MArketing 377 Exam 2

contrast

5 A contrast is a difference; we see differences between stimuli. In fact, the idea of contrast important to know largely because people pay attention to things that have differences. For example, motion is one way a contrast exists; an object that is moving is shown in different locations. Humans are wired to pay attention to things that move, and this illustrates the impact of contrast. Colors can contrast with each other, and so can shapes, etc. If you want people to notice something, show it in a setting that involves some contrast (that's not to say contrasts should always be used; contrasts are just one tool you can use to encourage people to notice something).

schema

5 A schema is the structure of how a set of ideas or beliefs are organized together. Think of a filing cabinet with things stored in it. The cabinet has a set of items. Similarly, in your mind you have a collection of ideas that are stored together. So you have a mental category for "colors" and within this category you think of red, yellow, orange, green, etc. And you have an idea of "tools" and in this tool-category you might have a variety of tools in mind. The schema is the organization of your ideas. In marketing, these schema are often "categories." Consumers think of products or categories that will fill their needs. If a consumer wants to order pizza and thinks of the pizza category, the consumer will recall brands that are most associated with this category. The more your pizza brand is associated with this category, the more likely the consumer will be to consider you, and eventually order from you. The schema is the mental structure of the consumer has for organizing the brands or other ideas/beliefs into some types of groupings.

exposure

5 Exposure is the existence of a stimulus that a person has an opportunity to sense. You are "exposed" to many stimuli. You will pay attention to some stimuli but not others, and you will recognize or recall some stimuli that you pay attention to, but not others. In marketing, especially for advertising, we pay for "exposures." If you want to put a lease a billboard on Highway 41, you partly look at "how many cars/drivers" pass the billboard each day?" and you are getting a sense of the amount of exposure your billboard receives.

haptic

5 Haptic is touch. Touch is a VERY important part of the human experience, and psychologists have studied this for decades. In fact, before political-correctness became such a big issue, managers were trained to touch employees in a supportive way. This could be a hand-shake or a pat on the shoulder or something similar. Psychologists found people positively connect to other people when some supportive touch is involved. Some very famous studies exist going back to the 1950s or 1960s, and even involved experiments with infant monkeys, subjecting them to normal touch environments versus environments where they could not touch other monkeys. The lack of touch resulted in monkeys having behavior problems. Haptic also involves touch that is beyond human-to-human, so how a product feels is also part of the haptic/touch sensation.

hedonic consumption

5 Hedonic means pleasure oriented. A hedonist is someone very oriented toward seeking pleasure experiences. When we watch movies, or eat foods we love, or go on dates with someone, those tend to fall into the hedonic-consumption arena. Of course many products are purchased partly for a functional/utility reason, and partly for a hedonic reason. A person might buy a waffle iron for their kitchen, but not just any waffle iron, but one that looks really nice in their kitchen, and the pursuit of aesthetics is associated with the hedonic side of buying. Lots of consumer purchases are motivated at least partly by hedonics.

context effects

5 How we react to things depends on the context. How you respond to the thought of food might depend on whether you are hungry. And the thought about "do I walk home or pay for a ride" might depend on whether you believe you are in safe surroundings, whether you are in a hurry, etc. Sometimes a context impacts perceptions in a more subtle way. For example, a mid-tiered store might include some very nice high-end items, which encourages shoppers to feel as though the quality level of products in the store is generally high, and the consumers then view each normal product in the store a bit more favorably (because of the context of having some high-end items in the store).

perception

5 Perception is how we interpret their reaction to stimuli. If you smell a flower and it smells good to you, then "good" is your perception, and that's subjective. When you think of another person you might think, "that person is good natured" or "that person likes to hear herself talk" but those are just your perceptions. They may or may not be true. Of course we tend to believe our perceptions are accurate, and sometimes they are... but sometimes they are not. That's very important to marketers, because no matter what we think of our brands, consumers may form different perceptions of our brand (or competitor brands). Which brand they select is based on their perception of the brands, not based on how we think our brand compares to competition.

Weber's law

5 Sometimes presented in a more refined way, the Weber-Fechner law. This deals with our ability to sense a change in a stimulus. The greater the stimulus amount initially, the more a change must occur for us to notice it. For example, if you hold a tennis ball and add a one-pound weight to it, you will notice the difference in weight as the 1-pound weight is added. But if you take a bowling ball and add one-pound, the sensation of weight change will decrease. And if you take a cannon-ball or something very heavy and add a pound to it, the added pound might be very difficult to even detect. This is not just about weights, but any stimulus. The addition by Fechner was to specify that the change follows a logarithmic curve, so the specification of this principle became more exacting.

sensory overload

5 The amount you can sense before your mind becomes somewhat incapable of really understanding all the things you are sensing. We go into sensory overload when we have a lot of stimulation coming at us. We think we might still be able to pay attention to everything, but once we hit a certain amount, we become unable to correctly absorb new stimuli.

principle of similarity

5 This idea relates to the schema concept, which is the mental structure of how people group ideas or beliefs. This principle reflects the fact that products will be more likely grouped together, if they share similarities. In marketing, one way we use this occurs when we offer several products, and we put our brand on all of these products in a fairly uniform way. We are encouraging consumers to see something similar about these products, and mentally think of them as being associated with each other. Teams use this idea too; we give people uniforms to wear. By wearing the same uniform, we mentally think of ourselves a bit more as being part of the same group. Employers encourage this type of think with employee uniforms too. (This is not the only reason for wearing uniforms, but it's one reason.)

semiotics (object, sign, interpretant)

5 This is a process used very frequently. A company wants to position their brand in the minds of consumers. How do they accomplish this positioning? Mostly through designing products that meet the intended position. But there's more to it. Companies also build positions through messaging, and semiotics is one way they do this. Let's take an example: you have a product, and you want people to associate your product with some idea. So you show an image next to your product, where the image is associated with the idea. People then have some tendency to associate your product with the idea conveyed in the image. Logos are often built with this in mind; a logo may convey an idea that you then associate with the brand. Consider the KwikTrip logo that conveys "speedy" and the idea is to associate a trip to KwikTrip as being speedy. Sports teams use logos to associate their teams with energy or power. A restaurant might put a picture of a farmhouse or orchard on its menu to encourage consumers to associate their restaurant food with fresh-from-the-farm. So you have an object (the product/brand), a sign (the image or symbol you use to convey the idea), and the interpretant (the idea you want to associate with your product/brand).

just noticeable difference

5 This is the amount of a change in stimulus that is needed for us to "notice" it. See the Weber law; in fact perhaps this concept should be placed with the Weber law concept. When a difference between two stimuli are very small, a consumer might be unable to notice the difference, unless the consumer is paying unusually high attention to the stimuli.

sensory threshold

5 This is the amount of a stimuli needed for you to be aware of it. If the doorbell rings and you did not hear it, then it could have been below your threshold. The threshold amount differs across people, and even differs across settings for a person. If you are on a hunting trip, you will probably hear something like a small branch snapping; you are much more attuned to sounds like this when hunting. But when camping in general your threshold to hear a branch snap might be lower (note: this example also illustrates a context-effect; the contexts of hunting versus camping). And if you are in a crowded room and someone says a person's name, you might not hear it, but if they say YOUR name (at the same sound level) chances are pretty good you'll hear it. So the threshold does exist, but it's not constant.

positioning strategy

5 This is the decisions you make in marketing to encourage consumers to think of your brand in a certain way. Positioning is how people think about brands relative to each other. A strategy is a general approach to doing something. So you think, "How do I want consumers to view my brand relative to other brands," and then you take some approach to developing this position (e.g., through product design efforts, or through advertising or though the distribution channel you use, or through the prices you use, etc.)

subliminal perception

5 This is the notion that you can perceive meanings from stimuli without even being aware that you are sensing them. In marketing, the idea would be that if a consumer is exposed to an ad (or message), even if they do not see part of the ad, they will sub-consciously react as though they saw it in a very superficial way. Does subliminal perception really work? Maybe in some cases. But some urban-mythology exists about how marketers use this, whereas not much evidence supports this. This concept is more "marketing legend" than "marketing logic," but is worth knowing about because you may hear people talk about this as though it's a frequently used tactic. And who knows... maybe someday research will show there's more to this.

perceptual selection (vigilance/defense)

5 This is whether people seek out stimuli (vigilance) or tune out stimuli (defense). Let's say you are shopping for an apartment. When you are in this shopping mode, if you are exposed to an advertisement for apartments, you are more likely to notice it, compared to when you are not shopping for an apartment. For many product categories, consumers are "in the market" sometimes but not other times. Let's consider baby items; consumers are "in the market" at certain times, such as when they become new parents. So as a marketer, you could study consumers in general to understand how they react to baby items, but the reactions you see from people "not in the market" may not be relevant to how you should market. For example, let's say 10% of the population is "in the market" for a baby item. You show people an ad, and the general reaction is negative; people did not pay attention to your ad. Well, maybe the 10% who are "in the market" loved your ad, and the overall results were from people who were in the "perception defense" group. It will help you to understand this concept, because you want to base your evaluation of the ad on people who were "in the market." (E.g., don't reject an ad as being "bad" if the reaction is just because of normal perceptual tuning out; the ad might be good.)

figure-ground principle

5 When people look at something, certain parts of what they see "stand out." That's not simply because of the image itself, that's because people interpret images in a way that something becomes "the focus" for them. So we should recognize that people tend to separate what they see into a focal area (typically perceived as being more important) and a background area. So, if you have a message you want people to see, build it into the more focal area. If you have fine print that must be shown legally, but you don't want the fine print to be a main message, then put it more into the background. And when you present in front of an audience, and you are part of a group, take turns so the person speaking is more "front and center" with other presenters dropping back temporarily.

family branding; product line extension

6 A family brand means you use one brand name, and extend this brand name across a number of products. So lots of flavors of Campbell's soup are all branded with the Campbell's name. The idea is to reinforce the one brand name, and leverage that brand name on lots of products. This works well if, long term, you want consumers to remember your core brand name. The trade-off is that you forgo the opportunity to build unique equity at the product-individual level. So let's consider the chocolate brand, Hershey's. They have the Hershey brand, but they also own Cadbury, Reese's, Kit-Kat, Almond Joy, and others. By supporting individual brands, they can operate these brands very differently, and perhaps even sell them to other companies. Of course, it's more expensive to maintain awareness for all these brands, compared to just focusing on the Hershey brand. A related concept is product-line extension. If you have a core brand that you continually strengthen (such as Campbell's), then you can leverage that well-known brand name to new product categories. So suppose Campbell's started to offer stews, or frozen packages of meet/vegetables that a consumer could take home and cook to make a stew. They could sell this new product as "Campbell's Stews" and they have extended their product line. Companies in lots of industries do this. Apple started with computers and now sells lots of things, using the Apple name as a family brand name to help them extend into new lines.

repetition and advertising wear-out

6 Advertising wear-out is a related term and goes back to a concept in Chapter 5, adaptation (people adapt to whether they notice a stimulus) and habituation (the adaptation is to reduce noticing the stimulus). Ad wear out is one result of the lowered tendency to notice a stimulus, and is particularly likely to occur if the ad (stimulus) has not been changed at all; the stimulus is repeated the same way all the time.

brand equity

6 Brand equity is defined a few different ways. The definition we're using here is the degree to which consumers have positive thoughts/feelings (associations) about a brand, which makes them more likely to continue buying the brand (loyalty). Sometimes you'll hear people in marketing refer to brand equity as, "the added amount someone is willing to pay for a product, just because of the brand." So if two products are identical, and the consumer will pay $x more for "Brand-A", then Brand-A has "brand equity" of $x. And outside of marketing sometimes business people think of brand equity is the amount they would pay for the brand in the sense of making a business acquisition (i.e., that brand is worth $20 million, so let's buy it if we can get a price sufficiently less than $20 million). For consumer behavior, loyalty is very important, and our brand-equity definition is really about the psychological reason for developing strong loyalty, which boils down to the positive thoughts and feelings consumers associate with the brand. The thoughts/feelings can be about the product itself, the people who make the product (e.g., loyalty to the local store because you like the people who work there or who own the store), etc.

von Restorff (novelty) Effect

6 Consumers recall some things better than others. What makes a consumer recall something? One issue (among others) is novelty. Something novel is, by definition, different from existing things. Humans generally notice differences, and so infusing some novelty into a stimulus gets people to pay more attention to it, and increases later recall.

episodic memory and script

6 Episodic memory is a special type of memory. An episode is a story; not just a fact but some sequence of events. People often remember stories, and we think of our experiences as episodes or stories that we remember. When you say, "I recall a time when....." you are engaging in episodic memory. These memories are often very lasting; people recall many experiences for decades. Thus, this presents a good opportunity for marketers. You look for ways to engage consumers so they have some experience with your brand they can think of in a story format. When that occurs, you have a good chance of being remembered for a long time. Ok, so what is a script? A script is also a sequence of events, and is also analogous to a story. But a script refers to a set of events a person expects to happen in the future. Let's say you go to the movie theater on occasion, and now you are thinking about going again. You have a set of expectations about what will happen. For example, if you drive, then you might expect to park near the theater, and then you expect to wait in a line and get your ticket, and maybe you expect to buy some popcorn or something else. Then you expect to enter the theater room and adjust your eyes to the lower lighting and find a seat. Then you expect to wait for the movie to start, etc. These expectations of events are a script. If your script is favorable, you are more likely to go. And if your script is unfavorable (e.g., you might envision it being tough to park, or you envision long lines, or you envision people talking and distracting you during the movie), then you are less likely to go. Marketers will try to design and promote the consumer experience as being favorable, because the consumer's purchase is not just about whether they like the product; it's also about their expectation of having a positive experience.

learning

6 In everyday language, learning is the acquisition of new knowledge. Our book defines learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior based on our experience, and you'll see that definition used in psychology research. But sometimes we learn without a clear change in behavior (i.e. you learn what to do in case of an emergency, but the emergency never happens, so you learned, but only with a potential behavioral change). Also, pretty much everything we do involves "an experience." So the book definition is fine, but when most people think of learning, they think about how new knowledge is gained and assimilated. Then we get into different types of learning and memory, including main categories such as behavioral and cognitive.

long-term memory

6 Long term memory is memory that we can retrieve over time. If we learn something and "lose track of it" momentarily, but then much later we can recall it, then it's entered our long term memory. If you want people to recognize and recall your brand, then it your brand must make it into consumers' long term memory.

nostalgia

6 Nostalgia is longing or affection for the past, typically based on fond memories someone has about past experiences. Our book says nostalgia entails bittersweet emotions, and in practice I've heard people view things with nostalgia when they reminisce in a way that is only positive, without the "bitter" part. Nostalgia is often important to people who value stability; nostalgia reflects our thoughts about he past/familiar, even if we cannot go back to that earlier time (the bitter part). Nostalgia is used by marketers in a couple main ways. First, some products are positioned with a nostalgic theme. For example, some stores sell antiques or second-hand items and they promote a 'retro' experience to their customers, connecting to the value of stability. You can find companies that make old-style pinball machines, cars, etc.; things that are new and made to replicate products that were available many years ago. And second, some businesses promote historic elements to evoke nostalgic feelings, such as maintaining physical aspects of an old building (i.e., they upgrade the building to meet changes in safety codes, but they maintain some historic aspects), or even when they show a timeline of how their business has developed over decades. Perhaps driven by the value of stability, to some extent it's human nature to think about the past, and for many people these thoughts can be a pleasant experience, and consumers are motivated to buy products that evoke pleasant experiences. So nostalgia is one more tool you can consider as possible ways to build value in your product/service, or in the promotion of your product/service.

behavioral learning theories: classical conditioning (conditioned stimulus/response)

6 People learn in multiple ways, and one way is through behaviors. We do something, and if a result occurs, then we may learn to connect what we do with the result. Then we can further break this down into two sub-categories of behavioral learning: classical conditioning and instrumental (aka operant). The essential difference between classical conditioning and instrumental is "cause and effect." For classical conditioning, the behavior does not "cause" the outcome. The most famous study of classical conditioning is the "Pavlov Dog" study. When Pavlov gave food to dogs, they salivated. He accompanied the food with a bell. After some repetition the dogs learned that the bell indicates food. Pavlov then rang the bell only, without providing food, and the dogs still salivated. In marketing, sometimes people associate products with a desired result, because they've seen some pattern that suggests the product will cause the desired result. Some rituals are like this. Suppose a person is a fan of a team. The fan's team wins a few times when the fan wears his favorite shirt, and so he starts to wear the shirt as a way to "help" his team win. Cognitively he knows the shirt is not impacting team performance, but he's conditioned himself to behave this way. Some beauty products are similar; the product marketer advertises that using the beauty product will attract a mate. The person buying the product may cognitively realize "wearing this beauty product won't really attract a mate" but buys it anyway, because she (or he) associates the product with the desired result. The person may even say, "I know it's not the product, but the product makes me feel more confident, and my confidence will attract people, so I'll purchase and use the beauty product." Lots of advertising works like this; we show a person using the product and "having the good life." The person sees the ad and realizes, "Ok, buying this product will not really cause me to experience the result shown in the ad," but the ad creates some connection between the product and the desired result, and the consumer goes along with the idea. Going back to the beauty product, if using the beauty product really DOES attract a mate, then cause-effect actually occurs, and "learning to use the beauty product" would then classified as instrumental, which gets us to our next concept in this concept guide.

recall / recognition

6 Recall is when you can bring some information out of memory; this is the retrieval memory process. Then marketers often break recall into two types: aided recall and unaided recall. Let's say the Timber Rattler's baseball team wants to evaluate awareness; what percent of people are aware of their team? To assess awareness, they might ask people, "What sports teams play in the Fox Valley area?" And they will see if people include the Timber Rattlers in their list of teams. This question is "unaided." For people who do not list the Timber Rattlers, they might then ask, "What about a sports team that plays in Appleton and has a Mascot named Fang? Can you think of the name of that team?" That would be an "aided recall" question, because it gives the consumer some hints. If consumers still don't mention the Timber Rattlers, a next question might be, "Tell me if you are aware of any of these teams....." and the question might list several teams, and the Timber Rattlers would be one of the teams on the list. That's not a recall question, that's a "recognition" question, because the person can see the team name. Typically in marketing you're striving for consumers to know your name based on unaided recall; that means they can retrieve your name readily. Then next best is aided recall and then finally you hope at least people recognize your name. Recognition shows the lowest level of awareness. And recall/recognition can be applied to area beyond just awareness. You might want to know whether consumers recall (or recognize) that your product has a certain feature, or is available on your website. If you are trying to increase sales and you wonder whether sales are low because of an awareness problem, then you ask different recall and recognition questions. Then you'll know whether to work on a "build awareness initiative" or whether you need to work on something else.

salience

6 Salience means the prominence something has in your thoughts. Something very salient is something you think about a lot, or it could be something that has a very important meaning to you. The salience of something can be enduring or temporary. For example, when you are hungry, food will be salient. Part of what marketers do is try to understand the most important desires consumers have that are associated with using their product. Then they try to increase the salience of their brand with respect that that desire.

consumer socialization

6 Socialization refers to the process of how people learn to behave in a manner that is viewed as societally acceptable. This concept is adapted to marketing/consumption, and we get consumer socialization. This refers to the process of how people learn to behave as consumers. Our textbook refers to this as a process of how "young people" acquire skills and knowledge relevant to the marketplace. But this is an ongoing process, not just for young people. Certainly the biggest increases in consumer socialization occur when people are young; they learn about money, and exchanging money for something. And they learn about buying in a store or online, etc. But even older people still learn about how to navigate the consumer environment. For example, as people get older they have needs in managing a family, and in health care, or retirement. They acquire skills and knowledge relevant to these other areas of shopping.

spacing effect

6 The spacing effect refers to the spacing of time across instances that we mentally process stimuli. Suppose we learn someone's name and repeat it quickly three times, and then wait an hour. Now compare this to the same scenario, except we learn a person's name at the start of the hour, and repeat the name once after 15 minutes, and then we repeat it again after 15 more minutes, and then again after 15 more minutes, and then we wait a final 15 minutes. In both cases we learned a name and repeated it three times. But at the end of the hour, we are more likely to recall the name if our repetition timing was the "every 15 minutes" method, compared to the "all at once" method. Why? Because in the "every 15 minutes" scenario we had a more involved process of encoding, storing and retrieving the name; we got a different type of practice. Now there's something else going on in the scenario above, and that is "how recently we repeated the name." In the "every 15 minutes" scenario, at the end of the hour it's been 15 minutes since we repeated (mentally rehearsed) the name, whereas in the "3 times quickly" scenario it's been an hour. So at the end of the hour, if we are more likely to recall the name from the "every 15 minutes" spacing, then is the higher-recall due to the spacing, or due to the fact that we had a more recent repetition of the name? Probably both. In fact another test that could be done would be to keep the same scenario with the "every 15 minutes" spacing, and adjust the "three times quickly" spacing so the three times occur 15 minutes before trying to recall the name. In any case, spacing effects have been studied and general results indicate that consumers are more likely to recall something if they mentally rehearsed it over time. A main application in marketing is to pulse communications to customers, so customers think about your brand periodically.

decay / interference

6 These are memory terms. When you learn something, you can recall it for some time. The more time passes, the less likely you are to clearly recall it, and that's decay. For example, you might recall that you spent $2.40 on a gallon of milk that you just purchased, but after a few days the exact amount becomes fuzzier, and you might say, "$2 and something." And for our exam, if you study shortly before the test, you might recall this "decay" term, but sometime after the exam you might generally recall that memories fade, and you might not recall the exact term (and that is fine; as long as you have a basic sense of the concept, then you can probably still apply it). Interference is a specific reason decay might occur, and is about something that is mentally competing with your memory retrieval. For example, suppose you meet three people at a networking event. You hear the name of the first person and you recall it. Or at least you recall it until you hear the name of the second person you meet, and then the third. Unless you mentally rehearse the names of all people you just met, you might end up only recalling one of their names; the other names were sort of "wiped out" as you committed the third one to memory. Our book describes interference as occurring when newly learned information displaces older information, but in marketing it's helpful to realize the reverse can occur too. Something learned first can interfere with something learned later. For example, suppose you know a woman's last name, and she gets married and assumes a new last name. You might have a difficult time recalling her new last name, at least for a while. Your strong familiarity with her old last name interferes with your ability to recall her new last name. This can be true for brands too; there's a saying that it's harder to unlearn something than to learn something new.

encoding / storage / retrieval

6 These are processes that occur as we 'remember' things. We learn about something and it becomes part of our memory. How? We encode what we learn, which is to say that we assign a meaning to it that we will recognize later. Then we store the encoded information; typically based on the schema of what we already know. And at some point, we retrieve the information from storage. Ok, so in marketing, why do you care about these three processes? After all either consumers remember your brand or they don't. What difference does it make whether the problem is that information about your brand did not get encoded/stored, or whether it was stored and could not be retrieved? Well, this gets into recall versus recognition. If encoding/storage/retrieval steps are all working for you, then consumers will recall your brand, and you can invest relatively little in your advertising. But if something is not working, then you might spend money based on recognition; showing your brand hoping consumers will think, "Oh yeah, that's a good option." If encoding/storage are working, but retrieval is not, then some recognition based advertising might work well; the advertising jump-starts the retrieval of your brand information. But if encoding/storage are not working, then there's nothing to retrieve, and your advertising would be a waste of money. In this case, you need to start over with awareness-building messages, prompting encoding/storage.

state-dependent retrieval

6 This is a finding from marketing research that consumers are more able to recall information when the recall task is completed in an environment that is similar to the environment that existed when the information was learned. If you learn something while you are in a good mood, and while you are in casual surroundings, you are a bit more likely to recall it when you are in a good mood, and in casual surroundings. Let's go back to the concept of schemas and categories. We mentally organize information into some structure, and that's our schema, and the structure has "things we associate with each other" and those things are within categories. So we might have a mental category of "animals" and within that category we somewhat automatically think of different animals. Well our brains actually process an incredibly high amount of information, and our mental structures are very intertwined. So our we might have a category that refers to thoughts that are associated with each other, and these thoughts are "the mood I was in, and whether the environment was casual, and the information I learned." Your mind does this automatically. As a result, when you are in a certain environment and mental state, your mind will somewhat automatically recall things that are associated with this environment and mental state.

frequency marketing

6 This is a loyalty tactic, although "loyalty" in this sense simply means repeat-purchase rather than a sentimental attachment to the brand. With frequency marketing you find some way to reward consumers for repeat purchases. An example would be a "loyalty card" you get from a retailer, where you get something free after some number of purchases. This tactic has been around for almost a century and is still alive-and-well. Back in the 1930s, department stores started to offer "Green Stamps" which were stamps you put in a book. They gave you a book, and for every few dollars you spent in their stores, you got a stamp. When you filled up your stamp book, you got some type of reward. Then in the 1970s, airlines developed "frequent flyer miles" and they basically created a new currency (they also stated they wished they could un-create that program, because it created a huge future liability). To some extent frequency marketing is really just a discount offered to consumers for repeat purchase. On the other hand, consumers may develop a habit of buying from the brand that offers the program, and so they increase purchase beyond what they can get at a discount. And sometimes consumers think, "Well, that brand is giving me an incentive for buying, so I'll make some extra purchases from them."

cognitive learning theory (includes observational learning and modeling)

6 This is another type of learning, rather than behavioral. The great majority of what we learn comes through a cognitive process that involves some conscious effort. In contrast, =behavioral learning sometimes involves a very conscious process, but may sometimes occur more subconsciously. When you are in class and you learn something, it's because you cognitively thought it over. You mulled something over and emerged with a new understanding. When you read about math or science or other subjects, that's a cognitive learning process. Also, this learning is related to other concepts, such as schemas and chunking. Specially, you know a lot about something, for example let's say you have some expertise in chemistry. Now you see more information that pertains to chemistry. Your mind takes this new information and tries to organize this new information around what you already know. So you have a mental organization of chemistry, and that's your existing schema, with groups/chunks of information about chemistry. And now you have new information that you add, and your schema grows. Your learning process will be very different than the process of a person who is a novice in chemistry. That person lacks an existing schema. The novice will still learn, but the learning might be harder, because this person is trying to figure out how to organize this new material. Now let's consider observational learning and modeling. These are pretty simple. Observational learning occurs when you see someone else do something. You interpret what they do, and how it worked, and you learn from the other person's experience. This is sometimes called vicarious learning. And modeling refers to imitating the behavior of someone else. Children often see their parents do things, and they try to do the same thing; that is modeling.

short term memory

6 This is sometimes called 'working memory' and refers to things we are processing at the moment. Suppose you know about a brand, and you have the brand name in your long term memory. When you actively think about the brand, it's also in your short term memory.

behavioral learning theories: instrumental (aka operant), +/- reinforcement, punishment, extinction

6 This is the second sub-category of behavioral learning, and here the behavior actually DOES cause a result. See figure 6.1 in the text (on page 215 in my paperback version). A behavior is encouraged (reinforced) when a person realizes that engaging in the behavior leads to a desired result, or helps avoid an undesired result. And a behavior is discouraged when a person realizes that engaging in the behavior leads to a negative result (e.g., a consumer shops at a new website, has a bad experience and says, "I'm not shopping here again.")

chunking / schema

6 This refers to how people mentally organize ideas. You have a category handout that gets into this a bit more. Basically, when people think of one idea, they often automatically think of other ideas. For example, if you think of a breakfast cereal, you might automatically think of other cereals or you might think of "things associated with having breakfast." Why does you mind move from one idea to another? Basically, our minds store information in a way that is organized. The organization is the schema, and "chunking" refers to the fact that we tend to organize ideas into groups, or chunks. How is this helpful to marketers? You want consumers to think of your brand in a fairly automatically way. So you find out what consumers think of when they are considering a purchase. Then you try to position your brand so it's recalled easily. Thus, suppose a consumer is thinking about buying a breakfast cereal, which is a product category. You want your breakfast cereal to be strongly related to the category, so when the consumer thinks of the category, she thinks of your brand.

elaborative rehearsal

6 To elaborate means to say more about something. So if you ask someone a question and they give you a brief answer, you might ask them to elaborate on their answer; to tell you a bit more. Elaborative rehearsal means a consumer is elaborating, but just mentally to themselves. They are thinking some more about an idea. As that happens, the consumer is likely to develop a stronger memory for whatever they are thinking about. At first the consumer may have an idea in short term memory only, but as they elaborate, they memory becomes more long term.

highlighting effect

6 When you learn about something new, it's common to ask yourself, "What is this, and what is this similar to?" When we learn about a new things, we look at similarities. For example, if you learn about Komado style (ceramic) grills, you might look at a first couple grills and think, "Ah; ok now I get it... this is what a grill of this type involves" and you think about the characteristics that are similar across the grills you see. But later, after you gain some expertise, you start to look more at differences that exist across brands. This shifting from similarities to differences affects how we recall brands. For brands we learn about first, we somewhat set our impressions of the product category based on these brands, and so we think about how these brands resemble the product category overall. And for brands we learn about later, after we have more expertise, we are more likely to think about "how does this brand differ from what I already know?" The highlighting effect is this tendency to think of similarities for early-learned brands, and to think about differences for later-learned brands.

extended self

7 How we think about ourselves can be very important. The 'extended self' is the impact of objects on how we think of ourselves. For example, people think of their homes or cars or jewelry as strong indicators of who they are (e.g., successful, or responsible) And people think of their neighborhoods as reflecting who they are. And when people feel connected to a local sports team, they are something influenced about how they feel about themselves. People often want to view themselves in a certain way, and marketers sometimes position products so a consumes feels that buying the product will help them feel a certain way about themselves. For example, if you like to consider yourself a "smart shopper" then a marketer might offer you something that helps you feel like a smart shopper.

impression management / digital identity management

7 Impression management refers to things we do to impress others, or to steer them to viewing us in a certain way. Digital identity management is just a subset of this; the things we do to impress others related to how they view us through virtual platforms. As an example of impression management, when you interview with a company, you might select clothes to wear based on wanting to make a good impression, you might purchase a professional looking notebook and pen, etc. Or consider an example of trying to create a "needy" impression; this sometimes occurs with panhandlers, who present themselves as needing support, when in reality they don't. When companies market, they know that part of the reason people are purchasing is related to this impression management. As a manager at Kelly's Austin might have a good insight here; when people go to Kelly's bar 50 days in a row to get their name on a star-list, my guess is that part of their motivation is self image related, and part is impression management, and of course part is simply that they like to go to Kelly's.

badges

7 Ok, for the purpose of identifying concepts to include in exam materials, generally I avoid plucking items from the side-bar on the pages in the text. But "badges" is a useful concept from the text; page 255 side-bar in my paperback version. A badge refers to things that announce our accomplishments to others and is related to a desire to be recognized. Think of badges children earn in scouting; the badge shows others that the child achieved in a certain area. Badges relate impression management, and even self-concept, because they remind ourselves of our achievements. As a professional, if you win an award at your company, or in your industry, and you display that award, it's a badge. This recognition is often very important to people. In fact, companies "reward and compensate" employees in a variety of ways, and one reward that is tied to company-loyalty is often being recognized. So in marketing, you might look for ways to offer something to customers they can use as a badge. A good example of this is seen through the Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA; located in Oshkosh). EAA is an association of pilots and other aircraft enthusiast. Some years ago, they developed a "Life Member" offer; people could pay a premium amount and say they are a life member and have a life member card they can show to others. Now to some extent, the life membership offer can be attractive to a EAA member financially; you ask yourself, "How much would my membership cost over the years, if I simply renew each year, compared to paying for a life-membership?" But many elder EAA members decided to become a life member, and the membership could not be justified for financial reasons. These members were very attached to EAA, and the life-membership offer was valuable to them because it symbolized their devotion to EAA. The life membership card, or other things they might get that say EAA life member, are also badges. (Note: I think this is correct; this is what I recall from a presentation they made to our student club several years ago.)

personality / personality traits / Big Five personality dimensions

7 Our personality is our psychological profile, and how the collective aspects of our profile shape how we think, feel and act. The personality traits are things such as how caring we are around others, or how strongly we seek achievement, and so forth. Psychologists have listed many of these traits, and some consensus exists that a large portion of our overall personality boils down to five specific traits (the big five: 1) how open we are to new experiences, 2) our degree of conscientiousness, 3) how agreeable we are with others, 4) introversion/extroversion, and 5) how well we cope with stress (neuroticism). For the exam you don't need to memorize the five specific personality dimensions/traits, but you should be aware that this small set of traits explains a huge amount of our overall personality. As a marketer, you may sometimes want to use some combination of personality factors as a basis of segmentation, and that's a good time to consider these big-five traits; it might help to have some of these in your segmentation assessment.

self-concept / actual self / digital self / ideal self / torn self

7 Self concept is our ideas about who we are, for example how we assess our abilities and characteristics; it's the image we have of ourselves. The digital self is a term to reflect how we see ourselves online, or how we express out identity online. The Ideal and actual self are pretty straight-forward; the ideal self is how we want to see ourselves, and the actual self is our more realistic image of our self. The torn self refers to situations where we want to see ourselves in two different ways that cannot easily coexist. For example, if you get promoted at work, you might want to see yourself as still being a friend with your former co-workers, but you also want to see yourself as being responsible for your former co-workers. These two self-views are somewhat incompatible with each other, and adjusting to your new role can bit uncomfortable until you adjust your self-view.

self-esteem

7 Self-esteem describes a person's sense of self-worth; how much they value themselves. Self-esteem can significantly impact success in life. Low self-esteem hold people back; they believe they won't succeed, and they give up early. Self-esteem can be shaped by experiences, such as personal feedback you got from family members when you were very young; was the feedback positive/encouraging or negative/discouraging. High self-esteem is associated with confidence, having a positive outlook, being able to see and accept strengths and weaknesses, etc. Low self esteem is associated with feelings of shame, and more negative things. One key impact for marketers is how to best connect to your target market. Compare companies that sell products to high-achievers who have high self esteem, versus companies that sell products that may be purchased by people with lower self-esteem. The most relevant messages will probably differ between those two markets. So the right way to communicate about your product (and perhaps the right distribution channel) may depend on whether your target consumer reflects high versus low self esteem.

self-image congruence models

7 Self-image congruence is a term that stems from the "matching" we sometimes see, where consumers purchase products that seem to align with their personality. The text gives an example of an early study that showed Pontiac car owners saw themselves as more active and flashy than VW car owners. And while most car tires are largely the same across manufacturers (per a colleague of mine who works at Goodyear; true functional differences sometimes exist, but the most commonly purchased tires are about the same). Nevertheless, some tires are positioned more on safety and others are positioned more on performance. This positioning helps companies differentiate in the minds of consumers, and thus lower the tendency to shop on price. To some extent, consumers who see themselves as more safety oriented will gravitate to tires positioned on safety, and others won't. You can think of it this way: why do people sometimes gravitate toward brands that seem to fit their personality... do we have a term for this? Yes; self-image congruence.

social comparison

7 Social comparison theory is a big area of study in social psychology, and was pioneered by Leon Festinger in the 1950s. Basically, social comparisons are instances when individuals look at how they "stack up" against others, and the comparison influences how they feel about themselves and even how they behave. People are especially influenced by comparisons to others appear to be very similar to themselves, for example people of roughly the same age, or gender, or background. When marketers wish to influence consumers, they sometimes show a consumer how "someone appearing to be similar to them" uses a product.

social footprint

7 These are traceable digital activities. Many things you do online are traceable. Perhaps "digital footprint" would be a clearer label. Privacy settings exist, but many things we do digitally can be captured and traced. My understanding from an artificial-intelligence presentation is that the layout of your home can actually be determined based on your mobile device use at home (per tech-expert

body image

7 This is how we think of ourselves physically. Many products are purchased because people hope the product makes them look better or perform better. This ranges from clothing, to beauty and skin care products, fitness products and even food. The motivation for these purchases is partly based on how people see themselves initially.

motivational research

7 This is one purpose of conducting consumer research, and involves interviewing consumers to understanding motives that drive purchase decisions. See Table 7.2 in your text (my paperback version shows this table on page 262), and you'll notice some motives clearly tie to specific values. For example, security, social acceptance and status are values, and are also motives listed in this table. And then some motives are important, but are less tied to a particular value. Thus, the table lists eroticism and rewards as motives, and these could probably be connected to a variety of values; they are not as clearly tied to a specific value.

anthropomorphism, brand personality

7 This is when people think of objects or animals a bit like we think of people. Pet owners sometimes do this with their pets; they tend to think of their pet's behavior as resembling the behavior of people. And people tend to think of some products as "rugged" or "sensitive" in a way that resembles how they think of these characteristics in people. This tendency is why we develop brand personalities; we know people may think of our brand in a somewhat humanized way, so we work to convey our brand, so it evokes personality thoughts that support our brand position. The brand personality is how people think of our brand as having human traits. This does not mean they think of our brand as a person, but they might think of a brand as cute, or sophisticated, etc. Why is this important? Because people are attracted to other people partly because of their personality "i.e., he or she is naturally attracted to this type of person." If we can create some personality characteristics in our brand, then some natural attraction will occur.

ego / id / superego

7 What do you do when faced with something tempting that you realize you shouldn't do? Do you give in to temptation, or do you "control yourself." The id and superego are the names for these two sides of the spectrum, and the ego is the mind's process of balancing between these two desires. The id is the part of your mind that seeks immediate pleasure, and the superego is the part that seeks to suppress the id so you behave in a "morally correct" manner. The key here in marketing is that people want to have it both ways. They want the immediate pleasure, but at least to some degree they want to view themselves as being able to control that desire. Some purchases involve instant gratification, and a marketer knows consumers are thinking, "I want to buy this, but I would feel guilty." So marketers sometimes promote messages such as, "it's ok to indulge yourself" because they realize this messaging helps consumers decide, "yes, at this time it's ok to make the purchase."

spokescharacters

8 A spokes-character is a spokesperson that is artificial. This could be a mascot, or even an animated character (e.g., the Planters Peanut character).

affect/behavior/cognition: ABC model of attitudes

8 ABC model of attitudes simply means attitudes are a function of all three Consumer Behavior areas: affect (feelings), behavior and cognition. The Hierarchy of Effects concept is based on this, and looks at different sequences of affect, behavior and cognition. 7 13 0 0

attitude, attitude models, Fishbein multiattribute model

8 An attitude is an evaluation of something. A model is a scaled down representation of something (think of a model ship or a model car). An "attitude model" is a scaled down representation of how an attitude is formed. Let's consider a consumer's attitude toward Ben and Jerry's brand of ice cream. Let's say the consumer recalls 20 things about Ben and Jerry's, including an early childhood experience and the size of a Ben & Jerry's store, and so forth. But let's say our consumer forms most of their evaluation of Ben & Jerry's based on three key things: a belief that Ben & Jerry's is environmentally friendly, and belief about the premier-creaminess of their ice-cream; and a belief about their high variety of interesting flavors. An "attitude model" could pose that "attitude toward Ben & Jerry's" is a function of these three beliefs above. The model is "scaled down" and ignores the other 17 things that also impact the consumer's evaluation. Marketers like to use models because the model helps them focus on things that matter most. Yes, the consumer's evaluation is based on lots of things, but if most of those things don't matter much, then the marketer will want to ignore those other things and priorities on the things that do matter. So we have a model which says, "The consumer's attitude toward a brand is based on a consumer's view of several brand attributes." But that's still a bit vague; we might want a more specific statement about HOW the consumer's views of brand attributes combine to create the overall brand attitude. Martin Fishbein proposed this next step during the 1960s; thus, we have a model called the Fishbein model. The model Fishbein proposed was fairly simple: 1) you have consumers indicate which attributes matter most, and then for each of these key attributes, 2) you have consumers state the importance of the attribute, and 3) you have consumers rate the brand on each attribute. Then, for each attribute, you multiply the importance by the rating, and you add these results together, and that's the brand attitude. Example: let's say you learn some simple games. For each game, two things are important to you, "easy to learn" and "fun to play." On a scale of 1 (not important) to 10 (critical), the "easy to learn" attribute is a 7, and the "fun to play" attribute is a 9. Now let's say you look at a game and on a scale of 1 (low) to 7 (high) you rate "easy to learn" as a 5, and "fun to play" as a 6. According to the Fishbein model, your attitude toward the game can now be quantified, as 7*5 + 9*6, which is 35+54 or 89. Marketers go through this same process, and using this model, they can "score" their brand against competing brands.

theory of cognitive dissonance / balance theory

8 Cognitive dissonance refers to an uncomfortable feeling that occurs when your beliefs and behaviors are inconsistent with each other. People generally expect and want their beliefs and behaviors to be consistent with each other. When beliefs and behaviors are inconsistent with each other, we feel some urge to make some change. We might change our beliefs or behaviors. Or of course we might do nothing and just accept we are sometimes inconsistent (such as when a parent tells their child "Do what I say, not what I do."). In marketing, if position your brand so it misaligns with a consumer's values, they will feel some discomfort when thinking about buying your brand. For example, if you manufacture your project using egregiously cheap offshore labor, and if a consumer believes companies should not do this, they will have some discomfort buying your brand. Balance theory is related to this. Balance theory was developed to explain a particular situation where three or more things are involved and the connections between them are inconsistent with each other. For example, "I like brand A," and "I dislike a specific famous person" and "that famous person likes the brand I like." This set of relationships involves some inconsistency, and again cognitive dissonance suggests some discomfort will exist, and the person will have some urge to do something that removes the inconsistency.

comparative advertising

8 Comparative advertising is where you explicitly compare your brand to a competitor's brand. This type of advertising is typically done when the comparative brand is large and well known. There's no reason for a large well-known brand to compare itself to a small and less-known brand. But when a marketer faces a major competitor, and when the marketer believes her brand compares favorably to the major competitor in some way, then sometimes the market develops ads that encourage consumers to directly compare her brand to the major competitor brand.

elaboration likelihood model (ELM)

8 Elaboration refers to thinking something over, and the ELM refers to two main ways people do this. Sometimes we think things over very carefully and with high deliberation. This is the "central" processing route, and we use a fair amount of cognitive effort. And other times people think things over very superficially, and we call this the "peripheral" processing route. If our consumers wish to evaluate our brand using the more central process, then you must provide them with more information about the brand. And if consumers wish (or tend) to form their evaluations in a more superficial manner, then you should provide less information, and more focus will be on giving consumers just a few main ideas to consider, without the detail. Thus, it's helpful to know how consumers tend to process information, so you can present information that aligns with how they process it. Now in reality this can be complex because a person might process information in a fairly peripheral manner when she "not in the market" for a product, and then change to a more central processing style when she "is in the market" for the product. So as a marketer, you might present general information without much detail to gain some mind-recognition, and so that you can be in the person's consideration set at the right moment. And then you must have more detailed information, so when your consumers are in the market and get more deliberative, that you can then provide more specifics.

fear appeals

8 Fear appeals are messages that encourage you to do something because otherwise you might get in trouble. So safety oriented products are sometimes marketed with fear appeals; if you don't buy the product, something bad could happen. And political campaigns are often framed in a negative way; instead of telling you why you should vote for a candidate, they tell you why you should be concerned if "the other guy" gets in office. Think back to Prospect Theory, which shows that people are often risk averse; they are often more motivated by the potential to lose something, than by the potential to gain something. This loss-aversion is an important issue, and is a large part of why fear appeals can work.

hierarchy of effects

8 Hierarchy of effects refers to the notion that attitudes are shaped by affect, behavior and cognition, and that these elements can occur in any order. You should realize attitude formation can happen over time with a very back-and-forth combination of affect, behavior and cognition. You do NOT need to know the names of the sequences; experiential (affect first), low involvement (behavior first) and standard (cognition first). But you should realize that attitudes are formed through all three elements, and in a sequence that can involve various sequences and back-and-forth processing. See also: ABC model.

sleeper effect

8 The sleeper effect refers to a time-delay on the impact of a persuasion attempt. One of the first studies in this area occurred during World War 2; people were shown military-recruitment messages, and then researchers looked to see if the persuasiveness of the message become more-or-less pronounced over time. A lot of subsequent research has been conducted. A main finding deals with the credibility of the source. If a consumer believes a source is very credible, then the initial impact of the message tends to be high, but decays over time. Basically, the consumer "discounts" the message over time, attributing the initial response to the high source credibility. On the other hand, if a consumer does not view the source as being particularly credible, then the initial impact of the message tends to be lower, and does not decay over time, and may even increase over time.

metaphor/simile

8 Metaphors and similes are used a lot, and sometimes you probably use them and don't even realize it. Metaphors and similes are often used to explain things to people. Let's consider similes first. A simile occurs when you take two things that are actually not similar to each other, and you state them as being similar to each other. An example would be if you say, something is, "light as a feather" or if you say someone is "as strong as an ox" or you advertising a car as being "as quick as lightening." The word "simile" comes from a Latin word meaning "something similar." So, what's a metaphor? A metaphor is close to a simile, but instead of saying two things are "similar" to each other, you equate them as being the same thing. An example would be if your mom said, "You're a bottomless pit" because you ate so much when growing up. Or if someone swears a lot, you might say, "That person has a drunken sailor's mouth." And a famous metaphor from Shakespeare is "All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players." Why are similes and metaphor used in marketing? Because we can say how our product is "similar to something else" or "is something else" in a fun way that gets consumers to remember our product and associate it with the object we are comparing it to. How about, "Like a good neighbor, State Farm is there." That's a simile; saying State Farm is "like a good neighbor." How about, "Sometimes you feel like a nut, sometimes you don't.... Peter Paul Almond Joy's got nuts, Peter Paul Mounds don't..."

mere exposure, two-factor theory

8 People tend to like familiar things, and "mere exposure" means that as we expose consumers to things (products/brands), and we build some basic familiarity for these things, then consumers will like them better. (Note: you can use the same idea in managing people; when you own a company, presenting ideas to employees can build some initial familiarity, and help with later acceptance). The two-factor theory extends this recall-notion and is based on recall that can improve or degrade over time. When people see things over and over (repetition), they often build recall. On the other hand, people sometimes tune things out when the repetition involves no new information. So if you want to build recall, then some repetition is helpful, but try to have at least some noticeable variation in what you show, which can keep people engaged.

counterarguing / refutational argument

8 People vary considerably in their styles of thinking. When you enter college, you probably heard professors talk about the importance of "critical thinking." To a degree, critical-thinking is an important component of how we think, and entails questioning information and challenging ideas by looking at them in different ways. This is counter-arguing and is somewhat natural for people, and is somewhat a learned skill. And one person's tendency to counter-argue can be high or low depending on the setting. When making an important decision you might counter-argue more (compared to a less important decision), and you might counter-argue more when presented ideas where you have relatively high (versus low) expertise. For marketers, if you believe a target market is likely to counter argue, then it can be very helpful to satisfy their desire to counter-argue by making the counter-argument yourself (this would be a refutational argument). For example, you might say, "Here are the reasons to buy our product," and also say, "And we admit here is a reason we are not the right product for everyone." By providing the refutational counter-argument, people are less likely to engage in their own counter-arguing, and they are likely to view you as being "honest and upfront." This is sort of interesting because the marketer presents a counter-argument as a way to influence consumers, yet consumers see the counter-argument and think, "That's nice to see; this brand is not trying to influence me too much." By the way, you can be more persuasive in many areas in life (professionally and personally) by using this tactic; show people you are 'looking at both sides of an issue' and people will be more receptive to your ideas, IF they were likely to otherwise counter-argue (so for less important matters, and where people have less expertise, they are less likely to counter-argue and you might presenting your own counter-argument will have less impact, or could even just distract people).

persuasion

8 Persuasion is efforts aimed at changing someone's views or behaviors. People sometimes view persuasion negatively, because one person might try to persuade another person in a deceitful way, or motivated by a reason that only helps the person making the persuasion attempt. But persuasion can also be done in a very benevolent and transparent way. See page 318 of the text (paperback version page number); these are some persuasive tactics that exist, and they are more on the deceptive side. Please take a look at them and understand them, but also realize persuasion often exists without tactics like these. For example, if your friends suggest going to a certain restaurant, and you are not sure about whether to go there, then you might say, "ok, convince me this is a good idea." In that situation, you are asking your friends to give you good reasons to go to the restaurant, which is persuasion in an up-front way. And if your parents persuaded you to learn good habits when you were young, then they were doing this at least partly for your benefit.

resonance

8 Resonance is when something bounces back and forth; this comes from the Latin word for "resound." When you think of sounds that resonate, they bounce back and forth, creating a prolonged hearing-experience, such as sounds in a guitar or sounds thunder makes when it resonates/reverberates across land that has hills and valleys. In writing we have literature resonance. This is writing that tends to have multiple means that evoke a prolonged sense of thought in the reader. Puns may have this quality. Of course, whether a person feels something "resonates" depends on the person. Words or images might "resonate" with one consumer but not with others. In marketing, you may look for clever messages and attempt to see whether the message resonate with your consumer. In our class, that's one of the insights-paper options, "Hitting the Sweet Spot with Communications."

compliance, identification, internalization

8 Sometimes our attitudes are very stable over time, and sometimes they change more readily. One reason for the variation in attitude-permanence reflects why we hold the attitude. These three terms denote different reasons for having an attitude. Compliance refers to having an attitude because we don't have much choice, or when we say we like something but really our liking is driven by some associated reward we get. Examples of compliance would be if you are at a restaurant and they only offer Coke or Pepsi; you might prefer one of these brands, but if the other brand is the only one they survey, then you might like it enough to say, "Yes, I would like a Coke (or Pepsi)." And to illustrate the "reward" type of compliance, suppose you don't really like going to a particular store, but your significant-other likes to go to the store and wants your company. So you say, "Yes I would like to go to the store with you," and it's not really a positive attitude about the store; it's that you get some appreciation from your significant-other for going. The next level "up" in attitude-permanence is identification. Identification is where you hold a positive attitude because you go along with others that have the same attitude. As an example, some people have a positive attitude toward recycling, but really they are not positive about the environment, but they understand it's a fairly strong societal norm to care about the environment, so they go along with this. Of you might have friends that like a certain brand, and so you develop a positive attitude toward the brand because of your friends. In sports we sometimes call this "fair weather fans" who root for a team because it's the local team. The fair-weather-fan likes the team because others like the team, but if the fair-weather-fan moves to a different city, then she is likely to root for whatever team is well-liked in that new city. The highest level of attitude-permanence is when we like something because it connects with our own values. Thus, we like it not because we have to (compliance), and not because others like it (identification), but because we like it. One other comment is that my examples here all pertain to positive attitudes. These same terms apply for negative attitudes. We might say we dislike something because we are complying (i.e., compliance to a no-smoking rule), or we might dislike something because others dislike it (our friends dislike smoking), or because we personally dislike it (which could also occur with smoking; just as an example).

source attractiveness/credibility

8 The source is the person or company that sends a message, which in marketing is often an advertisement. Then you have the consumer who pays attention to the message. Aside from being influenced by the message content, the consumer may also be influenced by the source. The credibility of the source refers to the consumer's evaluation of whether the source is trustworthy; which is based on whether the source has reasonable expertise, and is the source likely to be honest and forthcoming ("on my side" or called benevolence). The source attractiveness refers to whether the consumer gravitates toward the source; this could be due to physical attractiveness, whether the source has an attractive personality, whether the source is affiliated with a group/cause the consumer finds attractive, etc. So, what's the point of all of this? To some extent, the source attractiveness/credibility can transfer to the product being advertised. On the other hand, there's another concept called the "sleeper effect," and with a highly attractive/credible source, an initial reaction to the ad is sometimes positive and then decays a bit over time.

theory of reasoned action / normative influence / subjective norms

8 Theory of Reasoned Action is an extension of the Fishbein multi-attribute attitude model, extending from attitude to behavior. Recall back to that model, which posits how an overall brand evaluation (attitude) is based on a person's evaluation of key attributes; the importance of the attributes and the rating of the brand on these attributes. Ok, so let's say a person has an attitude (evaluation) of two brands, Brand-A and Brand-B. Sometimes we see instances where a person's attitude is more favorable to Brand-A, but the person purchases Brand-B. One reason this occurs is because the person likes Brand-A better, but wishes to comply with some norms that seem to favor Brand B. A normative influence is a key term and refers to our beliefs about what other people think is reasonable. So then we have our own attitude, plus we have our subjective ideas about what other people think, and our motivation to comply with these outside norms, and then finally we act on the collection of these thoughts.

celebrity endorsement

8 This involves getting someone famous to become a spokesperson for your brand. One idea is simply that people will pay attention to the spokesperson, so they will pay attention to your brand because it's shown with the spokesperson, whereas otherwise they might ignore your brand. And the second idea is that, if the spokesperson's endorsement is credible, that consumers will develop a view of the brand that aligns with their view of the celebrity.

closure principle

People like to have an entire story. This principle is about a tendency people exhibit when they see part of a story, or part of something (does not need to be a story). People then "guess" at the rest of the story. Not always, but it's common. For example, suppose you read a story about someone getting in a one-car accident during a nice clear day, on a road in Oshkosh that normally does not have much traffic. You might think, "Ok I bet that person was driving while texting and got distracted." And let's change the "nice clear day" to "an evening during a sleet storm." In that version of the story, you might be more likely to think, "Roads were bad and that car slipped on ice." People don't like to be left hanging, "without closure," so when the end of the story is missing, they often guess about the rest of the story, which the book refers to as "filling in the blanks," which is a fairly common expression. Back to the one-car accident, you might have read the story and not concluded anything about why the accident occurred. So people do not always guess at the rest of a story, but it's pretty common.

adaptation

Refers to how much attention we pay to a stimulus. Frequently people habituate, meaning over time they cease to pay attention to things. For example, the first time you hear a noise, you pay attention to it. Over time, if you hear the same noise repeatedly, you will probably pay less attention to it. So, in marketing, a danger is that consumers tune out your messages over time. Even if your message contains important new information, they may not pay attention to it. So marketers try to change stimuli with some frequency, to fight the tendency to pay less attention to things over time.

attention

The amount of effort or thought we spend as we react to a stimulus. Once a consumer pays attention to your brand, then they might enter a deeper thought-process about whether your brand is relevant to their needs. If you don't have the consumer's attention, then it's unlikely they will internalize much of your message. An important issue is that the consumer goes through a sequence of steps, which can seem instantaneous: first is attention, which can be fairly superficial, and then deeper elaboration. Without attention, you don't get the elaboration (deeper thought), so partly as a marketer you work on gaining attention.