound, usually having at least one peak (a vowel) Morphemes have a meaning that can be vaguely stated Morphemes contain only one unit of meaning (not in all languages) Morphemes can be used with the same meaning within other words or as a word by itself.

Relatives vs. Nominals

•People forgot that Daimler-Benz developed the NECAR II in the 1990s. •The NECAR II was a minvan that seated six people. •Hydrogen fuel was stored in two cylinders that were placed beneath the rooftop shell. •Green Car editors pointed out that there were no stations set up for providing hydrogen fuel. Test if these are nominal clauses or relative (adjectival) clauses. 1.People forgot something 2.The NECAR II was a minivan something *--looks like a relative, but if Klammer is arguing that there are relative appositives, why isn't the true structure, The NECAR II, a minivan, seated six people? 3.Hydrogen fuel was stored in two cylinders something 4.Green Car editors pointed out something.

What do adverbial clauses do?

•Provide information about: -Time (after, when...) •BE CAREFUL WITH WHEN & After -Location (where...) •BE CAREFUL WITH WHERE -Manner (as though, as if...) -Reason, Cause, or Condition (because, if, unless...) •Remember you can test with "for some reason" but it is not a great test for some adverbial clauses of manner or condition.

Give examples of interrogative nominal clauses.

•Something won't hurt you. •Will I finally remember something? •They are concerned about something. Examples include: What you don't know won't hurt you. Will I finally remember where I put my keys. They are concerned about how to pass the test.

Functions of past participle phrases

•The car parked behind the movie theater belongs to an usher. (noun modifier---adjectival) •Irrigated fields produce most of our lettuce. (noun modifiers—adjectival) •The crowd saw them trounced by their opponents. (Adjectival object complement) •When inflated, the balloon measured six feet in diameter. (Adverbial) •Refused a place on the ticket, Hubert decided to run as an independent. (Adverbial or Adjectival?)

Give an example of a passive transformation.

•The guests ate all of the toffee. •All of the toffee was eaten by the guests. Pablo was given some flowers by Diane Passive: [past + BE +{-en} + give] Active: Diane gave Pablo some flowers.[past + give]

Explain why three of the sentences in this quiz have the same word "grow," but may or may not have different analyses.

"Grow" in "Watermelons grow well in the moist climate of Georgia." would be an intransitive verb because you do not need the adverb "well." "Well" modifies the verb "grow," describing how the watermelons are growing. "Grow" in "We grow huge sunflowers here in the summers." would be a transitive verb because it transfers an action to an object. Another reason why we know "grow" is a transitive verb in this context is because the second noun phrase functions as a direct object, which is true of type V sentences. "Grow" in "As the semester wears on, the students grow tired." would be a linking verb because it describes the subject ("the students") by connecting it to a predicate adjective (also known as an adjectival complement), that being, "grow tired." These three sentences have the same word "grow" but are used in different ways. The transitive and intransitive versions of "grow" draw on the literal meaning of the word, whereas its use as a linking verb in the third sentence is figurative.

In the lecture, we had a sentence that many students had difficulty analyzing. Please use what you know about formal and functional proof to analyze all of the words in the following sentence: I am going shopping.

"I" would be the subject in this sentence. I would classify "I" as the first-person singular subject case. The subject case (also called the nominative case) is considered the base form because it is the form of the personal pronoun used when the pronoun functions as a subject, as it does so in this sentence. "Am" would be the auxiliary verb (also known as the helping verb) because it functions to express the progressive aspect of the verb. "Am" occurs before the present participle {-ing} form of the main verb "go." "Going" is the present participle of the verb "go." "Am going" forms the present continuous tense because the auxiliary verb "to be" is in front of the main action verb "going;" thus, together, they create the verb phrase within the sentence. "Shopping" is a gerund because it is derived from the verb "shop" and ends with "-ing." "Shopping" is also a gerund because it functions as a noun in this sentence due to the fact that it names an activity rather than a person or thing. Is "shopping" truly functioning as a noun? If "shopping" is "functioning" as a noun, then can you replace it with another prototypical noun? I am going woman/mall/sister. You can only replace it with nouns of location that function adverbially. Remember this later when we look at sentence types an have obligatory adverbs of time/location in copular/linking verb sentences. You have earned points for the discussion, but careful later when you have to categorize sentence types.

What are gerunds?

"When a verb with the -ing inflection occupies a noun position, it is called a gerund" (Klammer p.385) Ex: I enjoy dancing. It would be prescriptively incorrect to say "I enjoy to dance." -VIVID, REAL, FULFILLED Examples of main verbs that take gerunds: ○Enjoy ○Finish ○Deny ○Complete ○Practice ○Miss Verbs followed by gerund complements typically express something that is real, vivid, fulfilled and/or experienced. e.g. I enjoy skiing on the weekends. (the activity of skiing has been experienced, and therefore is real/fulfilled)

Identify the form (relative or subordinate clause or phrase) of each underlined structure; then determine its function in the sentence (adverbial modifier, adjectival modifier). a. A day when the sun fails to shine is rare in Florida.

"When the sun fails to shine" is a relative clause because it is a constituent of the noun phrase "a day." "When the sun fails to shine" is not an adverbial subordinate clause because it cannot be moved to the beginning of the sentence; an adverb cannot be substituted for it; and a wh-question cannot be made from it. "When the sun fails to shine" functions as an adjectival modifier in this sentence because it modifies the noun that precedes it.

Identify the form (relative or subordinate clause or phrase) of each underlined structure; then determine its function in the sentence (adverbial modifier, adjectival modifier). Edward decided to wait while they fixed his car

"While they fixed his car" is an adverbial subordinate clause in form because it is a dependent clause and is introduced by the subordinating conjunction "while." This clause can be moved to the beginning of the sentence and still make sense.

What changes take place throughout language development?

-Adaptations or creations become standards or not -Usage depends on conventions and acceptability of those conventions -Different discourse communities have different language norms. -SAE conventions are usually decided by a majority or the powerful.

What are characteristics of prototypical adjectives? Give an example.

-Ends in "y" -Can be made comparative or superlative -Can be intensified with words like "very," "rather," and "quite" -Can be a predicate adjective: "I feel happy." -Modifies a noun: "a happy child" -Can function as an object complement: The new doll made her happy. In Klammer et al's first chapter, he coins the concept of a "prototype theory." Prototype theory suggests that words of a specific class can share all the same characteristics but have fuzzy borders. For instance, "funny" is a prototypical adjective because it shares elements characteristic of other adjectives such as ending in -y, having the ability to change into a comparative or superlative (e.g. funnier, funniest), and having the ability to be intensified by words like "very" and "quite."

Write an example of each (not used our text, notes, or this quiz) of the following: 1. A simple sentence with a phrase as a subject 2. A sentence with an interrogative clause functioning as the subject in a sentence 3. A sentence with an interrogative clause functioning as the direct object in a sentence 4. A sentence with a that-clause functioning as the the direct object in a sentence 5. A phrase that is an appositive in a sentence 6. A that-clause used as an appositive in a sentence 7. A misplaced relative-clause modifier in a sentence 8. Now correct the sentence you wrote for #7 above.

1) The trick-or-treaters' costumes were adorable. 2) What people wear on Halloween is cool. 3) My mom wondered where they bought their Halloween costumes from. 4) I heard that the socially distanced Halloween party was a great success. 5) The puppy, a golden retriever, is my favorite pet.

Use "do," "be," and "have" in six different sentences. In three of the sentences, these must be auxiliary verbs, and in three, these must be the main verb.

1) "Do" can be used as an auxiliary verb in three ways: to form negatives, to create certain kinds of questions, and to create emphatic statements. -I "don't want" want to wait for the bus. -"Do" you play the piano? -He "does" look smart in his new suit. "Do" can also be used as a main verb, as it possesses a number of meanings. -I have a lot of homework to "do" tonight. (to perform as a task) -All children have to "do" English in primary school. (to study a subject) -Who "did" the design for the website? (to produce or create) 2) "Have" can be used as an auxiliary verb in the present-perfect form or the past-perfect form. -I "have finished" the dishes. -There were so many poems that he "had written." "Have" can also be used as a main verb in many ways. -My aunt "has" a lot of money. (to possess) -My best friend "has" the flu. (to be ill with) -She "had" the courage to show off her voice at the talent show. (to display a quality or trait) 3) "Be" has two functions as an auxiliary verb: to express the progressive aspect of a verb and to create passives. -I "am cooking" meatloaf for dinner. -Justin Bieber "was seen" by fans at the airport. "Be" can also function as a main verb, as it can be used to link a subject in the sentence to a phrase in the predicate that describes or identifies the subject. -My mother "is" a teacher. (can be used to talk about a person's job or profession) -The weather "was" terrible. (can be used to talk about temporary or permanent qualities or states) -I "am" twenty-one years old. (can be used to talk about age)

Directions: Select the best answer to each question about the following passage below. On fine winter weekends, Joe and Marie would hike along Esperanza Ridge, from which they could see, on particularly clear days, the tall buildings of downtown Los Angeles 50miles away. Immediately below them were the greenery, ponds, and curving paths that comprised the Getty Arboretum. At these times, the elderly couple were quite certain that they were living in the most beautiful place on earth. 1. What is "from which they could see, on particularly clear days, the tall buildings of downtown LosAngeles?" A. a subordinate (adverbial) clause B. a prepositional phrase C. a relative clause D. a that clause E. Noe of the above 2. What is "that comprised the Getty Arboretum"? A. a subordinate (adverbial) clause B. a prepositional phrase C. a relative clause D. an interrogative clause E. a nominative that clause 3. What is "that they were living in the most beautiful place on earth"? A. a subordinate (adverbial) clause B. a prepositional phrase C. a relative clause D. an interrogative clause E. a that clause/Nominative clause

1) C. While "from" is a preposition, you have a whole clause in this construction with a complete subject (they) and predicate (could see....) that describes the ridge. 2) C. This is a relative (adjectival clause) functioning adjectivally to modify "paths." 3) E. This is one of those that clauses that is a complement. Klammer explains this a few ways on page 346.

What are the 12 results for the English verb phrase?

1) Present e.g. Carol laughs. 2) Past e.g. Carol laughed. 3) Present + Modal (often future, but not always) e.g. Carol will laugh. 4) Present + Perfect e.g. Carol has laughed. 5) Past + Perfect e.g. Carol had laughed. 6) Present + Progressive e.g. Carol is laughing. 7) Past + Progressive e.g. Carol was laughing. 8) Present + Perfect + Progressive e.g. Carol has been laughing. 9) Past + Perfect + Progressive e.g. Carol had been laughing. 10) Present + Modal + Perfect (Future) e.g. Carol will have laughed. 11) Present + Modal + Progressive (Future) e.g. Carol will be laughing. 12) Present + Modal + Perfect + Progressive (Future) e.g. Carol will have been laughing.

Analyze these verb examples and classify them. 1) The first person to start using the published works of British authors as authority for his definitions was Thomas Blount. 2) The degree of correspondence between the characteristics of a given assessment task and those of a particular language use task will determine the generalizability of the interpretations to the setting of the target language task use. 3) Uncertainty can also arise in the way test developers identify and define the areas of language ability to be assessed. 4) VCU had lost its last four conference games before facing ODU. 5) Everyone around him should have known it all along. 6) This week, U.S. troops will have been fighting in Iraq longer than they did in World War II.

1) Someone was someone. S NP VP MVP complement MV tense + MV (past) + be 2) Something will determine something. S NP VP MVP complement AUX + MV tense + modal + MV (present) + will + determine 3) Something can arise adverbially. S NP VP MVP complement AUX + MV tense + modal + MV (present) + can + arise 4) had lost MVP AUX + MV tense + perfect + MV (past) + HAVE (+en) + lose 5) should have known MVP AUX + MV tense + modal + perfect + MV (present) + should + HAVE (+en) + know 6) will have been fighting MVP AUX + MV tense + modal + progressive + perfect + MV (present) + will + HAVE (+en) + BE (+ing) + fight

Name the five sentence types and give an example of each. If possible, make these Halloween themed.

1) Type I - Intransitive The intransitive sentence type consists of a subject followed by a predicate in which there is only a main verb followed by an optional adverb phrase. An example of this sentence type would be: The dog ran fast. 2) Type II - The Verb Be Requiring Adverbs of Time and/or Place This sentence type contains a noun phrase object, a main verb "be," and an obligatory adverb phrase. An example of this sentence type would be: My birthday was yesterday. 3) Type III - The Linking Verb with Adjectival Subject Complement The type III sentence type contains a noun phrase, linking verb, and adjective phrase. The adjective phrase follows the verb and describes the noun phrase functioning as the subject. The adjective phrase is required because it completes the predicate and provides descriptive information about the subject. An example of this sentence type would be: Her Halloween costume looks scary. 4) Type IV - The Linking Verb with Nominal Subject Complement The type IV sentence type uses the structure of NP1 + a linking verb + NP1. The noun or noun phrase that follows a linking verb in type IV sentences always has the same referent, meaning that it always refers to the same person, place, or thing as the subject noun phrase. An example of this sentence type would be: New York City is a concrete jungle. 5) Type V - Transitive The type V sentence type requires a noun phrase complement that refers to something or someone other than that to which the subject noun phrase refers; thus, the two noun phrases have different referents. The structure of this sentence type is NP1 + a transitive verb + NP2. An example of this sentence type would be: John kicked the ball.

Analyze this set of sentences: 1) Many of this country's poorest immigrants have become extremely successful citizens whose contributions to the nation have benefited us all. 2) The magnificent 25-pound Thanksgiving turkey that Ina had roasted with loving care slipped from the meat platter onto the floor before all the assembled guests. 3) After the telephone had rung six times, Harold's younger brother, who had dreamed of this moment for years, picked up the receiver without any intention of speaking into it. 4) After kissing Sleeping Beauty, the handsome young prince suddenly became a toad again.

1) [Many of this country's poorest immigrants] = NP1 [have become] = MVP [extremely successful citizens whose contributions to the nation have benefited us all.] = NP1 S=NP1 (subject) + MVPlink + NP1 (subject complement); Linking verb + noun complement S=[They]NP1 + [have become]MVP + [it]NP1 2) [The magnificent 25-pound Thanksgiving turkey that Ina had roasted with loving care] = NP1 [slipped] = MVP [from the meat platter onto the floor before all the assembled guests.] = ADVP S=NP1 (subject) + MVPint Intransitive verb sentence S=[It]NP1 [slipped]MVP [there]ADVP 3) [After the telephone had rung six times,] = ADVP [Harold's younger brother, who had dreamed of this moment for years,] = NP1 [picked up] = MVPtr [the receiver] = NP2 [without any intention of speaking into it.] = ADVP S=NP1 + MVPtr + NP2 transitive verb S=[Then]ADVP [he]NP1 [picked up]MVPtr [it]NP2 [in that way]ADVP 4) [After kissing Sleeping Beauty,]ADVP [the handsome young prince]NP1 [suddenly]ADVP [became]MVPlink [a toad]NP1 [again.]ADVP S=NP1+ MVPlink + NP1 linking verb with nominal subject complement S=[Then]ADVP [he]NP1 [in that way]ADVP [became]MVPlink [it]NP1 [once more]ADVP

Relative Clause Analysis For each of the following sentences, perform the following analyses: 1. Identify the main clause and any dependent clauses 2. Identify the sentence type of each clause 3. Identify each relative clause as restrictive or nonrestrictive 4. Identify the relativizer as a relative pronoun or relative adverb 5. Identify the grammatical role of the relativizer in each relative clause 6. Construct a Reed-Kellogg diagram for the entire sentence

1. A circus was a round building where the ancient Romans held chariot races [A circus was a round building] [where the ancient Romans held chariot races] A circus was a round building: main clause, type 4 sentence Where the ancient Romans held chariot races: relative clause, type 5 sentence, restrictive, where is a relative adverb, the relativizer is acting as an adverb in the relative clause 2. The Shenandoah Valley, where large numbers of German Anabaptists eventually settled, was part of the Great Wagon Road [The Shenandoah Valley, [where large numbers of German Anabaptists eventually settled], was part of the Great Wagon Road] The Shenandoah Valley...was part of the Great Wagon Road: main clause, type 4 Where large numbers of German Anabaptists eventually settled: relative clause, type 1, nonrestrictive, where is a relative adverb, the relativizer is acting as an adverb in the relative clause 3. The conestoga wagon, which was an adaptation of the wagons German settlers used to build in Europe, was possibly the most popular wagon at the time [The conestoga wagon, [which was an adaptation of the wagons [(that)German settlers used to build in Europe]], was possibly the most popular wagon at the time] The conestoga wagon...was possibly the most popular wagon at the time: main clause, type 4, Which was an adaptation of the wagons: relative clause, type 4, nonrestrictive, which is a relative pronoun, the relativizer is acting as the subject in the relative clause (That) German settlers used to build in Europe: relative clause, type 5, restrictive, that is an omitted relative pronoun, the relativizer is acting as the direct object in the relative clause 4. I don't understand the reason why we have to diagram so many sentences that don't make sense [I don't understand the reason] [why we have to diagram so many sentences [that don't make sense]] I don't understand the reason: main clause, type 5 Why we have to diagram so many sentences: relative clause, type 5, restrictive, why is a relative adverb, the relativizer is acting as an adverb in the relative clause That don't make sense: relative clause, type 5, restrictive, that is a relative pronoun, the relativizer is acting as the subject in the relative clause

How do you create an interrogative transformation?

1. Add DO (if needed*). 2. Move the first auxiliary or the main verb to the front of the sentence. *If unknown info is NOT subject AND there is no other aux • •The judge will decide something. -Will the judge decide something? •Dan has gone somewhere. Has Dan gone somewhere? 3. Substitute the appropriate WH wordWH-Questions?Someone played the solo 4. Move the WH word to the front

Match the example of the verb used with the "best" description from the verb expansion rule. A. present perfect progressive (also called present perfect continuous) B. present (also called simple present) C. past perfect D. present modal progressive or (future) progressive (also called future continuous) E. present progressive (also called present continuous) F. past progressive (also called past continuous) G. present perfect H. past (also called simple past) I. past perfect progressive (also called past perfect continuous) J. modal + present perfect (also called future present perfect) K. modal present perfect progressive (also called future perfect continuous) L. modal present ( but also called simple future)

1. Casper haunts this house. B 2. Casper will be haunting this class next week. D 3. Casper was haunting this house. F 4. Casper haunted this house last year. H 5. Casper will haunt this classroom. L 6. Casper has haunted this classroom. G 7. Casper had haunted this classroom. C 8. Casper will have been haunting this class for six years in the year 2017. K 9. Casper had been haunting this house. I 10. Casper will have haunted this classroom for two years by 2017. J 11. Casper has been haunting my house for years. A 12. Casper and his friends are haunting this house. E

Choose the best term to describe the example. A. The dress that my sister wore today was ugly. B. The fact that higher quiz scores correlate to good attendance is indisputable. C. The student said that book was a snorefest. D. Students know that reading closely would be best for them. E. The cello was strummed. F. The student said, "That book is a snorefest!" G. When he is completely silent, Justin Bieber sings on key. H. Because the bananas looked delicious and the hockey game was long. I. In case of an extreme emergency J. Queen Elizabeth I, who spoke over five languages fluently, ruled her country with an iron fist and a smile.

1. Direct discourse/quotation creating a clause functioning as a direct object. F 2. Indirect discourse creating a clause functioning as a direct object. C 3. Adjectival relative clause which is also restrictive A 4. Nominal that-clause functioning as a direct object D 5. Appositive clause B 6. Passive sentence E 7. Interrogative clause functioning adverbially G 8. nonrestrictive adjectival clause J 9. Sentence fragment/Dependent clause H 10. Prepositional phrase I

Identify the clauses in these sentences: 1. Before she woke up this morning, Daisy put on the green sweater that her grandmother had sewn. 2. We can't afford to go out tonight because we're saving our money in the event the bank approves us for a home loan.

1. [Before she woke up this morning], [Daisy put on the green sweater] [that her grandmother had sewn]. Adv Clause + Main Clause (Ind) + Adjectival Clause 2. [We can't afford to go out tonight] [because we're saving our money] (in the event) [the bank approves us for a home loan.] Main clause (Ind) + Adv. Clause + Prep phrase with clause complement modifying object of the prep

Analyze this passage: A Florida woman heard something moving around in her house Tuesday. She found a frightening eight-foot alligator under the kitchen table. She believes the alligator crawled out of a nearby ditch and came in through an open sliding glass door while she was in a different part of the house. She dialed 911, and they sent an animal trapper immediately. The trapper released the captured alligator back into the wild. The only injuries were to the alligator. It was cut by a broken plate.

1. Florida noun acting adjectivally; modifies woman 2. Around adverb acting adverbially; modifies moving 3. Tuesday noun acting adverbially; modifies moving 4. Frightening verb acting adjectivally; modifies alligator 5. Kitchen noun acting adverbially; modifies table 6. Nearby adverb (?) acting adjectivally; modifies ditch 7. Sliding verb acting adjectivally; modifies door 8. Glass noun acting adjectivally; modifies door 9. Different adjective acting adjectivally; modifies part 10. Animal noun acting adjectivally; modifies trapper 11. Immediately adverb acting adverbially; modifies sent 12. Captured verb acting adjectivally; modifies alligator 13. Wild adjective acting nominally 14. broken verb acting adjectivally; modifies plate

In the following sentences determine whether the bolded words are auxiliaries or true verbs, and explain how you made your decision. 1. A bird known as Steven Seagull has been returning to the same motel in Orlando for several years. 2. Steven Seagull has his nest over there. 3. A good meal did us good. 4. Does he do the laundry? 5. They haven't had a break in three hours. 6. I don't think they realized they were doing it. 7. We were asleep the entire time. 8. Haven't they done that already? 9. Don't you have the book?

1. Has: auxiliary have in a compound past construction; Been: auxiliary be in a progressive construction 2. Has: true verb 3. Did: true verb 4. Does: auxiliary do, interrogative; Do: true verb 5. Had: true verb 6. Were: auxiliary be in progressive construction 7. Were: true verb 8. Haven't: auxiliary have in a compound past construction; Done: true verb 9. Don't: auxiliary do, interrogative; Have: true verb

Create a sentence for each of the following function-class words: 1. Phrasal verb 2. Relative pronoun 3. Subordinating conjunction 4. Relative adverb 5. Simple preposition 6. Correlative conjunction 7. Phrasal preposition

1. I looked the word up. 2. Do you see that person who's sitting in the back? 3. I'm still trying to read while I'm eating. 4. I'm trying to finish when I can. 5. They left without us. 6. Either he figured it out or his friend did. 7. We climbed up onto the ledge.

IV. Forming Interrogative Nominal Clauses Replace the word in parentheses with an interrogative nominal clause. State the role of the resulting nominal in the sentence, and the role of the interrogative word within the clause. Example (Something) is frustrating. (What some stores try to sell as coffee) is frustrating What (direct object) some stores try to sell as coffee = Interrogative nominal clause functioning as subject

1. I sometimes wonder (something) I sometimes wonder (how some people do it) how (adverb) some people do it = interrogative nominal clause functioning as a direct object 2. I retraced my steps all day, looking for (something) I retraced my steps all day, looking for (where I thought I had left my backpack) where (adverb) I thought I had left my backpack = interrogative nominal clause functioning as a direct object

Match the example construction to the best description. A. The professor told the students that they needed to sign up in the left-hand sign-up tab. B. The professor made them to fill out a sheet about their group presentation and work distribution. C. Studying hard, the linguistics final was on December 7th from 9 am to noon for the linguistics students. D. They knew the student who was presenting her poster. E. By the end of the semester, students had read the whole text. F. I didn't know what would be on the final. G. Bobby was researching possible countries for emigration. H. Cooked by my sister, the whole family enjoyed the turkey. I. Millions of signs were seen at the Women's March. J. My neighbor walked her dog in her bathrobe.

1. Prescriptively incorrect dangling/displaced modifier using a present participle C (The subject of the present participle phrase is deleted, creating ambiguity in the sentence. It would not make sense to say that the subject of the participle phrase "studying hard" is "the linguistics final.") 2. Example of a passive construction in the main clause I ("Were seen" is the passive verb in this sentence and we know this because the noun phrase "millions of signs" is undergoing the action rather than doing it.) 3. Interrogative clause functioning relatively/adjectivally D (The interrogative clause "who was presenting her poster" is functioning adjectivally because it is modifying the preceding noun "student." We also know this is an interrogative clause because it begins with the interrogative pronoun "who.") 4. Prescriptively incorrect misplaced/dangling modifier using a past participle H (This is an example of a prescriptively incorrect misplaced/dangling modifier using a past participle because the subject of the participle phrase "cooked by my sister" is deleted; thus, there lies an ambiguity due to the fact that the subject of the participle phrase is not the same as the subject of the main clause. This can be corrected by changing the sentence into "Cooked by my sister, her turkey was enjoyed by the whole family.") 5. Prescriptively incorrect use of an infinitive phrase when a be a bare or "to-less" infinitive should be used. B (This sentence is an example of a prescriptively incorrect use of an infinitive phrase when a bare or "to-less" infinitive should be used because "to fill" is the incorrect form of the verb in this context. Instead, the sentence should be written omitting "to": "The professor made them fill out a sheet about their group presentation and work distribution.") 6. Example of an interrogative clause functioning as a nominal F (This sentence is an example of an interrogative clause functioning as a nominal because "what would be on the final" can be replaced with "something.") 7. Nominal that- clause functioning as a direct object. A (This is an example of a sentence that includes the nominal that-clause functioning as a direct object because the that-clause is receiving the action of the verb "told.") 8. Prescriptively incorrect/misplaced use of a prepositional phrase functioning as an adjectival modifier J (This sentence is an example of a prescriptively incorrect/misplaced use of a prepositional phrase functioning as an adjectival modifier because "in her bathrobe" seems to be modifying the preceding noun "dog"; however, it is slightly ambiguous because it could also be modifying the noun phrase "my neighbor.") 9. A present participle used in the main verb phrase of the main clause of the sentence. G ("Was researching" is the present participle being used in the main verb phrase of the main clause of the sentence.) 10. Past participle used in the main verb phrase of an active-voice sentence E ("Read" is being used in the main verb phrase "had read.")

What are the degrees of nounness? How do you identify what a noun is? What are the tests you can use to identify what a noun is? Formal proofs? Functional proofs?

1.A = Nouns that name persons, places, things (cat, hospital, chair) 2.B = Nouns derived from adjectives (happiness, clarity) 3.C = Nouns derived from verbs (reaction, runner) 4.D = Adjectives that are also nouns (red, cold) 5.E = Verbs that are also nouns (run, hit) 6.F = Adjectives rarely used as nouns (The Bad) 7.G = Verbs used in noun positions (shopping) Notice—this is scale is similar to the prototype, where we see the prototypical noun, and then the peripheral cases out on the edges—connected to but farther away from the prototype. Formal proofs for nouns: 1. Has noun-making morpheme. e.g. government, reflection, painter 2. Can occur with the plural morpheme. e.g. painters, reflections 3. Can occur with the possessive morpheme. e.g. government's decision Functional proofs for nouns: 4. Without modifiers, can directly follow an article and create a grammatical unit. e.g. the government, a government, the painter, a painter 5. Can fit in the frame sentence. "(The) __________seem(s) all right (unacceptable, slow, short)."

Match the BEST (famous linguist themed) formula for the core sentence clause. A. Noam Chomsky considers ghosts a myth. B. Stephen Pinker, dressed as the werewolf, gave candy to the children. C. Brooks Hall was haunted by the ghost of Dell Hymes. D. The vampires and Brent Berlin did not come out that night. E. All the trick-or-treaters took John McWhorter some candy. F. Thomas Klammer, Paul Boersma, and Andrew Carnie partied outside by zombies.

1.NP + V + Direct Object + Object complement A 2.NP + V + Direct Object + ADV Phrase B 3.NP+ Trans Verb + Indirect object (NP2) + Direct object (NP3) E 4. NP + Passive PAST VERB + adverb phrase C 5.Negative sentence with a "dummy auxiliary" or "do-support auxiliary" D 6. NP + intransitive verb + ADV + adverb phrase F

What are bound and free morphemes? Give examples. Analyze the word "satisfied" along with other words in this set. 1) satisfied 2) marvelous 3) reviewing 4) shorten 5) democrat 6) bicyclist

A bound morpheme is a word element that cannot stand alone as a word, including both prefixes and suffixes. Bound morphemes are incapable of standing alone. They must be connected to other morphemes. An example of a bound inflectional morpheme is -ed; example of a bound derivational morpheme is in- 1) Satisfied {satis-}: bound base meaning "enough"; unsatisfactory would be an example of a word with this base {-fy}: derivational suffix that creates verbs; an example would be "electrify" {-ed}: an inflectional suffix that denotes the past tense; walked 2) {marvel} - free base; it can be used as a noun (something that causes wonder; a wonderful thing) or as a verb (to wonder at); it can be used as an independent word {-ous} - derivational suffix; it means "characterized by or possessing the given quality" and is used to form adjectives; contemptuous 3) {review} - free base; it can be used as a noun (a critical review or report) or a verb (to go over); it can be used as an independent word {re-} - bound derivational morpheme meaning to do something again; repurpose {-ing} - inflectional suffix (verb present participle); it is used to modify a verb; walking 4) {review} - free base; it can be used as a noun (a critical review or report) or a verb (to go over); it can be used as an independent word {-ing} - inflectional suffix (verb present participle); it is used to modify a verb; walking 5) {democrat} - free base; it is a noun defined as "an advocate or supporter of democracy"; it can be used as an independent word {-crat} - derivational suffix which to means "to rule"; examples with this morpheme include autocrat and aristocrat {-s} - inflectional suffix (noun plural); it is used to modify nouns into their plural form; horses 6) {bicycle} - free base; a noun defined as a vehicle composed of two wheels; it can be used as an independent word {bi-} derivational prefix (bound morpheme); means "two" or "twice"; examples with this morpheme include "biannual" or "biweekly" {-ist} - derivational suffix; a suffix used to modify a noun into denoting a person who practices or is concerned with something; pianist

What is a complex sentence?

A complex has an independent clause and a dependent clause. Here is my example: When the cookies turn golden brown, take them out of the oven. The dependent clause is "When the cookies turn golden brown." The independent clause is "Take them out of the oven."

What is a compound sentence?

A compound sentence is comprised of two independent clauses. The independent clauses can be joined by a coordinating conjunction or a semi-colon. Here is my example: My family went on a road trip, and we had a wonderful time. The first independent clause is "My family went on a road trip." The coordinating conjunction in this sentence is "and." The second independent clause is "We had a wonderful time." A compound sentence is a sentence that has at least two independent clauses joined by a comma, semicolon or conjunction.

What are coordinating conjunctions?

A coordinating conjunction is a word that joins two elements of equal grammatical rank and syntactic importance. They can join two verbs, two nouns, two adjectives, two phrases, or two independent clauses. The seven coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. For And Nor But Or Yet So

What is the "nativeness principle"? What is the "intelligibility principle"? How did this controversy arise within the field of linguistics? Who introduced these ideas?

A debate has emerged regarding the teaching of English accents and pronunciations (nativeness vs. intelligibility) "The nativeness principle holds that it is both possible and desirable to achieve native-like pronunciation in a foreign language" Native pronunciation should itself be an objective The nativeness principle holds that a native speaker is the desired model and goal of pronunciation for second language learners "The intelligibility principle recognizes that communication can be remarkably successful when foreign accents are noticeable or even strong, that there is no clear correlation between accent and understanding" "Certain types of pronunciation errors may have a disproportionate role in impairing comprehensibility" John Levis introduced us to the ideas of the nativeness principle and the intelligbility principle. In the early 20th century, the nativeness principle was the dominant school of thought - the reason for this was because of long-distance broadcast news (which had emerged over that time period). Broadcasters had to develop some sort of English that could be spoken over the air waves that was comprehensible to everyone - they had to figure out some sort of "standard." In America, they coalesced around the Midlands network dialect and in Great Britain, they coalesced around "received pronunciation" (also known as the Queen's English) - upper class exclusive accent that is only really spoken by the royal family; taught to upper class kids at elite boarding schools. ●At the same time, as large growth in English Language Teaching (ELT) around the world, entrenching standardization of said dialects ●Paradigm called into question by the late 60's, began to be criticized as "elitist" ●New research emerged which questioned possibility of acquiring native accent after childhood ●Intelligibility principle now largely accepted (in theory) Even though the intellgibility principle has displaced the nativeness principle as the dominant paradigm of thought, it has not completely displaced the nativeness principle stuff that goes on in English language classrooms, especially, when it comes to pronunciation. That is because many of the published items teachers use in English language classrooms are standardized. ●Currently, most pronunciation teaching material favors native accent ●Teachers assume that accents closer to native accents are "better" ●Quirk argues that this is what English language students want - it is more helpful to them to learn one standard type than it is to be exposed to a variety ●The success of BBC World Services and the Japan Times supports that the Standard English accents are "better"

How can you define the word "dialect"? How does a language differ from a dialect?

A dialect is a variety of a language that signals where a person comes from. It is a regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, and/or vocabulary The variations of dialect depend on/are influenced by time period, region, and socioeconomic group 'Language' is the general umbrella term to describe a communication system that uses a set of words and a specific method to combine them. In popular usage, a language is written in addition to being spoken, while a dialect is just spoken.

What are pronouns and examples/categories of them?

A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. Examples: he, she, it, they, someone, who. Pronouns can do all of the things that nouns can do. They can be subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, object of the preposition, and more. Pronouns are classified as: -Demonstrative (this, these, that, those) -Possessive (yours, its, ours) -Personal (my, his, her) -Reflexive (myself, herself, himself) -Reciprocal e.g. Each other, one another A reciprocal pronoun is a pronoun used to identify an action or feeling that is reciprocated. For this reason, it always refers to more than one person. For example, Anne is waving to Sean and Sean is waving to Anne. So we say: Anne and Sean are waving to each other. -Indefinite e.g. Indefinite pronouns are used when you need to refer to a person or thing that doesn't need to be specifically identified. Some common indefinite pronouns are one, other, none, some, anybody, everybody, and no one.

What is a restrictive clause? Give an example of one.

A restrictive clause is a clause that identifies the word it modifies. A restrictive clause is essential for meaning. A restrictive clause is not offset with commas. For example: The boy who broke the window is at the door. Qualities of a restrictive clause: Restrict meaning. Provides necessary information. Not set of with commas. If the pronoun can be deleted, it is restrictive That only occurs with restrictive clauses.

What is a run-on sentence?

A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses (also known as complete sentences) are connected improperly. ... One common type of run-on sentence is a comma splice. A comma splice occurs when two independent clauses are joined with just a comma. Examples: •He is a complainer no one likes him. •He complains no one listens Fix these sentences by inserting a coordinating conjunction in between the two independent clauses. He is a complainer, and no one likes him. He complains; however, no one listens.

What is the difference between transitive and intransitive verbs?

A transitive verb is one that is used with an object: a noun, phrase, or pronoun that refers to the person or thing that is affected by the action of the verb. In the following sentences, admire, maintain, face, and love are transitive verbs: I admire your courage. We need to maintain product quality. I couldn't face him today. She loves animals. Some transitive verbs can be used with a direct object and an indirect object: Liz brought her a glass of water. her = [indirect object] a glass of water = [direct object] He sent her a letter. her = [indirect object] a letter = [direct object] An intransitive verb does not have an object. In the following sentences, cry, work, laugh, and talk are intransitive verbs: The baby was crying. I work for a large firm in Paris. They laughed uncontrollably. We talked for hours. Many verbs can be transitive or intransitive. For example: The choir sang carols. [transitive] Pete always sings in the bath. [intransitive] She left London on June 6. [transitive] I want to leave early. [intransitive]

What is a word? What is the difference between a morpheme and a word?

A word can be defined as a minimum free-standing unit that carries meaning. Think of words as uninterruptible; "mobile chunks." A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in a language. The main difference between a morpheme and a word is that a morpheme sometimes does not stand alone, but a word, by definition, always stands alone. A word in linguistics is the smallest content that can convey meaning. A word can always stand on its own and maintain its meaning. For example the word "historical" can stand alone and has the meaning of a past event. In linguistics a morpheme is the smallest component of a word that has a semantic meaning. When looking at semantic meaning you are looking at the smallest linguistic sound within a word that has meaning. For example when looking at "prehistorical" the morpheme would be "pre" meaning "before" in terms of the word history. As opposed to a word a morpheme may or may not stand alone. We saw that the word "historical" can stand alone and has meaning. "Pre" is a morpheme in "prehistorical" however "pre" cannot stand alone. This is not always the case however as there are instances in which they can stand alone and maintain their meaning and context.

What are blends/portmanteaus?

A word made up of a mixture of two other words; examples might include "smog" or "guesstimate"

What are adverbs? Give examples.

A word or phrase that modifies or qualifies an adjective, verb, or other adverb or a word group, expressing a relation of place, time, circumstance, manner, cause, degree, etc. (e.g., gently, quite, then, there ). Qualities of adverbs: Are optional; when taken away, the meaning does not change Adverbs add information of time, place, manner Ex: When Jackie looked up, she saw a horrible plane crash.

"In 1968 one of the first Europeans to visit Niagara Falls wrote about the horror felt by spectators while standing next to the falls and looking down." In the sentence above, the phrase "felt by spectators" is what type of construction? A. a past participle phrase functioning adjectivally B. a gerund phrase C. a present participle phrase functioning adjectivally D. a to-less (bare) infinitive functioning adjectivally E. None of the above

A.

In the classroom, Professor McLoon was a figure of unrestrained emotional energy. With exaggerated gestures and dramatic vocal renditions, he beguiled his undergraduates. He blustered; he roared; he pleaded, and he begged. He gazed at the ceiling, as if waiting for divine affirmation. He paced, he jumped, he left the room and then returned. When such theatrics worked, the results were impressive indeed: Beowulf that awed innocent freshmen, Spencer that shocked jaded seniors, Milton that inspired even the jocks. But when they didn't, which was almost as often, his audience laughed at him, rather than with him What is "When such theatrics worked?" A. a subordinate (adverbial) clause B. a prepositional phrase C. a relative clause D. an independent clause

A.

Match the term with its example. A. He liked neither schedules nor deadlines. B. The candidates derided each other until the audience could take no more. C. Some believe that others should concentrate on intellectual achievement rather than material gain. D. The group members gave themselves more than enough time to plan the project completely. E. I didn't know that. F. The students didn't understand certain verbs could be transitive or intransitive; therefore, they had difficulty analyzing "visited" in two different ways.

A. Correlative conjunction B. Reciprocal pronoun C. Indefinite pronoun "some" D. Reflexive pronoun "themselves" E. Demonstrative pronoun "that" F. Conjunctive adverb "therefore"

What is the that- clause within the following sentence: No one could foresee that a hybrid car would appear in 1997. A. Nominative functioning as DO B. Relative functioning as an adjectival C. Subordinate functioning adverbially D. Appositive renaming another nominal

A. No one could foresee that a hybrid car would appear in 1997. Subj NP + Aux + Verb foresee + that clause functioning as DO

Give an example of the following not in our text, this quiz, or in notes: A. An infinitive phrase as a subject in an sentence B. An infinitive phrase as an object in a sentence C. A bare infinitive in a sentence D. A gerund as a subject in a sentence E. A gerund as an object in a sentence F. A present participle as a adjectival modifier in a sentence G. A present participle as an adverbial modifier in a sentence H. A present participle used in the main verb phrase in a sentence I. A past participle as an adjectival modifier in a sentence

A. To cheat on an exam is a serious academic offense B. I want to travel to the Greek Islands. C. I let her go. D. Singing is a cathartic activity. E. My mom likes eating red velvet cupcakes. F. The person helping me with my homework is very smart. The car playing the loud music is wild. G. There is a man soundly sleeping on the bench outside. H. I am working. I. The dinner prepared by my sister was delicious.

What are auxiliaries? Give examples. What are all the modal auxiliaries?

An auxiliary verb (or a helping verb as it's also called) is used with a main verb to help express the main verb's tense, mood, or voice. The main auxiliary verbs are to be, to have, and to do. They appear in the following forms: To Be: am, is, are, was, were, being, been, will be. Modal auxiliaries include: -can -could -will -would -shall -should -may -might -must Have: -have -has -had -having Be: -be -am -is -are -was -were -been -being Do: -do -does -did -done -doing

What is an independent clause?

An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought. An independent clause is a sentence. An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb and can stand on its own. An independent clause expresses a complete thought. Here is my example: I ate pasta for dinner. Another example could be: I enjoy napping.

What are interrogative pronouns?

An interrogative word or question word is a function word used to ask a question, such as what, which, when, where, who, whom, whose, why, whether and how. Qualities of interrogative pronouns: Begin direct questions, but can function to introduce indirect questions Pronominal: Who, whom, whose, which, what Adverbial: where, why, when, and how Ex: I wonder who left this here. What is that? Which is yours? Who done it? Whom shall we ask? Whose is this? Whatever did you say? Whomsoever did you find? Whosever is this?

Which is the prescriptively correct use of pronoun and case: A. Just between you and I, that guy is rude. B. The student who had language foibles was him. C. Myself and Jane will be going to the party in matching outfits. D. Me and Aisling agreed about his character. E. None of the above.

Answer Key: E Feedback: All of these are a misuse of a case pronoun. Just between you and I, that guy is rude. (you and me--or us--objective case needed here). The student who had language foibles was him. (Weirdly "he" is needed here, as "be-verbs" are not transitive or do not carry action to an object. The nominative is still technically needed after a "be-verb." Myself and Jane will be going to the party in matching outfits. (Reflexives are supposed to share the same reference in the same sentence--one in subject position, one in predicate position--I gave myself a shot.) Me and Aisling agreed about his character. (Here, object case is used, but subject case--I--is needed)

Main verb phrases can contain what type of information: A. tense B. mode or modal information (such as possibility) C. perfect information (also known as whether an action has been perfected or completed) D. progressive information (whether an action is continuing into the future) E. all of the above

Answer Key: E Feedback: Remember our chart of all the information that the main verb phrase can contain within a main verb phrase. For example, consider the following"may have been studying" (in which this verb includes the mode of possibility, the perfect aspect, the tense of present, and the aspect of continuing into the future).

For questions 1-3, read the passage. In the questions below, taken from the passage beginning Watching the tabloid newspapers . . . . First, identify whether the italicized phrase is nominal (NP), adjectival (ADJP), or adverbial (ADVP). Then, as proof, supply a single word that could substitute for the phrase, one that supplies similar information and leaves the sentence complete. If the phrase is adjectival, give the noun that the phrase modifies. Watching the tabloid newspapers carefully, I learned that the astounding appearance of Elvis in a Las Vegas bank was made possible only when two outer space alien officials of the Andromedan federal government were persuaded to play blackjack at a nearby casino. What is "Watching the tabloid newspapers carefully"? Remember to supply your rationale/proof. A. Noun phrase (NP) B. Adverb phrase (ADVP) C. Adjective phrase (ADJP) D. None of the above

B. Rationale: This is an adverb phrase because it can be moved to the end of the sentence, and it would not change the meaning of the sentence. Another proof for the fact that this is an adverb phrase is that it can be replaced with an adverb such as "somehow."

What is "of the Andromedan federal government"? Don't forget to give your rationale/proof. A. NP B. ADJP C. ADVP D. None of the above

B. ADJP Stating what kind of officials they were adjective = object of the preposition?

In the sentence:"I can bake bread""can" is a: Also, in the rationale, describe what information "can" is giving in this sentence. A. Generic auxiliary B. Modal auxiliary C. Determining auxiliary D. Subjective auxiliary

B. For #6, "can" is a modal auxiliary because it describes what the subject has the ability to do, that being, "baking bread." It also does not change form.

As the semester wears on, the students grow tired.The previous sentence contains what type of verb in its main clause? A. transitive B. intransitive C. linking verb D. passive voice

C.

We grow huge sunflowers here in the summers.The previous sentence has which type of verb: A. an intransitive verb B. a linking verb C. transitive verb D. linking verb with obligatory adverb

C.

What is "that awed innocent freshmen" in the sentence "When such theatrics worked, the results were impressive indeed: Beowulf that awed innocent freshmen, Spencer that shocked jaded seniors, Milton that inspired even the jocks.." Provide test or evidence proof of the correctness of your answer in the rationale: A. a subordinate (adverbial) clause B. a prepositional phrase C. a relative clause D. an independent clause

C.

For the sentence I brought an assignment to the professor for my sister, identify the proper underlying indirect object transformation below: A. I brought my sister an assignment to the professor B. I brought the professor to an assignment for my sister C. I brought the professor an assignment for my sister. D. An assignment was brought to the professor for my sister

C. The passive transformation involves transforming the indirect object to a prepositional phrase or vice versa. An assignment is the direct object of the verb (that is, an assignment is the thing being brought). Both to the professor and for my sister are prepositional phrases, but only to the professor can be transformed into an indirect object since the professor is the recipient of the direct object. For my sister conveys the purpose of the action, so although it is a prepositional phrase acting adverbially it cannot be transformed into the indirect object.

What can we infer from the following sentence and its punctuation or lack of punctuation?Lilah's boyfriend who had the black scarf was very handsome. Explain your answer in the rationale. A. Lilah has only one boyfriend B. Lilah's other boyfriends are not handsome C. Lilah has more than one boyfriend D. Lilah has many boyfriends with black scarves E. None of the above

C. Because the relative clause provides essential information about the noun that it modifies, this sentence contains a restrictive relative clause. This sentence tells us precisely which boyfriend is being referred to, the one who had the black scarf. Restrictive clauses are not separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. A sentence punctuated this way implies that Lilah has more than one boyfriend. If there are no commas around the dependent clause, then you can assume that there are other boyfriends. Since this author did not punctuate the clause after the NP Lilah's boyfriend it is "restrictive" information that defines which boyfriend, so we have to assume that Lilah has more than one boyfriend.

What does an "interrogative word" do? A. Is the subject of an imperative sentence B. Is the object of an imperative sentence C. Stands for information the speaker does not have/know D. Stands for the verb when the speaker does not know it

C. Imperatives do not have subjects. Interrogatives stand for the missing information in what Klammer and Chomsky consider the deep structure construction.

Was transformational grammar born out of Chomsky's theories? How?

Chomsky was interested in discovering language universals. Chomsky was interested in what was innate. Chomsky was interested in what was humanly possible in a language. These arguments were used as the basis for transformational grammar. This is how transformational grammar was developed.

What is clipping/abbreviation?

Clipping is one of the ways new words are created in English. It involves the shortening of a longer word, often reducing it to one syllable. Examples include: "ad" for "advertisement," "bike" for "bicycle," and "net" for "internet"

What is compounding/compound words?

Compound words are formed when two or more words are joined together to create a new word that has an entirely new meaning. For example, "sun" and "flower" are two different words, but when fused together, they form another word, Sunflower. Other examples include: -sailboat -notebook -sharecropper -butterscotch

What are conjunctive adverbs?

Conjunctive adverbs are parts of speech that are used to connect one clause to another. They are also used to show sequence, contrast, cause and effect, and other relationships. Qualities of conjunctive adverbs: Connect and Signal, but also show: contrast, addition, cause/effect, exemplification, restatement, or time Can move about in the sentence or can be punctuated as if they are an interjection. Examples: however, nonetheless, on the contrary, also, therefore, for example, later, then, otherwise, indeed...

After the officer heard what the witnesses said, he charged the driver who hit my car. The previous contains: A. An (subordinate) adverbial clause B. A nominal clause functioning as a direct object C. An relative (adjectival) clause D. All of the above E. Only B & C F. Only A & C

D. All of the above:[After the officer heard ( sub adv clause with nominative clause functioning as DO)[what the witnesses said]], he charged the driver [who hit my car] (relative adj. clause).

To conclude Chapter 3, what are the differences between inflectional and derivational morphemes?

Derivational morphemes always precede any inflectional morphemes e.g. {-ize} in "authorizing. Derivational morphemes often change a word's part of speech e.g. "boy" (noun) to "boyish" (adjective). Derivational morphemes usually have some lexical or semantic meaning {ize} in "humanize" creates a verb that means to cause/to become. Inflectional morphemes always follow any derivational morphemes e.g. {-s} in "statements." Inflectional morphemes never change a word's part of speech e.g. "boy" (singular) vs. "boys" (plural). Inflectional morphemes combine with almost all members of a single part of speech e.g. human>humans. Inflectional morphemes usually have a grammatical meaning e.g. {-s} in "humans" indicates plurality.

Which of the following sentences contain the clause correctly punctuated? Also explain your rationale below. A. Theresa Sullivan who was the president of U.Va. before Ryan was born in Illinois. B. Theresa Sullivan, who was the president of U.Va. before Ryan was born in Illinois. C. Theresa Sullivan who was the president of U.Va. before Ryan, was born in Illinois. D. Theresa Sullivan, who was the president of U.Va. before Ryan, was born in Illinois.

D. This is an example of a nonrestrictive relative clause because it gives additional information about a noun already specifically identified. A nonrestrictive modifier is a word or a phrase that is separated from the rest of the sentence using commas. If the relative clause "who was the president of UVA before Ryan" was eliminated from this sentence, it would still make perfect sense. The dependent clause "who was the president of UVA" introduces the noun phrase and acknowledges that there is only one president who preceded Jim Ryan; thus, showing the need for there to be commas to set off the material. D. This main NP (noun phrase) is already specific, so the the information that follows it will be additional information or nonrestrictive (because it does not need to restrict the already specific information).

What is "that the astounding appearance of Elvis in a Las Vegas bank was made possible only when two outer space alien officials of the Andromedan federal government were persuaded to play blackjack at a nearby casino"? Be sure to provide your rationale/proof. A. None of the above B. ADJP C. ADVP D. NP

D. This entire thing is a noun phrase because it can be substituted with "something."

What is an inflectional morpheme? What is a derivational morpheme? Give examples.

Derivational morphemes are affixes that attach to mostly words & can change the part of speech. Derivational morphemes can change the class of the word and inflectional morphemes add more information about the grammatical meaning (e.g. tense, number/plurality, comparative/superlative) of the word. An example of a derivational morpheme is dis- in the word "disillusion." An example of an inflectional morpheme is "cats" (adding "s" to the end of a word). Derivational morphemes change the function of the word, such that they change the word class. (Example: all prefixes and some suffixes→ {-r} when looking at the verb "bake" to the noun "baker") Inflectional morphemes do not change the part of speech. This includes changes in tense, possession, and plurality of the word. (Example: {-s} when looking at the word "cake" a noun and "cakes" a plural noun.) Examples of derivational morphemes include -ment, un-, dis-, and -ical Examples of inflectional morphemes include -er, -s, and -ed.

What are determiners? What are the main groups of determiners?

Determiners are words that introduce nouns and noun phrases. They are modifying words that determine the kind of reference a noun or noun group has, for example a, the, every. Qualities of a determiner: •Don't occur with any adjective-forming suffixes , like -able or -ly •Don't have comparative/superlative forms •Do not fit the frame-sentence test: The ____(man) seems very ____. •Always precede any adjective or noun modifier of a noun The categories of determiners include... 1) Articles e.g. a/an, the 2) Demonstratives e.g. this, these, that, those 3) Possessives e.g. my, our, your, his, her, its, their 4) Indefinites e.g. some, any, no, every, other, another, many, more, most enough, few, less, much, either, neither, several, all, both, each... 5) Cardinal numbers e.g. one, two, three, four,... 6) Ordinal numbers e.g. first, second, third 7) Quantifiers e.g. twice, triple, half,...

Some steps to forming interrogative sentences in English are: A. moving the first auxiliaries to the fronts of sentences B. inserting "do" at the front of sentences with no auxiliaries C. Finding the appropriate wh-word and moving it to the front of the sentence D. If it is a "who" sentence, simply replacing the subject with the word "who" E. All of these

E.

Which of the following is prescriptively incorrect? A. While he wanted to go to class he failed to understand that it was raining therefore he forgot his umbrella. B. The adorable kittens were looking at theirselves in the mirror. C. She hasn't telephoned nor written. D. Because she had forgotten her wallet when she and Mr. Morton had dinner at the fancy steak house. E. All of the above F. None of the above

E. While he wanted to go to class he failed to understand that it was raining therefore he forgot his umbrella. (run-on sentence) The adorable kittens were looking at theirselves in the mirror. (misuse of the reflexive; according to prescriptivists, this is not a word) She hasn't telephoned nor written. (misuse of the correlative conjunction--should be "She has neither telephoned nor written.") Because she had forgotten her wallet when she and Mr. Morton had dinner at the fancy steak house. (This is a fragment; the construction begins with a subordinator that signals something will follow the clause, but nothing completes this construction. We can delete the subordinator, if we want to have this as the sentence, or we may want to show a relationship--Because she had forgotten her wallet when she and Mr. Morton had dinner at the fancy steak house, they could only order water).

Interrogative Nominal Clauses

Example He asked which car had the better safety record. Which (determiner) car had the better safety record = Interrogative nominal clause functioning as a direct object He asked [a question] 1. They built a large environmental education center in Cornwall, UK, where they put the world's largest greenhouses in a clay pit. where (adverb) they put the world's largest greenhouses in a clay pit = relative clause functioning adjectivally 2. What they said at the time was, "we are going to build the Eighth Wonder of the World." What (direct object) they said at the time = interrogative nominal clause functioning as a subject [the quote] was "we are going to build the Eighth Wonder of the World 3. They sold the idea to financial backers, whose contributions totaled over a million dollars. whose (determiner) contributions totaled over a million dollars = relative clause functioning adjectivally

Articles differ from adjectives in that: A. they are never found near nouns B. they generally do not take derivational morphemes C. they generally can not be made comparative or superlative D. they do not fit into the frame sentences for adjectives. E. A, B, & C F. B, C, & D G. None of the above

F. Adjectives are generally found near nouns, as are articles. However, articles generally do not fit in a frame sentence (The the was very the*), and we can't make them comparative or superlative (theer*, theest*), and they do not take derivational morphemes "thely*, anly*). They do give extra information about the noun phrases they are found within, similar to modifiers, but they just don't act like adjectives.

True or False: Our office is becoming a jungle. The previous sentence contains an example of an adjectival complement.

False

True or False: The use of the word "not" is the only way to form negatives in English.

False because there are derivational morphemes that mean "not" such as "un" and "dis."

True or False: The words "banker" and "brother" have the same amount of syllables and morphemes.

False, because brother only has one morpheme, but banker has two. Banker can be separated into two morphemes bank/er, as "bank" can be a free morpheme and a word and -er can appear in other words with the same vague meaning one who does. Examples of the -er morpheme used in other words include "train/er," "own/er," and "teach/er."

True or False: Only inflectional morphemes can have allomorphs.

False, because of the example of derivational morphemes -or and -er as well as -ible and -able. -Meaning must be the same, but pronunciation as well as spelling can differ -Examples: shopper, operator

THAT Nominal Clauses

Form 1.A dependent clause introduced by the complementizer that 2.That plays no role in the clause it introduces Clause Function Fills a noun phrase position in the sentence (subject, object, complement, appositive) Punctuation No punctuation required Test If that is removed, a complete clause remains It or something can substitute for the entire that clause e.g. •Grandma Romina mentioned that she is/was selling the house. The second nominal clause form is a that-clause, which is a dependent clause with the expletive that preceding the subject and serves a nominal function. NOTE: there are plenty of cases where the that, as part of the that-clause, may be deleted. The truth was that the moving company lost all your furniture. The truth was the moving company lost all your furniture. I am pleased that you are studying noun clauses. I am pleased you are studying noun clauses. •Something really bothers me. •Why was I the only one who didn't know something? •After dinner, my mother's intent was something.

What are the tests you can use to identify an adverb? Formal proofs? Functional proofs?

Formal Proofs: 1. Has adverb-making morpheme. e.g. {-ly} in slowly {-wise} in clockwise 2. Takes a comparative or superlative morpheme, or can be made comparative/superlative with more & most. Faster, fastest {-er}, {-est) Careful—adjectives as well! More suddenly, most suddenly Functional Proofs: 3. Can be qualified. e.g. rather quickly 4. Can be moved within the sentence e.g. The door opened suddenly. Suddenly the door opened. The door suddenly opened 5. Can fit in the frame sentence. The man told his story ______. The man walked his dog _____.

A. We discussed determining whether an item was a preposition, an adverb, or a verb particle. Take the following items in bold and determine which part of speech they are using structural and semantic evidence. Wendy threw up her dinner because she had the flu. The chef threw the pizza dough up to the ceiling.He threw the ball up the slide to watch it slide back down. The city hastily threw up that gaudy building on 1st street.He ran up the stairs as if imitating Rocky. Students sometimes run up their phone bills the first months of college.

In the first sentence, "up" functions as a verb particle. "Up" is essential to the meaning of the phrasal verb "threw up." "Threw up" is a unit meaning "vomit." "Her dinner" is the object of the phrasal verb "threw up." Another test that shows "up" is a verb particle is the fact that the phrasal verb "threw up" is transitive (followed by an object); therefore, the particle can be moved to a position following the object. The sentence can be written as "Wendy threw up her dinner because she had the flu." However, the sentence can also be written as "Wendy threw her dinner up because she had the flu." "Up" is not an adverb because adverbs are usually optional in a sentence, that is, they can usually be omitted without change the meaning of the verb. In this case, "up" is needed in order to preserve the meaning of the phrasal verb "threw up;" therefore, "up" is not an optional word and cannot be omitted in this sentence. In the second sentence, "up" functions as an adverb because the meaning of the verb "threw" remains unchanged regardless of whether or not "up" (the adverb) is included. If it was a verb particle, it would have to remain in the sentence. Additionally, the word "up" is not followed by a noun phrase but rather a locative phrase, that being, "to the ceiling;" therefore, it is not a preposition. In the third sentence, "up" functions as a preposition because it is followed by the noun phrase "the slide." In the noun phrase "the slide," "the" serves as the modifier and "slide" serves as the noun. Additionally, "up" is a preposition because it cannot be moved to a position after its object, that being, "the slide." It would not make sense for the sentence to be written as "He threw the ball the slide up to watch it slide back down." The word "up" cannot be omitted from or moved within this sentence because it would result in a different meaning; therefore, it is not functioning as an adverb. In the fourth sentence, the word "up" functions as a verb particle because it is needed to create the unit meaning of the phrasal verb "threw up." In this context, "threw up" means to "create or build something new;" therefore, "up" is needed to complete the meaning of the phrasal verb. If "up" was taken out, the meaning of the sentence would change; therefore, "up" is needed to contribute to the meaning of the phrasal verb. Another reason why "up" functions as a verb particle is because the phrasal verb "threw up" is transitive; therefore, "up" can be moved to a position following the object. The sentence can be rewritten as "The city hastily threw that gaudy building up on 1st street." In the fifth sentence, "up" functions as a preposition because the noun phrase "the stairs" follows it. "Up" cannot be omitted from this sentence because it is needed to complete the unit meaning of "ran up"; therefore, it is not functioning as an adverb. A preposition can never be moved to a position after its object; however, if a phrasal verb is transitive, then a verb particle can be moved to a position after its object. In this case, "up" is not a verb particle because it cannot be moved to a position after its object. It would not make sense to say "He ran the stairs up as if imitating Rocky." This one is a bit tricky because upon first glance, I thought it was a verb particle since "up" is needed to complete the phrasal verb "ran up;" however, since "up" is followed by a noun phrase and cannot be moved to a position after its object, it functions as a preposition. In the sixth sentence, "up" functions as a verb particle because the phrasal verb "run up" is transitive (followed by an object); therefore, it can be moved to a position following the object. "Their phone bills" is the object of the phrasal verb "run up." You could rewrite the sentence as "Students sometimes run their phone bills up the first months of college." "Up" is not an adverb because it is needed to complete the meaning of the phrasal verb "run up;" therefore, it cannot be omitted from the sentence. This sentence was also a bit tricky to analyze because upon first glance, I thought that "up" could maybe be viewed as a part of the prepositional phrase "up their phone bills;" however, upon testing other proofs, I realized that was an incorrect judgment due to the fact that "up" can be moved after its object and is needed to complete the meaning of the phrasal verb "run up." Usually, prepositions are followed by nouns or noun phrases (a modifier such as "the," "a," or "an" plus a noun); however, "up" is followed by the pronoun "their," so that can also be used as another clue to determine what part of speech "up" is in this context. For the three sentences where you have identified "up" as a verb particle, your analysis could be a bit stronger if you demonstrated that the verb and its particle can be substituted for a single verb that more or less preserves the same meaning. For example, in 4 we can substitute "built" for "threw up," where one simple verb can replace the entire phrasal verb construction but the meaning is still preserved.Also, in discussing 2 you mention that "to the ceiling" is a locative phrase, though this is not really true. "to the ceiling" is a prepositional phrase that modifies the verb "threw," so it is functioning adverbially in that it modifies a verb and provides information about the motion of the dough being thrown.For sentences where you identify "up" as a preposition, can "up" be deleted to the same effect in each, or is there a difference in acceptability between "he threw the ball the slide..." vs "he ran the stairs as if imitating Rocky"?

Analyze these two sentences: The fly buzzed. They fly home on Sunday.

In the one instance, fly is a nominal or noun functioning as a subject, but in the other it is part of a verb phrase, functioning as part of the predicate of the verb in the second sentence. So, while we would talk about "fly" and all its realizations, fly, flies, flying, flew as a lexeme (in form), we have a broad variety of the functions it can serve. This leads us to morphology or the study of words and parts of words that are the smallest units of meaning, morphemes.

Who is Noam Chomsky and how did he contribute to the field of linguistics?

Noam Chomsky, sometimes also called the "Father of Modern Linguistics," believed that grammar should be generative (predictive) interested in possibilities. Chomsky believed that structuralism did not account for creativity. Chomsky helped develop the idea of "transformational grammar." He was interested in language universals and universal grammar. Chomsky's theories about language first originated during the time period when the prevailing model for language learning was behaviorism. B.F. Skinner argued we can predict verbal behavior in terms of stimuli in one's environment. Chomsky, instead, argued for an innate disposition to learn language. He also argued that since this is true, then there must be something universally common in all languages—an underlying structure he termed "universal grammar." He wanted linguists and scholars to go beyond the observational and descriptive and explain what all languages would have universally in common. Skinner's major argument is that humans (as animals) merely respond to their environments. Chomsky comes along and writes a scathing critique of Skinner's Verbal Behavior. Needless to say, Chomsky and Skinner did not become friends and live happily every after. Chomsky then goes on to argue that it is most important to find the common "universals" in all languages and states that this is what humans all have in common--universal grammar.

What is the who vs. whom debate?

Now that we've talked about relative pronouns, let's tackle the one that causes the most confusion: who vs. whom. Who is a subject pronoun, like I, he, she, we, and they. Whom is an object pronoun, like me, him, her, us and them. When the pronoun is the object of a verb or preposition, the object form is the one you want. Please mail it to I. Please mail it to me. Ms. Higgins caught they passing notes. Ms. Higgins caught them passing notes. Is this cake for we? Is this cake for us? One way to test whether you need who or whom is to try substituting a personal pronoun. Find the place where the personal pronoun would normally go and see whether the subject or object form makes more sense. Who/whom did you speak to earlier? Did you speak to he/him earlier? A man, whom I have never seen before, was asking about you. Have I seen he/him before? Whom should I say is calling? Should I say she/her is calling? If the object pronoun (him or her) sounds right, use whom. If the subject pronoun (he or she) sounds right, use who. In class, we posed the question of what you find acceptable for the following pronoun usage when you answer the phone. Caller: "Hello, Is this ___(your name)___?" You: "This is ______." With what pronoun do you answer to fill in the blank? Discuss the distinction in case for pronouns and why some find one case more prescriptively acceptable than another. I would use the pronoun "she" to fill in the blank. "She" is the nominative form of the word, but it has become controversial as to whether or not it can be used to describe somebody who is the object of a sentence. Some people may think that it is more correct to say "this is her." I prefer the nominative "she" for the complement of the verb "to be;" however, others may prefer the accusative ("her") and regard the verb as having a direct object rather than a complement. In formal usage, the subject case is used when the pronoun follows "be" or certain other verbs that take subject complements; however, in informal usage, the object case (used when a pronoun serves in any object function) is frequent. The formal condition can be seen in the examples "It is I" or "That is she." The informal condition can be seen in the examples "It's me." or "That's her."

What is the difference between phonology and phonetics?

Phonetics is the study of human speech sounds and phonology is the study of how sounds are perceived; the study of perception of sounds.

What are phrases? What are the subcategories of phrases? Please explain.

Phrases are sequences of words that form a syntactic unit. Subcategories include: •Noun phrase (a pronoun usually substitutes) "The other two daughters" •The other two daughters become antagonistic to Lear after the power shift. •Adverb phrase (try substitution; try to move it) "after the power shift" •The other two daughters become antagonistic to Lear after the power shift. • •Adjective Phrase (substitute a related single adjective) "antagonistic to Lear" •The other two daughters become antagonistic to Lear after the power shift. •Verb phrase & Main Verb Phrase (we will discuss these) "become antagonistic to Lear after the power shift" -The other two daughters become antagonistic to Lear after the power shift.

What is the "exemplar theory"?

Proposal concerning the way humans categorize objects and ideas in psychology in which we categorize by comparing new stimuli with instances already stored in memory.

Who was one of the most famous defenders of the nativeness principle? Who disputed his claims?

Sir Randolph Quirk - he believes that consolidating English language instruction around a standard dialect is most helpful to English language learners; exposing them to a number of dialects and variations will only be confusing and detrimental to them; he published his writings during a time when "received pronunciation" was widely spread and used on/forced upon BBC news (considered to be a more upper class dialect) His theory: "Proper" pronunciation (which mirrors native pronunciation) should be considered a primary objective of English Language Instruction He also believed that by stating something as elitist, you are among the elite. Pro-intelligibility defenders such as Jennifer Jenkins disputed many of his claims. She believes that native accents are fundamentally elitist because it excludes people that are unable to develop a native accent. (e.g. being limited by their mother tongue) Jennifer Jenkins' theory: English is flexible and should focus on accommodation to adjust your speaking for the benefit of your communication partner It is not practical to assume that you can learn a native accent because that ability declines when people reach adulthood. By the time you reach adulthood, it is very difficult for you to achieve a "native accent." If it is not attainable, then what is the point in teaching them? Some people do not want to attain a native accent because they want to be bonded in their social community; it is part of their identity. People are not that interested in talking with native speakers of English because it has become so globalized/such as lingua franca. If we say it is desirable for people to possess a native accent, it is inherently exclusionary. Teaching should reflect the context of learners. ●Context for English learners concerns how they intend to use the language along with their language identities and attitudes: ○Some learners may be preparing to communicate with outer circle speakers or other extended circle speakers (English as a lingua franca) ○Others may intend to move to Inner Circle countries or work in professional inner circle environments ○Language identity: Attachment learners may have to their accents. Research suggests identity may be as strong as biological factors in shaping one's accent

Analyze this sentence. The man from out of town has been telling us about his new motorcycle

Subject: The man from out of town MVP: has been telling Verb Expansion: present + HAVE + {-en} + BE + {-ing} + TELL; present-perfect progressive He has been telling us about his new motorcycle.

What are subordinating conjunctions?

Subordinating conjunctions are conjunctions that are used at the beginning of subordinate clauses. Some examples of these conjunctions are; although, after, before, because, how, if, once, since, so that, until, unless, when etc. Subordinating conjunctions join independent clauses with a dependent or subordinate clause. A clause that is dependent (subordinate) is a clause that contains two qualities. Qualities of subordinating conjunctions: Connect unequal elements. Don't confuse with prepositions: before he left the room/ before our meal. Cannot move about in the sentence, but the entire subordinate clause usually can be moved to the front or end of the main independent clause. Examples: after, as though, although, because, if, so that, less than Although Katie assured me it was OK, I felt terrible about asking for a writing extension.

What is a direct object? What is an indirect object? Give sentence examples of both.

The direct object of a verb is the thing being acted upon (i.e., the receiver of the action). Ex: She fed the cat. Damien hates raisins. The ocean calls Siobhan. Sasha paints landscapes. The basic construction works like this: Subject + Verb + Who or What. Remember that direct objects follow transitive verbs (action verbs). If you ever see a linking verb, your spidey senses should make you aware that you are no longer dealing with a direct object. Common linking verbs include: am is are was were has been have been become seem e.g. I am an aspiring playwright.("Am" is a linking verb, showing no action. This means we're dealing with a subject complement and not a direct object.) An indirect object is an optional part of a sentence; it's the recipient of an action. To identify the indirect object of the sentence, ask yourself to whom or for whom is the direct object "verb‐ed"? Ex: Becky baked Bernice a plateful of cookies. (Becky baked what? A plateful of cookies. Who received the cookies? Bernice. = IO) Her mom brought her a glassful of seashells. (Her mom brought what? A glassful of seashells. Who received the glassful of seashells? Her. = IO) -Jack gave Dahlia Dahlias. Dahlia = IO Dahlias = DO -Jack gave the woman he loved those big flowers whose name I can't remember. •NP1 +Vtrans + NP2 + NP3 For an indirect object to exist, there must be a direct object. Direct objects only associate with transitive verbs. The definition of a transitive verb is an action verb that works with direct objects. So, they're one big happy family. Indirect and direct objects will never follow linking verbs. These verbs do not show any action. Rather, their sole function is to link the subject of the sentence to further information. That further information is known as the subject complement. Common linking verbs include: am is are was were has been have been become seem

What is the difference between the past participle morpheme and the past tense morpheme? Which two words include a past participle morpheme? (choose two answers) A. I have shown them the pictures. B. I ate the whole cake. C. I have explained the situation to everyone. D. I walked home.

The past participle morpheme usually ends in {-en} but can sometimes end in {-ed} because {-ed} is an allomorph of {-en}. The past tense morpheme usually ends in {-ed}. There are some irregular verbs. -ed: Usually written as -ed, but sometimes does not change (example: cut) -en can appear -ed: Often identical to the past tense, but usually attaches to a verb following a helping verb such as a form of "have," and "be" A and C Basically, the past tense is a tense while the past participle is a specific verb form used in the past and present perfect tenses. The past participle is not a tense. It's a form of a verb and can't be used on its own. You need an auxiliary verb, such as "have" or "had." Because of this, the past participle is commonly used as a compound verb. Past tense: I lived in the United States for seven years. I listened to this song five times. We talked about this book. I ate breakfast at 10 o'clock yesterday. Past participle: I had lived in the United States for seven years. I have listened to this song five times. The book has been talked about. I had eaten breakfast by 10 o'clock yesterday. The past tense is a tense while the past participle is a specific verb form used in the past and present perfect tenses. The past participle is not a tense. It's a form of a verb and can't be used on its own.

What is "linguistics"?

The scientific study of language

What is the difference between transitive and intransitive verbs?

Transitive verbs require a noun phrase complement that refers to something or someone other than that to which the subject noun phrase refers. The second noun phrase (NP2) in type V sentences functions as a direct object. Verbs such as give, want, and eat that are followed by noun phrases function as direct objects, and are typically referred to as "transitive verbs." Verbs that accept two objects, a direct object and an indirect object, are ditransitive. Some transitive verbs allow their direct objects to be followed by another direct object. If the object complement is nominal, its referent is the direct object. An example of a sentence with a transitive verb and a nominal object complement would be "They named their daughter Veronica." "Veronica" is the nominal object complement that renames the direct object "their daughter." An example of a sentence with a ditransitive verb would be "Lauren gave Dave the book." because "the book" is the direct object and "Dave" is the indirect object, the person Lauren gave the book to. Intransitive verbs are verbs that can stand alone in the verb phrase and function as the entire predicate (consists of the main verb phrase and its complements). Intransitive verbs can also have one or more adverbial modifiers that add information about how, when, where, why, and how much something happened. An example of a sentence with an intransitive verb would be "Shelley sings beautifully." Noun phrases follow verbs in type IV (linking verb with nominal subject complement) and type V sentences (transitive). Type IV sentences contain verbs that link the subject with a subject complement in the predicate; however, the linking verb is followed by a nominal (functioning as a noun) constituent. They follow the structure of NP1 + MV (linking) + NP1 because the nominal subject complement is the class into which the subject noun phrase falls under.

True or False: An example of a frame sentence for adverbs would be one of the following: The man told his story _______ or The woman walked her dog __________.

True, this is a frame or example sentence for adverbs. Notice how qualifiers don't fit in these frames: He told his story very* and quantifiers also don't fit in this frame "he told his story half;" however, some of the quantifiers will. For example, take "He told his story twice."

True or False: Clauses beginning with interrogative pronouns can function as nominatives, adjectivals, or adverbials.

True--examples include:He is where she is. (functioning adverbial)They want what others have. (functioning as DO nominative)They knew the people whose naughty dog craps in our yard. (Functioning as adj)

True or False: Relative clauses always function adjectivally in relationship to the full independent clause or main clause.

True. Relative clauses are always adjectival, even when they begin with a relative adverb pronoun such as "where" or "when." These are always "relative" to an NP--i.e. modifying an NP

Give an example of an indirect object transformation.

We gave candy to the trick-or-treaters. NP1 +MVP +NP2+ ADVP We gave the trick-or-treaters candy. NP1+ MVP+ NP2+ NP3 trick-or-treaters = IO candy = DO The coach kicked Francis the soccer ball The coach kicked Francis [IO] the soccer ball [DO] The coach kicked the soccer ball to Francis 1. We gave Jim a surprise birthday dinner last week. We gave Jim [IO] a surprise birthday dinner [DO] last week We gave a surprise birthday dinner [DO] for Jim last week type 5 (transitive) 2. A photographer offered everyone pictures. A photographer offered everyone [IO] pictures [DO] A photographer offered pictures [DO] to everyone type 5 (transitive) Now read this example: After Michael helped himself to the stuffing, he passed us it. Ewww! This version is awful too! But with a quick fix, we can solve the problem: After Michael helped himself to the stuffing, he passed it to us. With the indirect object us in a prepositional phrase, we have a smooth sentence!

What is "global English" (also referred to as World Englishes)?

World Englishes is a term for emerging localized or indigenized varieties of English, especially varieties that have developed in territories influenced by the United Kingdom or the United States. The term World Englishes refers to the differences in the English language that emerge as it is used in various contexts across the world. Scholars of World Englishes identify the varieties of English used in different sociolinguistic contexts, analyzing their history, background, function, and influence. For many sociolinguists the most important and accurate model is the one proposed by Braj Kachru in 1988. His "Three Circle Model of World Englishe," states that there are three circles inside which, the different speakers are classified. The different circles are: The Inner Circle is made up the traditional bases of English and its speakers are the ones in charge of providing the norms. These places are where the norms are created and from which they spread to the other circles. Some of the countries that conform the Inner Circle are USA, UK and Canada. The Outer Circle represents the places where they speak official non-native varieties of English because of their colonial history. The speakers of these places are the ones who challenge the norms and develop them and are mainly ESL. Some of the countries that belong to this circle are India, Pakistan and Egypt. English is deeply entrenched in these countries' institutions. The Expanding Circle is made up by EFL speakers where English is not usually spoken. In this circle, the speakers have to follow the rules stablished by the Inner Circle and developed by the Outer one. Some examples of countries that belong to this circle are China, Russia and Brazil. Thomas Farrell is a linguist who debated whether to teach Standard English or World Englishes.

Analyze this set and its morphemes: 1) asexual 2) aflame 3) away 4) abreast 5) abreast

asexual: a\sex\ual {a-} - derivational prefix; a prefix meaning "not" or "without"; asymptomatic {sex} - free base; it can be used as a noun or a verb; it can be used as an independent word or used in a word such as "sexism" {-ual} - derivational suffix; this word can be added to many nouns to create associated adjectives; sensual In the word, "asexual," the presence of the derivational prefix "a" makes sense because the word "asexual" means "without sexual feelings"; however, for the other words in this list, the presence of "a" at the beginning of these words does not carry the same meaning. "Alter" is a word that has been used as a verb meaning "change or cause to change in character or composition." If I was to take out "a" in this word, would "lter" be a base? The answer is no, because bases are units in which prefixes and suffixes can be added to it. "Lter" is not a base because prefixes and suffixes cannot be attached to it; therefore, "alter" is its own word. "Alter" is a base because derivational suffixes such as "nate" can be added to it; thus, substantiating how the word cannot be further divided.

Functions of infinitive phrases

•ADVERBIAL -I am too tired to drive home tonight. •Interrogative adverb replacement: How tired am I? •Mobility: (To get a ride home, I called my friend.) •"in order to": I am too tired in order to drive home... •ADJECTIVAL -He found a friend to drive him home. •Relative clause: He found a friend who will drive... •NOMINAL -She wants to stay at the party. •Pronoun replacement: She wants something. •Interrogative noun replacement: What does she want? •Functions as a D.O. of wants

Give an example of a negative transformation. How do you create a negative transformation?

•They're not coming to the party. •We hadn't remembered to bake cookies. •I won't forget to bring the keys. •You don't have time to study. •General rule: -Put negative after first auxiliary -If there is no auxiliary OR verb is not BE, add DO as an auxiliary •The Aux takes the tense •Leonard enjoys dressing up. •Leonard DOES enjoy dressing up. •Leonard does NOT enjoy dressing up.

Present participle phrases functioning as adverbial and adjectival modifiers

•Those people waiting for the bus looked tired. (Adjectival modifier) •After hearing about the new assignment, the students groaned. (Adverbial modifier)

Relative appositives

•Uncle Matt, who is the nicest of all my relatives, always washes the dishes. •The large oak table, which is Grandma's most prized possession, can seat 18 adults. •Notice the punctuation Here, when the clause interrupts the main clause, it is separated out with commas, similar to the nonrestrictive clauses we saw earlier. Klammer defines these as relative appositives because the relative pronoun and the be/linking verb could be deleted to create a noun phrase appositive