Management CH 09

communication

- the process of transmitting information from one person to another to create a shared understanding and feeling. Communication does not mean agreeing, only that information is transmitted and received as it was intended The communication process involves a number of steps. The process begins with encoding a message, then transmitting that message through a channel, and it then being decoded by the receiver. Feedback helps improve communication effectiveness, but, on the other hand, noise can block or distort it

Body language

A body movement such as a gesture or expression that conveys information to others For communication to be effective and meaningful, then, all three parts of the message need to be congruent. If any of the three parts are incongruent, conflicting messages are being sent. Consciously controlling your body language is as important a managerial skill as knowing how to interpret others' body language. Controlling your nonverbal signals and vocal tone ensures that you reinforce your intended message. For example, in the United States (although not in all cultures), shifting your eyes and looking away while speaking tends to make people not trust your message. If you want people to see you as a leader, stand up straight, make eye contact, and smile; those signals project confidence and energy. Walking with slumped shoulders and with your head down, speaking in a flat tone, and fidgeting often communicate that you are indecisive, negative, or inexperienced.

Feedback

A check on the success of the communication Repeating or paraphrasing the original message, asking for clarification, and asking if your conclusion is correct are forms of feedback.

Noise

Anything that blocks, distorts, or changes in any way the message the sender intended to communicate For example, noise can be something physical in the environment, like a ringing bell or people talking, or it can occur because the sender or the receiver is distracted and is unable to concentrate on the message being sent or received. Stereotypes, biases, and one's mood or psychological state can all serve as noise that distorts a message.

Active listening

Becoming actively involved in the process of listening to what others are saying and clarifying messages' meaning Active listening requires the receiver to tune out noise and concentrate on the message. Ways to be an active listener include asking open-ended questions and sending the other person feedback to check that you understand the message. Making eye contact, nodding occasionally, and showing appropriate nonverbal behaviors also show the sender that you are listening. Experts generally offer the following suggestions for being a good listener: Pay close attention to individual inferences, facts, and judgments, and make useful and logical connections between what they have heard on multiple occasions. Give speakers clear nonverbal evidence that they are listening attentively, including leaning toward the speaker, maintaining eye contact, and not fidgeting. Give speakers clear verbal evidence that they are listening attentively, including giving constructive feedback, paraphrasing, and questioning for clarification and refinement. Show the speaker respect by not interrupting and using an inclusive, friendly, and sharing tone rather than an exclusionary, hostile, and condescending tone. Follow up on unusual or inconsistent communication cues from the speaker, such as changes in tone, vocabulary, and body language to determine the real message the speaker is trying to send. Use what the speaker says or infers to determine the speaker's motives, self-interest, and expectation(s) of listeners. Offer speakers honest, clear, timely, respectful, and relevant acknowledgment of what they have said.

Media Richness

Communication media can be classified in terms of their richness or the media's ability to carry nonverbal cues, provide rapid feedback, convey personality traits, and support the use of natural language. The richness of a medium depends on four things: Interactivity, or the availability of feedback. Immediate feedback allows senders to adjust their messages. Richer media provide faster feedback. The ability to transmit multiple cues, such as physical presence, voice inflection, nonverbal cues, and pictures. Richer media allow the communication of multiple cues. Language variety for conveying a broad set of concepts and ideas. For example, ideas about a new advertising campaign cannot be expressed in as many ways in a letter as they can in a face-to-face conversation. Richer media allow for greater language variety. The personal focus of the medium, or the degree to which it allows the expression of emotions and other social cues. Richer media allow for more personal focus. The more a medium displays these attributes, the richer it is; the less it displays these attributes, the leaner it is. Face-to-face is the richest medium because it has the capacity for immediate feedback, carries multiple cues, and uses natural language. When communicating, managers must choose the media that best matches the information richness required of the task or communication. The more ambiguous and uncertain a task is, the richer the media should be that supports it. Sometimes the extra expense of face-to-face communication is worth the cost because of the richness of the communication it enables as well as the respect and sincerity it conveys.

Nonverbal communications

Communications that are not spoken or written but that have meaning to others Some of the strongest and most meaningful communications are nonverbal—a fire alarm, a smile, an emoticon, a red traffic light, or a look of anger on someone's face.

Encoding

Converting a thought, idea, or fact into a message composed of symbols, pictures, or words

low-context cultures

Cultures that rely on words to convey meaning In low-context cultures like Germany, Switzerland, or North American cultures, communication tends to be more direct and explicit.

Business Writing

Effective business writing is not just about grammar and punctuation—the style and tone also have to be appropriate for the audience. Business writing needs to be professional and direct and often needs to be persuasive. Always proofread your business communications, even if they are fairly short and ensure that spelling and grammar are correct. Experts suggest these guidelines for effective business writing: Write to express, not to impress. Get to the point and use common language rather than jargon or difficult verbiage. For example, Mark Twain vowed never to write metropolis when paid the same for writing city. Provide transitions between ideas. Back up your assertions. Support your points with statistics, examples, citation of authorities, and anecdotes. Footnote any ideas, phrases, sentences, and terms that are not your own. Write for your audience. Ensure that your language, length, and evidence suit your audience. Edit and revise. Correct grammar and spelling errors and stay focused. Format for readability. Make documents attractive and easy to read. Use graphic aids and pictures where appropriate to highlight and express ideas. Write with energy and conviction. Avoid passive voice. Training in using all forms of electronic communication, including email, instant messaging, tweets, blogs, and wikis, can help managers and employees reduce misunderstandings and enhance communication efficiency

constructive criticism

Give feedback in private. It is much more threatening to receive criticism, no matter how constructive, in front of peers, subordinates, supervisors, customers, or anyone else. If criticism needs to be given to a work team, try to avoid singling anyone out and consider saying something like, "Although I am going to speak with each of you separately about your strengths and where you might improve, my feedback now is intended to benefit the entire team." Request permission. People react more strongly to feedback that is unexpected rather than expected. Being granted permission increases the receiver's receptivity to the information and also lets you know if waiting for a better time might be more effective. Saying, "I would like to talk with you about how you might handle this type of situation in the future, is that alright?" will usually be met with agreement. If the response is more along the lines of, "I know what you're going to say, and I don't want to hear it," it is a good idea to try again later. If the feedback cannot wait then an effective response might be, "I'm sorry, but I really think that this is important, and we need to discuss it now." Try to preface a negative statement with a positive one. Beginning your feedback with praise for a related behavior can help to reduce defensiveness. By balancing the negative feedback that is about to come, the praise reduces the negativity of the information being communicated. Be specific but not overly harsh or negative. Describing the behavior and why it is a problem can help the receiver understand what he or she needs to change and why. Because people sometimes do not realize how their actions negatively affect others, explaining the negative impact of their behaviors can help motivate the person to change. Stay focused on your goal of obtaining favorable reactions and behavioral change from the feedback recipient. Suggest specific changes that would help. To truly be helpful, constructive feedback ideally provides some ideas for how the behavior or action might be effectively modified. This also reinforces the message that your intentions are constructive and not intended to harm the message receiver.

Filtering

How we reduce the amount of information being received to a manageable amount Filtering is essential to managers because it helps to reduce the amount of noise in the communication process. Effective filtering amplifies relevant and accurate information and minimizes the rest. Some companies use technology to reduce the filtering of messages as they move around the company. In addition, lower levels of the organization get faster resolution to their issues because the inefficient filtering and "managing up" that used to take place when the company relied on traditional linear communication channels are eliminated. An additional benefit of adopting the technology has been greater mutual visibility between the lower and higher levels of the organization, which helps to ensure that everyone shares the same goals and priorities.

Internet

Instead of filtering the information coming into an organization, they are now responsible for aligning information with business goals and acting as facilitators by bringing the right people together to solve business problems as a collaborative community. Although technology should never replace all face-to-face interaction between leaders and subordinates, it can help the communication process by giving leaders more communication choices. Video chats and podcasts make it easier to communicate nonverbal information when sending messages. And email and instant messaging help managers prioritize incoming communications and stay caught up while away from work. In many organizations, email has evolved from an informal communication channel to become a primary and formal means of business correspondence.

Presentation Skills

Managers need effective presentation skills to present proposals to supervisors and to communicate with other managers and groups of subordinates at once. Here are some suggestions for making effective presentations: Speak up and speak clearly. Quickly achieve rapport. In the first few moments, show audience members that you feel comfortable with them. Channel nervous energy into an enthusiastic delivery; use gestures to express your ideas. Move freely and naturally without pacing; look at your audience. Minimize notes and use them unobtrusively. Notes work best as "thought triggers." Highlight key ideas. Use voice volume, graphic aids, pauses, and "headlining" (telling the audience that a point is particularly important). Watch the audience for signs of comprehension or misunderstanding. Tilted heads and furrowed brows can signal a need for clarification and review. End with a bang. Your concluding words should be memorable.

Meeting Skills

Meeting effectiveness may be improved when people come prepared to meetings, an agenda is used, meetings are punctual (start and end on time), purposes are clear, and there is widespread participation. Leading meetings requires skills in organizing, eliciting input from meeting participants, and conflict management. Here are some suggestions for running effective meetings: Have a good reason to meet in the first place, or do not meet. Have an agenda that clearly states the purpose of the meeting and key steps to satisfying that purpose by the end of the meeting. Ensure that participants receive the agenda in advance, know what you expect of them, and know how they should prepare. Be fully prepared for the meeting and bring any relevant outside information that might be needed. State a time frame at the beginning of the meeting and stick to it. Require that participants come prepared to discuss the topics on the agenda. Keep participants focused on the agenda items, and quickly manage any interpersonal issues so that the meeting stays productive. Follow up on any outside assignments made to meeting participants.

information push

Occurs when information is received that was not requested

information pull

Occurs when someone receives requested information

two-way communication

Once a receiver provides feedback to a sender, the sender and receiver have engaged in two-way communication. If a manager tells an employee to join a telephone conference and the employee says, "I'll be right there," this is two-way communication Feedback enhances the effectiveness of the communication process by helping to ensure that the intended message is the one received.

Portals

Portals strongly resemble Internet sites like Yahoo.com and AOL.com. Users interact with them with a standard computer browser like Internet Explorer or Netscape, but instead of containing links to news and weather, the links lead you to sites on the company's private intranet. Portals can make project status continually visible to managers through real-time reports and visual cues such as red-yellow-green traffic signals or digital dashboards. Portals allow managers to use their browser to get a high-level summary of project status at any time. Some portals also provide visual comparisons and metrics between projects within a program. Project managers use portals to manage schedules and any issues that arise. By centralizing a variety of information, portals allow managers to track progress and identify any problems early on. Managers can also use portals to quickly disseminate information (documents, processes, notices, etc.) to all of their team members, wherever they are located, and solicit input and feedback in a controlled manner. Portals allow team members to easily share news and ideas, enhancing collaboration and project implementation efficiency. Project managers can delegate responsibilities down to individual team members, yet still retain control of the project. Portals are often customizable, allowing employees to subscribe only to the information they need. Portals can be integrated with other applications. For example, one button on a portal might call up yesterday's production charts, another lets employees check their 401(k) balance, and a third lets employees tell colleagues about how they solved important customer problems. Portals also let everyone in a company share databases, documents, calendars, and contact lists. They make it possible to collaborate easily with coworkers in remote locations and even conduct instant employee opinion polls. By consolidating information and connecting employees with one another, they help companies function as a single unit, rather than as individual entities.

high-context cultures

Situational and nonverbal cues are used to convey meaning In high-context cultures, managers tend to make suggestions rather than give direct instructions.

Verbal intonation

The emphasis given to spoken words and phrases Emphasizing different words completely changes the meaning of the statement. Remember the saying, "it's not what you say that matters but how you say it," every time you communicate. When body language is inconsistent with the spoken message, receivers are more likely to interpret your body language as the "true meaning. Texting, tweeting, or emailing a coworker is fast and efficient, but written notes cannot communicate the body language, vocal cues, and facial cues that communicating in person can. This often leaves text and email messages open to interpretation and lead to misunderstandings if the recipient draws conclusions that the sender did not intend. Bad news like an employee being terminated should always be done in person, but letting someone know that a meeting has been scheduled or that a report is ready is fine.

message

The encoded information

Organizational Communication

The exchange of information among two or more individuals or groups in an organization that creates a common basis of understanding and feeling. Organizational communication can move in a variety of directions, and be formal or informal in nature.

social network

The set of relationships among people connected through friendship, family, work, or other ties People form social networks in organizations that allow for an exchange of information from one employee to another, or even to people outside the company. These informal networks can be helpful; they give employees access to people who can help solve problems and get work done. It is often recommended that new employees try to tap into existing social networks to learn how to successfully do their work. Our social networks consist of both formal and informal ties. Formal ties refer to relationships with coworkers, bosses, and others we know because of the roles we hold. Employees have formal ties with their bosses and subordinates. Informal ties are relationships based on friendship and choice. The pattern of relationships in a company influences its communication patterns and information flow. If employees tend to be connected to many other employees, communication is more open and information flows more freely. If employees tend to be connected to very few other employees, or if employees tend to be connected only to their managers, the network is more closed and information tends to flow only to the central person. Personal contacts are essential to the success of salespeople and managers alike. Social networking Internet sites take these personal relationships online. If employees and customers are satisfied, these networks can help build loyalty. If not, employees and customers will communicate and amplify every complaint through these networks. Both employees and managers need to be careful about what they post on Internet social networking sites like Facebook, LinkedIn, and Instagram. This information will be available for others to view for many years, and many hiring managers look at Facebook and other sites to learn more about job candidates. You can use this to your advantage by posting information that reinforces and further explains your qualifications and accomplishments, rather than photos and other information that might frame you in a negative light.

telework

There are four major types of telework: Home-based telecommuting includes people who work at home for some period on a regular basis, but not necessarily every day. Satellite offices are offices situated to be more convenient for employees and/or customers. These offices are located away from what would normally be the main office location. Neighborhood work centers provide office space for the employees of more than one company in order to save commutes to central locations. Mobile work refers to work completed by traveling employees who use technology to communicate with the office as necessary from places such as client offices, airports, cars, and hotels.

Diagonal Communication

When employees communicate across departments and levels Diagonal communication is common in cross-functional project teams composed of people from different levels drawn from different departments. Diagonal communication allows employees in different parts of an organization to contribute to creating a new product or solving a problem. Diagonal communication also helps to link groups and spread information around the firm. Almost all successful managers use these informal communication networks to monitor employee communication and to communicate quickly with employees. Diagonal communication can also be inappropriate depending on the situation and the people involved. Subordinates who engage in diagonal communication may alienate their direct supervisor who might feel "out of the loop" and punish the subordinate for disrespecting the chain of command. Information technology and the Internet can facilitate horizontal and diagonal communication through the company's intranet, portals, and wikis. By creating a central location where employees can post questions and help solve problems other employees are dealing with, communication can occur among employees who would be unable to communicate without the use of technology. For organizations with multiple locations, IT and the Internet can create employee networks that allow employees located around the world to work together and share knowledge

Selective perception

When we selectively interpret what we see based on our interests, expectations, experience, and attitudes rather than on how things really are Selective perception leads us to receive only the part of a message that is consistent with our expectations, needs, motivations, interests, and other personal characteristics.

intranet

a type of centralized information clearinghouse. At its simplest, an intranet is a website stored on a computer that is connected to other company computers by an internal network. Employees reach the intranet site with standard web-browser software such as Netscape or Microsoft Explorer. An intranet can be connected to the Internet at large so that suppliers and customers can visit using company-issued passwords. In such cases, firewall software can be installed to act as a barrier between the internal systems and unauthorized outsiders. intranets are a good idea when a company's employees need to reach the same company information. Intranets give employees controlled access to the information stored on a company's network, which can reduce the need for paper versions of documents such as manuals and company forms. Intranets are not useful if many employees do not use or have access to computers, or if no one has the expertise to set up and manage the intranet.

Informal communication

anything that is not official. Informal communications include gossip and answering another employee's question about how to do something. The grapevine is an example of an informal communication channel. The grapevine can promote the spread of gossip or rumors, which can be destructive and interfere with the functioning of the company, particularly if they are untrue. You should not avoid the grapevine, but be sure to evaluate the credibility of the source before you believe what you hear. If a rumor does not make sense or is inconsistent with other things you know or have heard, seek more information before reacting. As a manager, being aware of current office gossip can help to keep you informed of what is on employees' minds and prevent rumors from growing out of control. It is best to prevent rumors from starting by establishing clear communication channels, building trust with your employees, and providing employees adequate facts and information. If a rumor does start to spread, neutralize it by consistently and honestly communicating with employees about the issue. Not making a comment is usually seen as confirmation of a rumor.

formal communication

are official, organization-sanctioned communications. They can be upward, downward, horizontal, or diagonal. Formal communication channels typically involve some sort of written communication that provides a permanent record of the exchange. Formal communication is usually interpreted accurately.

Organizational barriers

come from the hierarchical structure and culture of the organization. Numerous hierarchical levels or department specializations can make communication across levels and departments difficult. Different hierarchical levels typically focus on different types of information, which can interfere with communication. Higher-level executives, for example, typically focus on information related to bigger picture issues and business strategy, while lower-level employees focus on customer issues, production, and deadlines. The open environment makes it easy for people to ask questions and offer ideas. This facilitates communication and allows the CEO to get ideas from people he never would previously have asked for input

blogs

individuals' chronicles of personal thoughts and interests. Some blogs function as online diaries. A typical blog combines text, images, and links to other blogs, webpages, and other media related to its topic. In some cases, a CEO will create a blog to communicate more directly with employees and stakeholders. When the investment bank Dresdner Kleinwort Wasserstein wanted to make it easier for its employees to collaborate, it used blogs and wikis. Now that its 1,500 employees create, comment, and revise projects in real time, meeting times have been cut in half, and productivity has increased

one-way communication

information flows in only one direction. The sender communicates a message without expecting or getting any feedback from the receiver. For example, if a manager tells an employee to help a customer and the employee does so without saying a word or if a manager tells an employee that he or she is doing a good job and then leaves before hearing a response, one-way communication has occurred.

Pooled interdependence

is when employees work independently and their output is combined into group output. An example of pooled interdependence is a call center in which customer service agents act relatively independently in handling calls. Because employees work independently, pooled interdependence has low communication requirements.

Task Interdependence

leads to an increase in communications requirements. The three major forms of interdependence, as shown here, are pooled, sequential, and reciprocal. The higher the level of interdependence the greater the requirement for effective communication.

Sequential interdependence

like in an assembly line, requires tasks to be performed in a certain order. This increases the need for communication as individuals or groups are dependent on other individuals or groups for the resources they need to complete their own tasks.

webcasts

live or prerecorded video segments that are broadcast over a company's intranet and archived for employees to view later. They can help higher levels of management communicate with more employees and communicate messages more effectively because the executive is able to use voice and even video to express the message through intonation and body language.

Downward Communication

occurs when higher-level employees communicate to those at lower levels in the organization Downward communication typically consists of messages about how to do a job, performance goals, the firm's policies, and how the company is performing. Information technology and the Internet have given managers more choices in how to communicate downward, including email, instant messaging, intranets, portals, wikis, blogs, and webcasts in addition to traditional verbal and written communication.

Upward Communication

occurs when lower-level employees communicate with those at higher levels Encouraging upward communication can help managers check that subordinates understand their goals and instructions, keep managers informed of employee challenges and complaints, and cultivate acceptance and commitment by giving employees the opportunity to express ideas and suggestions Despite its potential benefits, getting subordinates to give upward feedback can be challenging. Subordinates often filter bad news, fearing that their boss does not really want to hear it. Being approachable, accessible, and creating a culture of trust and openness can help subordinates feel more comfortable giving upward feedback. Managers should avoid overreacting, becoming defensive, or acting blameful and should respect confidentiality when a subordinate shares potentially controversial or negative information. Attitude surveys, an open-door policy, and regular face-to-face meetings with subordinates can also foster upward communication. One of the best ways to make subordinates comfortable sharing information may be sympathetically listening to them during your daily informal contacts with them in and outside of the workplace. This can build the trust required for subordinates to share their ideas and honestly communicate negative information. Technology tools such as wikis can enhance bottom-up communication in organizations. By creating an open-source workspace, all employees can be part of the brainstorming and problem-solving process.

Horizontal Communication

occurs when someone in an organization communicates with others at the same organizational level. Managers often depend on each other to help get the job done, and communication is necessary for them to coordinate resources and workflow. Although horizontal communication occurs between peers, as in all organizational communications, it is best to stay professional and avoid confrontational words and negative body language. Managers can facilitate horizontal or interdepartmental communication by appointing liaison personnel or creating interdepartmental committees or task forces to facilitate communication and coordination and solve common problems. Technology also can help. Online videos, blogs, wikis, and discussion boards can be made available to all employees or to a particular workgroup. An online notice board even lets employees congratulate one another or thank coworkers for their help.

Reciprocal interdependence

requires constant communication and mutual adjustment for task completion, such as a cross-functional research and development team, or an event-planning team, and creates the highest potential for conflict.

wikis

searchable, archivable websites that allow people to comment on and edit one another's work in real time. The user-edited Wikipedia encyclopedia (Wikipedia.org) is one of the most popular online wikis. Wikis are well suited for collaborative writing because they allow users to quickly and easily add and edit content. Wikis are essentially a simplified system of creating webpages combined with a system that records and catalogs all revisions. This allows entries to be changed to a previous state at any time. A wiki system may also include tools designed to provide users with an easy way to monitor the constantly changing state of the wiki. A place to discuss and resolve any issues or disagreements over wiki content is also common. Wikis are easy to use and inexpensive. Because real-time project information is located in one easy-to-access place, project completion times can be greatly reduced. Unlike a portal or intranet, wikis have no inherent structure. Some popular wiki features are an automatically generated list of pages recently changed and an index of all the wiki's pages. Access can be restricted to a limited group of people and even require passwords. Disney, Kodak, and Motorola have all found ways to use wikis.

To professionally receive and respond to negative feedback, it is a good idea to:

show appreciation for the feedback. Remember that giving feedback isn't easy either and start your response with a sincere thank you for the information regardless of how it makes you feel. This may also influence the feedback sender to be even more supportive and helpful. If this is too difficult or if you risk coming across as sarcastic, at least avoid negative reactions such as sighing or showing negative nonverbal cues. agree with all that you can. Take a moment to consider that all the feedback might be correct and agree with what you can and apologize if necessary. Depending on the situation and topic at hand, this may be the best response even if you do not completely agree with the feedback. If the issue is a matter of opinion, like the aesthetics of a presentation template, remember that it is your supervisor's opinion that matters most to your evaluation, raise, or promotion. request more detail if needed. Do not be afraid of asking follow-up questions. Show that you are taking the feedback seriously by clarifying the points or asking if different solutions might be appropriate. take responsibility. Accepting responsibility for your behavior shows that you intend to do something about it, which is the primary goal of the feedback sender. You do not need to take responsibility for things that are not your fault but showing that you understand how you might have contributed to the problem and communicating your intention to fix it or to improve shows the feedback sender that you are likely to meet his or her expectations.

Decoding

the interpretation and translation of the message back into something understood by the receiver. The decoded information is hopefully the same as the information the sender intended to communicate, but this is not always the case.

channel

the medium used to send the message to the receiver, including voice, writing, graphs, videos, intranets, the Internet, television, and body language.