Mass Media

2 music licensing agencies, including what type of music they licensed

ASCAP AND BMI

Advertiser Influence over Magazine Contents

Advertiser Influence over Magazine Content Sometimes controversial is the influence that some advertisers attempt to exert over content. This influence is always there, at least implicitly. A magazine editor must satisfy advertisers as well as readers. One common way advertisers' interests shape content is in the placement of ads. Airline ads are moved away from stories about plane crashes. Cigarette ads rarely appear near articles on lung cancer. In fact, it is an accepted industry practice for a maga- zine to provide advertisers with a heads-up, alerting them that soon-to-be-published content may prove uncomfortable for their businesses. Advertisers can then request a move of their ad, or pull it and wait to run it in the next issue. Magazines, too, often entice advertisers with promises of placement of their ads adjacent to relevant articles. But complementary copy-content that reinforces the advertiser's message, or at least does not negate it-is problematic when creating such copy becomes a major influence in a pub- lication's editorial decision making. This happens in a number of ways. Editors sometimes engage in self-censorship, making decisions about how stories are written and which stories appear based on the fear that specific advertisers will be offended. Some magazines, Archi- tectural Digest, for example, identify companies by name in their picture caption copy only if they are advertisers, and Lexus asks the magazines it advertises in to use its automobiles in photos in editorial content. These concessions may be necessary today because the very competitive media environment puts additional pressure on magazines to bow to advertisers' demands. A Sears marketing executive suggests that magazines need to operate "in much less traditional ways" by allowing advertisers to "become a part of the storyline" in their articles (Atkinson, 2004). However, many critics inside and outside the industry see these moves as an unfortunate crumbling of the wall between advertising demands and editorial judgment. Others are not so concerned. Says one magazine editor, "As long as it's interest- ing to the reader, who cares? This ivory-tower approach that edit[orial] is so untouchable, and what they're doing is so wonderful and can't be tainted by the stink of advertising just makes me sick" (in Ives, 2008). Another once controversial and far more common practice is sponsored content, articles id for by advertisers. Sponsored content first caused controversy in early 2013, when the line edition of The Atlantic ran a long, laudatory article on the Church of Scientology. it it was quickly discovered that the piece was actually a paid placement written not by e Atlantic's journalists but by the Church of Scientology itself. A massive uproar ensued side and outside the industry. But since that time, the practice has become not only com- onplace across all media but also essential to many magazines' survival. Three-quarters of line publishers in the United States now offer sponsored content, sometimes called native vertising, And despite some continuing unease over the practice, most industry people ve come to terms with what will be a $50 billion market by 2021 (Elkin, 2017). Nonethe- Is, the practice "is, at least on some level, inherently contradictory" writes Folio magazine nor editor Greg Dool (2017a). "Publishers must satisfy their clients' needs by promoting brand message that blends seamlessly with the articles that surround it, while also being reful to avoid misleading consumers as to the specific nature of the content they're read- - Journalism researcher Michelle Amazeen (in Radcliffe, 2017) warns, "While it may in incremental revenue at a time when publishers are bleeding dollars, there may be a st down the road if they alienate their readers." The Federal Trade Commission now lies sponsored content, demanding clear identification. Among the allowable labels are .d." *Advertisement." *Paid Advertisement." "Sponsored Advertising Content," or some car variation. Prohibited are less definitive markers such as "Promoted" or "Promoted ores" because they imply that the material is endorsed by the publisher.

Text book material: early radio section

Early Radio Because both applied for patents within months of one another in the late 1890s, there remains disagreement over who "invented" radio, eastern European immigrant Nikola Tesla or Guglielmo Mar- coni, son of a wealthy Italian businessman and his Irish wife. Mar- coni, however, is considered the "Father of Radio" because not only was he among the first to send signals through the air, but he was also adroit at gaining maximum publicity for his every success. His improvements over earlier experimental designs allowed him to send and receive telegraph code over distances as great as two miles by 1896. His native Italy was not interested in his invention, so he used his mother's contacts in Great Britain to find support and financing there. England, with a global empire and the world's largest navy and merchant fleets, was naturally interested in long-distance wire- less communication. With the financial and technical help of the British, Marconi successfully transmitted wireless signals across the English Channel in 1899 and across the Atlantic in 1901. Wireless was now a reality. Marconi was satisfied with his advance, but other scientists saw the transmission of voices by wireless as the next hurdle, a challenge that was soon surmounted. In 1903 Reginald Fessenden, a Canadian, invented the liquid barretter, the first audio device permitting the reception of wireless voice transmissions. His 1906 Christmas Eve broadcast from Brant Rock, a small New England coastal village, was the first public broad- cast of voices and music. His listeners were in ships at sea and a few newspaper offices equipped to receive the transmission. Later that same year American Lee DeForest invented the audion tube, a vacuum tube that improved and amplified wireless signals. Now the reliable transmission of clear voices and music was a reality. DeForest's second important contribution was that he saw radio as a means of broadcasting. The early pioneers, Marconi included, had viewed radio as a device for point-to-point communication-for exam- ple, from ship to ship or ship to shore. But in the 1907 prospectus for his radio company DeForest wrote, "It will soon be possible to distribute grand opera music from transmitters Placed on stage of the Metropolitan Opera House by a Radio Telephone station on the roof to almost any dwelling in Greater New York and vicinity. .. The same applies to large cities. Church music, lectures, etc., can be spread abroad by the Radio Telephone" (as quoted in Adams, 1996, pp. 104-106). Soon, countless "broadcasters" went on the air. Some were giant corporations looking to dominate the medium for profit; some were hobbyists and hams playing with the medium for sheer joy. There were so many "stations" that havoc reigned. Yet the prom- ise of radio was such that the medium continued to mature until World War I, when the U.S. government ordered "the immediate closing of all stations for radio communications, both transmitting and receiving" (Greb & Adams, 2003, p. 109).

Early sound recording

Early Sound Recording The late 1800s have long been considered the beginning of sound recording. However, the 2008 discovery in a Paris archive of a mus uy a busture French tinkerer, Edouard-Leon Scott de Martinville, has some audio historians rethinking recording's roots. Scott recorded a folk song on a device he called a phonautograph in 1860, and he always thought that Thomas Edison had stolen credit that should have been his ("Edison Not," 2008). Nonetheless, in 1877 prolific inventor Edison patented his "talking machine," a device for replicating sound that used a hand-cranked grooved cylinder and a needle. The mechanical movement caused by the needle passing along the groove of the rotating cylinder and hitting bumps was converted into electrical energy that activated a diaphragm in a loudspeaker and produced sound. The drawback was that only one "recording" could be made of any given sound; the cylinder could not be duplicated. In 1887 that problem was solved by German immigrant Emile Berliner, whose gramophone used a flat, rotating, wax-coated disc that could easily be copied or pressed from a metal master. Two equally important Berliner contributions were the development of a sophisticated microphone and later (through his company RCA Victor Records) the import from Europe of recordings by famous opera stars. Now people had not only a reasonably priced record player but records to play on it as well. The next advance was the introduction of the two-sided disc by the Columbia Phonograph Company in 1905. Soon there were hundreds of phonograph or gram- ophone companies, and the device, by either name, was a standard feature in U.S. homes by 1920. More than 2 million machines and 107 million recordings were sold in 1919 alone. Public acceptance of the new medium was enhanced even more by the development of elec- tromagnetic recording in 1924 by Joseph P. Maxwell at Bell Laboratory. The parallel development and diffusion of radio and sound recording is significant. For the first time in history, radio allowed people to hear the words and music of others who were not in their presence. On recordings they could hear words and music that may have been created days, months, or even years before. And the technology changed not only music, but also people's relationship with it: individual pieces of music became shorter to fit onto records; on-demand listening, rather than attending scheduled performances, became the norm; listening alone rather than in groups became common; people began defining themselves by their favored genre of music; and despite the fears of the new technology's critics, rather than people giving up making their own music, there was a burst of interest in playing music as listeners were inspired by what they were hearing (Thompson, 2016).

1st president to appear on TV

Franklin D. Roosevelt

Subjects that expanded the audience for magazines in the 1800s?

women's issues, social crusade's, literature and the arts, politics

6 people and their inventions that helps movies evolve (chap. 6 lec.)

1. 1877-Eadweard Muybridge used multiple cameras on a race track to help millionaire Leland Stanford win a bet that all 4 of a horse's feet simultaneou ground as it gallops. 2. 1882-Etienne Jules Marey developed a photographic gun camera that could take 12 photographs on 1 plate (the 1* motion picture camera) 3. Thomas Edison & his associate William K.L. Dickson created the kinetoscope, a film projector in a 2-by-4 foot box with a peephole a. 1894-1* kinetoscope parlor opened in NYC; for 25 cents people could see 10 different 90 second black and white films 1896- 4. months after the Lumiere premiere, Edison's new projector, the Vitascope, was used for America's 1* public showing of a motion picture

5 events in the 1920's that transformed the movie industry (be able to explain each)

1. Studios moved to hollywood from NY 2. Distributors insist on block booking 3. The formation of United Artists 4. Moviemakers use self regulation to respond to scandals 5. New tecnology brings the talkies

3 issues radio has faced

1. Telecommunications Act of 1996 Overhauls Radio Deregulation= govt. action that removes restrictions on the business operation of an industry -Before the 1996 Act, the FCC limited the # of radio stations 1 company could own nationwide -This Act removed the limit Today, many radio companies own hundreds of stations -Critics say this will lead to less program variety & too much power for companies that own large numbers nationwide 2. Radio Ratings -Owners depend on ratings to set advertising rates -Stations w/ the most listeners command the highest ad rates -Nielson gathers ratings for the radio business -Requests selected listeners complete and return diaries Nielson often criticized: - Minorities, non-English-speaking listeners, and people ages 18-24 don't complete the diaries as much as others - b/c of this, ratings hurt the different rock and urban formats like rap & hip-hop - ratings help the contemporary & news/talk/information formats b/c those audiences respond to the diaries 3. Radio Depends on Ready-Made Formats - station owners looking for an audience can use ready-made formats - test the markets until they find a formula that works

9 forms of TV entertainment Programming

1. Variety shows 2. Situación comedies 3. Drama 4. Westerns 5.detective stories 6. Movies 7. Soap operas 8. Talk shows 9. Quiz shows

Movies lose their audience to TV: 4 attempts to attract an audience

1. Wide-screen and 3-D movies: these attempted to get a "you are there" feeling 2. Changes in movie censorship (ended the PCA code) -Ruled that movies are protected under the First Amendment: fewer restrictions o what could be shown -1953 United artists released The Moon is Blue despite risqué words like virgin and mistress -1956 released Man with the Golden Arm: about drug addiction (PA restrictions forever broken) 3. Movie spectaculars -Produced movies that were a *home run": The Sound of Music; The Godfather 4. Movie ratings -1966 Jack Valenti became president of the Motion Picture Producers Association and renamed it the Motion Picture Association of America -Reacting to public criticism about shocking movie content, the MPAA began a rating system -Still used today -Originally: G, M (later became PG), R, and X -PG-13 now added; X changed to NC-17

Thomas edison and phonograph info, including 1st words spoken into phonograph

1877 Thomas Edison demonstrated the phonograph -While working on improvements to the telegraph and the telephone, Edison figured out a way to record sound on tinfoil-coated cylinders. -In 1877, he created a machine with two needles: one for recording and one for playback. -When Edison spoke into the mouthpiece, the sound vibrations of his voice would be indenter onto the cylinder by the recording needle. -The first words that Edison spoke into the phonograph? Mary had a little lamb -The sound quality on the phonograph was bad and each recording lasted for one only play

Emile berliner and the gramophone info

1887 -Emile Berliner developed the gramophone (Grammy's) -Replaced Edison's cylinder w/ flat discs -The first records were made of glass, later zinc, and eventually plastic. -A spiral groove with sound information was etched into the flat record. -The record was rotated on the gramophone -The "arm" of the gramophone held a needle that read the grooves in the record by vibration and transmitted the information to the gramophone speaker -Berliner's disks (records) were the first sound recordings that could be mass-produced by creating master recordings from which molds were made -From each mold, hundreds of disks were pressed. -Berliner & Eldridge Johnson formed the Victor Talking machine Company (later RCA Victor)

Peter goldmark and LPs info

1947_ -Peter Goldmark worked for Columbia Records (owned by CBS)- -perfected LPs Was listening w/ friends to a concerto that had been recorded on 6 records, 12 sides Hated the interruptions required to flip record; hated the sound defects Eventually created the long-playing (LP) record -23 minutes of continuous music They were bigger than 78 rpm records, which posed a problem: no record players to pla them

Rise of Rock and Roll

1950s rock and roll redefined pop music Improvements in sound quality contributed to popularization of artists (Presley) Parents in the 50s listened to Sinatra, Perry Como, big bands Kids now moving to a new beat Older generation horrified DJ Alan Freed from Cleveland began an R & B show coined the term rock and roll Sam Phillips (Memphis record producer) discovered Elvis Presley Rock music sent shockwaves across America Teens rebelled against parents' music Parents were appalled "Satan's music" Rock and roll records were banned from many radio stations and hundreds of schools Too popular to stop its spread

Quiz show scandals

1958-1959 quiz show scandals Van Doren admitted before the congressional subcommittee that Twenty-One's producer had fed him the answers. The Revlon-sponsored $64,000 Question and other quiz shows were found to be rigged to enhance ratings.

Saturday Evening Post

1st Magazine to reach a large audience: The Saturday Evening Post in 1821 -Cost 5 cents each; 4 pages, no pictures -¼ ads -Oldest magazine in the US (Because publication was interrupted in 1969, not the oldest continually published magazine, however; Scientific American is.)

2 issues the recording industry has faced

2 Issues the Recording Industry Has Faced since 1985: 1. Content Labeling 1985: Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC) called for advisory labels on music Tipper Gore, et al argued recordings fall under consumer protection Went to National Association of Broadcasters & FCC Singled out: Madonna, Michael Jackson, Motley Crue, Prince, Sheena Easton, Twisted Sister, Cyndi Lauper- contributed to teen pregnancy & suicide January 1986: RIAA urged members to provide a warning label or print lyrics on albums w/ offensive content (favored self-regulation instead of govt. intervention) 1990-2 largest record stores ordered outlets to stop selling 2 Live Crew albums Sexually explicit; deemed obscene despite warning label by Florida judge The ban meant 1,000 stores nationwide wouldn't sell it Eventually the ban was overturned, but damage already done 2.File-sharing on the Internet 1999--MP3 players introduced Napster became popular (software sharing program available on website) Music could be downloaded over the Internet for free (file-sharing) Using MP3 players, users could keep & use the music RIAA sued Napster, claiming violation of copyright April 2000-Metallica & Dr. Dre also sued Napster July 2000-Napster ordered to shut down, but they delayed until 2001 May 2002-Napster aligned w/ Bertelsmann AG: developed a membership-base distribution system

Cable and satellite delivery

3. Questions about the accuracy of TV ratings Nielsen Co. developed people meters (a 4x10 inch box that sits on the TV) to record television viewing in 1987 (used about 4,000 families) The results of these recorded viewing patterns sets the basis for TV advertising rates Family members punch in an assigned button on top of the set when they watch The system's central computer correlates each number w/ info. about the person stored Networks have complained that newer measuring devices underestimate certain ethnic audience groups, but Nielsen is the only U.S. company measuring TV audiences.

5 developments that transformed radio (all that goes with them

5 Developments Between the 1940s-1960s Transformed Radio: 1. FM Radio Frequency -1936 Edwin H. Armstrong asked FCC to broadcast using frequency modulation (FM) -Offered truer transmission w/ less static than AM 2. Licensed Recordings Launch Disc Jockeys -Early station owners avoided playing records b/c of ASCAP -FCC required stations to alert the audience every 30 min. they were records, not live -1935 newscaster Martin Block began playing records between his newscasts -Also started a program called "Make Believe Ballroom" (he invited listeners to pretend concerts and entertained them with humor and records) -Considered America's 14 disc jockey -1940 FCC said if a station owned a record, could play it freely- no announcements 3. Clock, Car, Transistor Radios Make Radio Portable-ensured survival - 1950s clock radios introduced: woke people up; relied on them for 1* ner - 1928 William Lear invented the car radio: huge w/ spotty reception - During WWII, technology improved car radios - 1946 9 million cars had radios; 1963--50 million 4. Gordon McLendon Introduces Format Radio - At KLIF in Dallas, McLendon combined music & news in a predictable rotation of 20 minute segments: this became known as format radio -He then refined the music by creating the Top 40 format: played top-selling hits, interrupted only by a disc jockey or newscast 5. Payola Scandals Highlight Broadcast Ethics -Rock 'n' roll rose at the same time as transistor and portable radios did -Radio, therefore, played a central role in rock's rise - Record companies & radio stations needed each other: by providing the latest hits, record companies kept stations' operating costs low; stations provided basically free advertising - Feb. 8, 1960 Congress began payola hearings PAYOLA= charges that disc jockeys and program directors accepted cash to play certain recordings on the air (name came from combining the words pay and victrola- popular record player) May 1960-Manhattan grand jury charged 8 men with commercial bribery -Alan Freed coined the term rock and roll- one of the 8 -The 8 accepted more than $100,000 in payoffs for playing records -Sept. 1960 Congress amended the Federal Communications Act to prohibit the payment of cash or gifts in exchange for airplay; issue arose again in 2005

Profitability of sports programming

5. Profitability of sports programming Sports programming is one of the most profitable types of TV programming. 1964 CBS paid $28 million for TV rights to the 1964-65 NFL games By 1990 -networks paid $3.6 billion to broadcast NFL games August 2014: ESPN paid 1.9 billion to air games; Fox paid 1.1 billion; CBS paid 1 billion; NBC paid 950,000 million TV fees pay for most of the costs of organized sports. Expansion of sports programming to cable channels means more choices for viewers; more money for teams.

Advertising and the networks

Advertising and the Networks While the regulatory structure of the medium was evolving, so were its financial bases. The formation of RCA had ensured that radio would be a commercial, profit-based medium. The industry initially supported itself through the sale of receivers. The problem was that once everybody had a radio, people would stop buying them. The solution was advertising. On August 22, 1922, New York station WEAF accepted the first radio commercial, a 10-minute spot for Long Island brownstone apartments. The cost of the ad was $50. The sale of advertising led to the establishment of national radio networks. Groups of stations, or affiliates, all broadcasting identical content from a single distributor, could deliver larger audiences, realizing greater advertising revenues, which would allow them to hire bigger stars and produce better programming, which would attract larger audiences, which could be sold for even greater fees to advertisers. RCA set up a 24-station network, the National Broadcasting Company (NBC), in 1926. A year later it bought AT&T's stations and launched a second network, NBC Blue (the original NBC was renamed NBC Red). The Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) was also founded in 1927, but it struggled until 26-year-old millionaire cigar maker William S. Paley bought it in 1928, making it a worthy competitor to NBC. The fourth network, Mutual, was established in 1934 largely on the strength of its hit Western The Lone Ranger. Four midwestern and eastern stations came together to sell advertising on it and other shows; soon Mutual had 60 affiliates. Mutual differed from the other major national networks in that it did not own and operate its own flagship stations (called O&Os, for owned and operated). By 1938 the four national net- works had affiliated virtually all the large U.S. stations and the majority of smaller operations as well. These corporations grew so powerful that in 1943 the government forced NBC to divest itself of one of its networks. It sold NBC Blue to Life Saver candy maker Edward Noble, who renamed it the American Broadcasting Company (ABC). The fundamental basis of broadcasting (radio and later television) in the United States was now set: Broadcasters were private, commercially owned enterprises rather than government op- erations. Governmental regulation was based on the public interest. Stations were licensed to serve specific localities, but national networks programmed the most lucrative hours with the largest audiences. Entertainment and information (news, weather, and sports) were the basic broadcast con- tent. . Advertising formed the basis of financial support for broadcasting.

Record album

By the end of WWII, 78 rpm records (revolutions per minute) were standard Each song was on a separate recording An album in the 1940s: a bound set of 10 envelopes about the size of a pho Each record (1 song recorded on each side) fit in one envelope This is how we got the name album to describe a record Each shellac hard disc recording ran 3 minutes

Biggest misconception about TV (chap. 8 lec.)

Biggest misconception about TV? To the audience, the program is the product, but to the TV executive, the audience is the product. This is b/c the audience buys the products advertised which makes TV money, not the programming. This means TV exists primarily as an advertising medium: TV was created to deliver audiences to advertisers. Programming surrounds the advertising, but it is advertising that's being delivered Because TV can deliver a larger audience faster than any other medium, TV can charge the highest rates for its advertising. Ex. A 30-second spot during the 2021 Super Bowl cost $5.5 million

Changes come to hollywood

Change Comes to Hollywood As was the case with newspapers and magazines, the advent of television significantly altered the movie-audience relationship. But the nature of that relationship had already been shaped and reshaped in the three decades between the coming of sound to film and the coming of television. THE TALKIES The first sound film was one of three films produced by Warner Bros. It may have been Don Juan (1926), starring John Barrymore, distributed with synchronized music and sound effects. Or perhaps it was Warner's more famous The Jazz Singer (1927), starring Al Jolson, which had several sound and speaking scenes (354 words in all) but was largely silent. Or it may have been the 1928 all-sound Lights of New York. Historians disagree because they cannot decide what constitutes a sound film. There is no confusion, however, about the impact of sound on the movies and their audi- ences. First, sound made possible new genres-musicals, for example. Second, as actors now had to really act, performance aesthetics improved. Third, sound made film production a much more complicated and expensive proposition. As a result, many smaller filmmakers closed shop, solidifying the hold of the big studios over the industry. In 1933, 60% of all U.S. films came from Hollywood's eight largest studios. By 1940, they were producing 76% of all U.S. movies and collecting 86% of the total box office. As for the audience, in 1926, the year of Don Juan's release, 50 million people went to the movies each week. In 1929, at the onset of the Great Depression, the number had risen to 80 million. By 1930, when sound was firmly entrenched, the number of weekly moviegoers had risen to 90 million (Mast & Kawin, 1996). SCANDAL The popularity of talkies, and of movies in general, inevitably raised questions about their impact on the culture. In 1896, well before sound, The Kiss had generated a great moral outcry. Its stars, John C. Rice and May Irwin, were also the leads in the popular broadway play the widow jones, which closed with climactic kiss.

Colonial magazines compete with newspapers

Colonial Magazines Compete with Newspapers 1741. -1s magazine launched (50 years after 1* newspaper) -Andrew Bradford issued his American Magazine 1* -Ben Franklin came up w/ the idea first -Franklin's General Magazine-3 days later -Bradford published 3 magazines; Franklin, 6 -1s magazine to last more than a year: The American Magazine 1743-1746 Magazines were different b/c they went beyond local concerns -Newspapers circulated w/in cities, so national news spread slowly -Magazines contained cultural, political, and social ideas -Early magazines expensive b/c didn't carry ads (limited audience) -Provided a way to express political views like newspapers

custom magazine

Custom Magazines Another trend finds its roots in the magazine industry's response to an increasingly crowded media environment. Custom publishing is the creation of magazines specifically designed for an individual company seeking to reach a very narrowly defined audience, such as favored customers or likely users or buyers. If you've ever stayed at an Airbnb home-sharing location, for example, you might well have come across Airbnb Magazine, distributed for free to mem- ber hosts. WebMD, the medical information website, distributes for free to 85% of all Amer- ican doctors' offices a magazine of the same name. Its monthly print circulation of 1.4 million is read by more than 10 million people. Forty-one percent of business-to-customer marketers use custom print magazines, as do 36% of business-to-business marketers (Spaight, 2016). Naturally, such specifically targeted magazines take advantage of readers' engagement with and affinity for magazine advertising. There are two broad categories of custom publishing. First, a brand magazine is a con- sumer magazine, complete with a variety of general interest articles and features, published by a retail or other business for readers with demographic characteristics similar to those of consumers with whom it typically does business. These publications carry ad pages not only for the products of their parent business but for others as well. The Costco Connec- ton's 12.7 million subscribers make it the largest-circulation print monthly in America (Costco, 2018). Other examples abound: Energy drink maker Red Bull publishes Red Bulletin; Kraft has been publishing Food & Family for more than 20 years; and among others, Dodge, Hallmark, Bloomingdale's, Saks Fifth Avenue, Crunch Fitness, and Sea Ray all have suc- cessful brand magazines. A small but growing number of brand magazines (for example, Enterprise Car Rental's Pursuits with Enterprise) are digital-only. Brand magazines recognize two important contemporary realities of today's media environment: (a) The cost of retain- ing existing customers is significantly lower than that of recruiting new ones, and (b) in an increasingly hypercommercialized and cluttered mass media system, advertisers who want to connect with their customers can rely on the engagement and affinity inherent in a good magazine to overcome growing consumer cynicism and suspicion. Closely related is the second category, the magalogue, a designer catalog produced to look like a consumer magazine. Abercrombie & Fitch, J.Crew, Harry Rosen, Saks Fifth Avenue, Net-A-Porter, Asos, Frank & Oak, Berg- dorf Goodman, and Diesel all produce catalogs in which models wear for-sale designer clothes. Designers, photogra- phers, writers, and editors from major fashion magazines typically contribute to these publications, and they are occasion- ally available for sale at newsstands (for example, Net-A-Porter's Porter).

2 events that reversed movie prosperity

I. The House Un-American Activities Committee During the early part of the Cold War, "unfriendly" Hollywood screenwriters and directors called to testify about their alleged communist connections UNFRIENDLY- Hollywood screenwriters and directors who had participated at some time in the past in un-American activities, usually meaning having been a member of a left-wing organization in the decade before WWII Became known as the Hollywood 10 (8 screenwriters, 2 directors) Eventually along w/ hundreds of others, blacklisted (studio owners' refusal to hire someone who was suspected of taking part in subversive activities) All of them were sentenced to jail and some were fined • By the end of Nov. 1947 -the 10 had lost their jobs Here's a bit more info with an interview with one of the 10 2. The 1948 Antitrust Decision of the US Supreme Court in United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc. et al 1938- -Justice Dept. challenged certain booking and vertical integration practices of the movie industry Dropped the lawsuit in 1940 when the major studios agreed to: a. limit block booking to 5 films b. stop blind booking (renting films to exhibitors w/out letting them see the films first) C. stop requiring theaters to rent short films as a condition of acquiring features d. stop buying theaters govt. still unhappy so reactivated the suit -Supreme Court ordered a break up of vertical integration, eliminating the problem.

First major box office hit

In 1903, The Great Train Robbery broke away from looking like a stage production Produced a feeling of continuous action with Porter's techniques Became the first major box office hit

The year of America's 1st public showing of a movie

June 19, 1905 it's name the nikelodeon

KDKA radio

KDKA Launches Commercial Broadcasting Sept. 29, 1920 an ad in the Pittsburgh Sun described a 20 min. evening concert broadcast Frank Conrad's home (wireless enthusiast; worked for Westinghouse) -Harry P. Davis, Conrad's boss, talked Conrad into setting up a more powerful transr the Westinghouse plant -Oct. 27, 1920 KDKA licensed as the nation's 1s commercial radio station -1st broadcast began at 8pm on Nov. 2, 1920 and went past midnight -Reported that Warren G. Harding was the next president -Then began a daily 1 hour evening schedule. -1934 Congress established the FCC to regulate the expanding wireless medium -NOT originally created to oversee broadcast content -Created to prevent signals from interfering with each other.

Magazine Advertising

Magazine Advertising Magazine specialization exists and succeeds because the demographically similar reader- ship of individual publications is attractive to advertisers. Marketers want to target ads for their products and services to those most likely to respond to them. Despite modest rev- enue declines over the last few years, this remains a lucrative situation for the magazine industry. The average editorial-to-advertising-page ratio is 54% to 46%, and the industry takes in more than $27 billion a year in revenue, about 50% of that amount generated by advertising (with 62% of that income generated by print advertising; Braverman, 2018). Magazines command 7% of all the dollars spent on major media advertising in this coun- try ("U.S. Ad Spending Forecast," " 2018). And of particular importance to marketers, the return on advertising dollars spent is higher for magazines than for any other medium (Association of Magazine Media, 2018). The brands that buy the most magazine advertising are shown in Figure 5.2. Magazines are often further specialized through split runs, special versions of a given issue in which editorial content and ads vary according to some specific demographic or regional grouping. People, for example, will sell A-B splits in which every other copy of the national edition will carry a different cover, regional splits by state and by major metropolitan area, and splits targeting the top 10 and top 20 largest metropolitan areas. Magazines work to make themselves attractive to advertisers in other ways, especially as the industry, like all traditional media, deals with tough economic conditions. One strategy is single- sponsor magazines-having only one advertiser throughout an entire issue. Health publication Walk It Off uses this technique exclusively, and even venerable titles such as The New Yorker (Target stores) and Time (Kraft foods) publish single-sponsor issues on occasion. Another strategy is to make accountability guarantees. The Week, for example, promises that independent testing will demonstrate that its readers recall, to an agreed-upon level, a sponsor's ad; if they do not, the advertiser will receive free ad pages until recall reaches that benchmark. Many of the large publishers-Meredith, Hearst, Condé Nast, and Time Inc., for example-also offer similar guarantees. (For a look at a mag- azine with no advertising at all, see the essay "No Ads? No Prob- lem: Consumer Reports.")

Textbook material: mechanical and electronic scanning

Mechanical and Electronic Scanning In 1884 Paul Nipkow, a Russian scientist living in Berlin, developed the first workable device for generating electrical signals suitable for the transmission of a scene that people could see. His Nipkow disc consisted of a rotating scanning disc spinning in front of a photoelectric cell. It produced 4,000 pixels (picture dots) per second, producing a picture composed of 18 parallel lines. Although his mechanical system proved too limiting, Nipkow demonstrated the possibility of using a scanning system to divide a scene into an orderly pattern of transmit- table picture elements that could be recomposed as a visual image. British inventor John Logie Baird was able to transmit moving images using a mechanical disc as early as 1925, and in 1928 he successfully sent a television picture from London to Hartsdale, New York. Electronic scanning came either from another Russian or from a U.S. farm boy; histori- ans disagree. Vladimir Zworykin, a Russian immigrant living near Pittsburgh and working for Westinghouse, demonstrated his iconoscope tube, the first practical television camera tube, in 1923. In 1929 David Sarnoff lured him to RCA to head its electronics research lab, and it was there that Zworykin developed the kinescope, an improved picture tube. At the same time, young Philo Farnsworth had moved from Idaho to San Francisco to perfect an electronic television system, the design for which he had shown his high school science teacher when he was 15 years old. In 1927, at the age of 20, he made his first public dem- onstration-film clips of a prize fight, movie scenes, and other graphic images. The "Boy Wonder" and Zworykin's RCA spent the next decade fighting fierce patent battles in court. In 1939 RCA capitulated, agreeing to pay Farnsworth royalties for the use of his patents. In April of that year, at the World's Fair in New York, RCA made the first true public demonstration of television in the form of regularly scheduled two-hour NBC broadcasts. These black-and-white telecasts consisted of cooking demonstrations, singers, jugglers, come- dians, puppets-just about anything that could fit in a hot, brightly lit studio and demonstrate motion. People could buy television sets at the RCA Pavilion at prices ranging from $200 for the S-inch screen to $600 for the deluxe 12-inch-screen model. The FCC granted con- struction permits to the first two commercial stations in 1941, and then World War II intervened. But as was the case with radio during World War I, technical development and improvement of the new medium continued.

Online magazines

Online Magazines Online magazines have emerged, made possible by convergence of magazines and the Inter- net. Rare is the magazine that does not produce a digital version, and almost all that do offer additional content and a variety of interactive features not available to readers of their hard-copy versions. Different publications opt for different payment models, but most pro- vide online-only content for free and charge nonsubscribers for access to print magazine content that appears online. This strategy encourages readers who might otherwise go com- pletely digital (and drop print) to renew their subscriptions. This is important to publishers and their advertisers because ads in hard-copy magazines are more effective and therefore more valuable: Print magazine advertising produces greater increases in brand awareness, brand favorability, and purchase intent than online magazine advertising (Association of Magazine Media, 2018). Several strictly online magazines have been attempted. In 1996, former New Republic editor Michael Kinsley moved from Washington, DC, to Washington State to publish the exclusively online magazine Slate for Microsoft. The Washington Post Company bought Slate from Microsoft in 2004 to increase its online presence. Two years earlier, several staffers from the San Francisco Chronicle, armed with $100,000 in start-up money from Apple Computer, went online with Salon. Both Salon and Slate wanted to do magazine journalism-a mix of breaking news, cultural criticism, political and social commentary, and interviews-at the Internet's speed with the Internet's interactivity and instant feedback. Although both pioneers regularly draw sizable audiences-Salon and Slate each have 20 million unique monthly readers worldwide-it took them both more than a decade to become profitable. One reason is that, as opposed to sites produced by paper magazines, purely online magazines must generate original content, an expensive undertaking, yet they compete online for readers and advertisers as equals with those subsidized by paper magazines. In addition, these sites must compete with all other websites on the Internet. They are but one of an infinite number of choices for potential readers, and they do not enjoy the security of an audience loyal to a parent publication.

Radio act of 1912 (chap. 7 lec)

Radio Act of 1912- Congress passed to license those who wanted to broadcast/receive n Only a certain number of frequencies available so amateurs were knocking each othe This Act was formed to help this problem During W WI, the gov't. took control of privately owned stations, ordering all amateu air, and the military took control over radio broadcast After the war, the gov't lifted the ban; the Navy argued they shouldn't have

Ratings target the audience

Ratings Target the Audience networks were criticized for being dominated by ratings after the quiz show scandals By the late 1950s, the A. C. Nielsen Company dominated the TV ratings business. Ratings provide sponsors w/ information about the audience they're reaching with their advertising. The rating is a percentage of the total number of households with TV sets The share compares audiences for one show with audiences for another. Concentrated ratings periods for local stations take place during "sweeps" months Feb., May & Nov. Sweeps provide an estimate of the local TV audience Advertisers use that info. when they decide where to place their commercials These are the months when the ratings services gather their most important ratings Networks and local stations often showcase their best (special 1 hour episodes, lavishly produced made for TV movie, etc...) Today's Nielsens deliver specific information on demographics for advertisers to target consumers- information like age, occupation, and income. Criticism continues b/c of the way ratings are religiously followed & used to determine programming

McClure's launches investigative Journalism

Samuel S. McClure strong editor who founded McClure's Magazine in 1893: -Vital to the Progressive Era in American politics: called for an end to relationship between big business & govt. -His magazine cost only 15 cents an issue__reached larger audience; others were 25-35 cents -1894: Ida Tarbell joined as associate editor: exposed the country's biggest oil trust -She outlined and documented the cutthroat business practices behind John Rockefeller's meteoric rise. -Other magazines followed suit, seeing the success of McClure's with these exposes -In 1905, THOMAS LAWSON brought the inner workings of the stock market to light -1906 JOHN SPARGO unearthed the horrors of child labor -That same year, DAVID PHILLIPS linked 75 senators to big business interests -In 1907, WILLIAM HARD went public with industrial accidents in the steel industry. -1908 RAY STANNARD BAKER revealed the oppression of Southern blacks -1906 Upton Sinclair most noted: he looked into the meat packing industry in Chicago -THE JUNGLE, detailed workers sacrificing their fingers and nails by working with acid, losing limbs, catching diseases, and toiling long hours in cold, cramped conditions -Sinclair also uncovered the contents of the products being sold to the general public. Spoiled meat was covered with chemicals to hide the smell. Skin, hair, stomach, ears, and nose were ground up and packaged as head cheese. Rats climbed over warehouse meat, leaving piles of excrement behind. -Within months, Congress passed the PURE FOOD AND DRUG ACT and the MEAT INSPECTION ACT to curb these sickening abuses. -By 1910-many reforms sought by muckrakers were adopted

Scope and nature of radio industry

Scope and Nature 65-year-olds and over of the Radio Industry There are 15,493 full-power broadcast radio stations operating in the United States today: 4,626 commercial AM stations, 6,737 commercial FM stations, and 4,130 noncommercial FM stations. These are joined on the dial by 2,175 low power FM (LPFM) stations. There are more than two radios for every person in the United States. The industry as a whole sells more than $17.6 billion a year of ad time, and radio remains people's primary means of consuming audio content (Pollack, 2018). FM, AM, and Noncommercial Radio Although FMs constitute 60% of all commercial stations (to AMs' 40%), as much as 85% of all listening is on FM. In fact, from 2015 to 2018, while the numbers of commercial, noncommercial, and low power FM stations all increased, the number of AM stations actu- ally decreased (Federal Communications Commission, 2018). This has to do with the tech- nology behind each. The FM (frequency modulation) signal is wider, allowing the broadcast not only of stereo (sound perceived from multiple channels, for example bass and drums from the left speaker and guitars and vocals from the right) but also of better fidelity to the original sound than the narrower AM (amplitude modulation) signal. As a result, people attracted to music gravitate toward FM. People favoring news, sports, and information tend to find themselves listening to the AM dial. AM signals travel farther than FM signals, making them perfect for rural parts of the country. Rural areas tend to be less heavily populated, so most AM stations serve fewer listeners. Many of today's FM stations are noncommercial-that is, they accept no advertising, When the national frequency allocation plan was established during the deliberations leading to the 1934 Communications Act, commercial radio broadcasters persuaded Congress that they alone could be trusted to develop this valuable medium. They promised to make time available for religious, children's, and other educational programming. No frequencies were set aside for noncommercial radio to fulfill these functions. At the insistence of critics who contended that the commercial broadcasters were not fulfilling their promise, in 1945 the FCC set aside all FM frequencies between 88.1 and 91.9 megahertz for noncommercial radio. Today these noncommercial stations not only provide local service, but many also offer national network quality programming through affiliation with National Public Radio (NPR) and Public Radio International (PRI) or through a number of smaller national net- works, such as Pacifica Network. Bucking the trend in most other local media, public sta- tions are adding journalists to their staffs and, as such, show stronger audience growth than other types of stations (Oreskes, 2017).

Scope and nature of brodcast television industry

Scope and Nature of the Broadcast Television Industry Today, as it has been from the beginning, the business of broadcast television is dominated by a few centralized production, distribution, and decision-making organizations. These net- works link affiliates for the purpose of delivering and selling viewers to advertisers. The large majority of the 1,349 commercial stations in the United States are affiliated with a national broadcasting network: ABC, NBC, and CBS each have over 200 affiliates, and Fox has close to that number. About 100 more stations are affiliated with the CW Network, jointly owned by CBS and Warner Bros. They are joined by two national Spanish-language networks, Telemundo (85 stations) and Univision (60). Although cable has introduced us to dozens of popular cable networks-ESPN, MTV, Comedy Central, and A&E, to name a few-for decades most programs that came to mind when we thought of television were either con- ceived, approved, funded, produced, or distributed by the broadcast networks. Although, as you read at this chapter's outset, that's quickly changing. More on that soon. Local affiliates carry network programs (they clear time). Until quite recently, affiliates received direct payment for carrying a show, called compensation, and the right to keep all income from the sale of local commercials on that program. But loss of network audience and the rise of cable have altered this arrangement. Now networks receive reverse compensa- tion, a fee paid by the local station for the right to be that network's affiliate. It is typically based on the amount of money the local cable operation pays to the station to carry its signal, called retransmission fees.

TV changes national Politics

Television Changes National Politics John F. Kennedy was the nation's first TV president He was the first president to hold televised news conferences Many claimed his presidential victory was b/c of televised debates between he and Nixon TV received credit for uniting the nation with coverage of the Kennedy assassination, but it was also blamed for dividing the nation on other occasions. Nixon's admin. often attacked the press for presenting certain perspectives on world affairs In 1973, commercial and public TV carried live coverage of the Watergate hearings. In 1974, Nixon announced his resignation on television. In 1987, television offered marathon coverage of the Iran-Contra hearings.

The 1950's section: the quiz show and changes in sponsorship, i love lucy and more changes, the nielsen ratings

The 1950s In 1952, 108 stations were broadcasting to 17 million television homes. By the end of the decade, there were 559 stations, and nearly 90% of U.S. households had televisions. In the 1950s more television sets were sold in the United States (70 million) than there were children born (40.5 million) (Kuralt, 1977). The technical standards were fixed, stations proliferated and flourished, the public tuned in, and advertisers were enthusiastic. The con- tent and character of the medium were set in this decade as well: Carried over from the radio networks, television genres included variety shows, situation comedies, dramas (including Westerns and cop shows), soap operas, and quiz shows. Two new formats appeared: feature films and talk shows. Talk shows were instrumental in introducing radio personalities to the television audience, which could see its favorites for the first time. Television news and documentary remade broadcast journalism as a powerful force in its own right, led by CBS's Edward R. Murrow (See It Now, 1951) and NBC's David Brinkley and Chet Huntley. Huntley and Brinkley's 1956 coverage of the major political conven- tions gave audiences an early glimpse of the power of television to cover news and history in the making. This was reinforced over the next two decades by the medium's nation- galvanizing coverage of the assassination and funeral of President John F. Kennedy in 1963 and the 1973 Senate Watergate hearings, as well as by the journalism of CBS's Walter Cronkite throughout that time. Even today, at a time of deep public mistrust of the media, television remains the country's most trusted source of news (Mandese, 2018). AT&T completed its national coaxial cable and microwave relay network for the distribu- tion of television programming in the summer of 1951. The entire United States was now within the reach of the major television networks, and they came to dominate the medium.

Longest feature film ever made as of 1915

The Birth of a Nation, landmark silent film, released in 1915, that was the first blockbuster Hollywood hit. It was the longest and most-profitable film then produced and the most artistically advanced film of its day. Oct 10, 2021 Writers: D.W. Griffith and Frank E. Woods Running time: 190 minutes Director and producer: D. W. Griffith Studio: D.W. Griffith Productions

The Coming of Broadcasting

The Coming of Broadcasting he idea of broadcasting-that is, transmitting voices and music at great distances to a large umber of people-predated the development of radio. Alexander Graham Bell's telephone company had a subscription music service in major cities in the late 1800s, delivering music to homes and businesses by telephone wires. A front-page story in an 1877 edition of the New York Daily Graphic sug- gested the possibilities of broadcasting to its readers. The public antici- pated and, after DeForest's much publicized successes, was eager for music and voices at home. Russian immigrant David Sarnoff, then an employee of the company American Marconi, recognized this desire and in 1916 sent his superiors what has become famously known as the "Radio Music Box Memo." In this memo Sarnoff wrote of a plan of development which would make radio a "household utility" in the same sense as the piano or phonograph. The idea is to bring music into the house by wireless. ... The receiver can be designed in the form of a simple "Radio Music Box" and arranged for several different wave- lengths, which should be changeable with the throwing of a single switch or pressing of a single button. (Sterling & Kitross, 1990. p. 43) The introduction of broadcasting to a mass audience was delayed in the first two decades of the 20th century by patent fights and lawsuits. Yet when World War I ended, an enthusiastic audience awaited what had become a much-improved medium. In a series of developments that would be duplicated for television at the time of World War II, radio was transformed from an exciting technological idea into an entertainment and commercial giant. To aid the war effort, the government took over the patents relating to radio and continued to improve radio for military use. Thus, refinement and development of the technical aspects of radio continued throughout the war. Then, when the war ended in 1919, the patents were returned to their owners-and the bickering was renewed. Concerned that the medium would be wasted and fearful that a for- eign company (British Marconi) would control this vital resource, the U.S. government forced the combatants to merge. American Marconi, General Electric, American Telephone & Tele- graph, and Westinghouse (in 1921)-each in control of a vital piece of technology-joined to create the Radio Corporation of America (RCA). RCA was a government-sanctioned monop- oly, but its creation avoided direct government control of the new medium. Twenty-eight-year- old David Sarnoff, author of the Radio Music Box Memo, was made RCA's commercial manager. The way for the medium's popular growth was paved; its success was guaranteed by a public that, because of the phonograph, was already attuned to music in the home and, thanks to the just concluded war, was awakening to the need for instant, wide-ranging news and information. On September 30, 1920, a Westinghouse executive, impressed with press accounts of the number of listeners who were picking up broadcasts from the garage radio station of com- pany engineer Frank Conrad, asked him to move his operation to the Westinghouse factory and expand its power. Conrad did so, and on October 27, 1920, experimental station 8XK in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, received a license from the Department of Commerce to broad- cast. On November 2, this station, renamed KDKA, made the first commercial radio broad- cast, announcing the results of the presidential election that sent Warren G. Harding to the white house. By mid-1922, there were nearly 1 million radios in American homes, up from 50,000 just a year before (Tillinghast, 2000, p. 41).

The Coming of Regulation

The Coming of Regulation As the RCA agreements demonstrated, the government had a keen interest in the develop- ment, operation, and diffusion of radio. At first, government interest focused on point-to-point communication. In 1910 Congress passed the Wireless Ship Act, requiring that all ships using U.S. ports and carrying more than 50 passengers have a working wireless and operator. Of course, the wireless industry did not object, as the legislation boosted sales. However, after the Titanic struck an iceberg in the North Atlantic in 1912 and it was learned that hundreds of lives were lost needlessly because other ships in the area had left their radios unattended, Congress passed the Radio Act of 1912, which not only strengthened rules regarding shipboard wireless but also required that wireless oper- ators be licensed by the Secretary of Commerce and Labor. The Radio Act of 1912 established spheres of authority for both federal and state governments, provided for distributing and revoking licenses, fined violators, and assigned frequencies for station operation. The government was in the business of regulating what was to become broadcasting, a development that angered many operators. They suc- cessfully challenged the 1912 act in court, and eventually President Calvin Coolidge ordered the cessation of government regulation of radio despite his belief that chaos would descend on the medium. He proved prophetic. The industry's years of flouting the 1912 act had led it to the brink of disaster. Radio sales and profits dropped dra- matically. Listeners were tired of the chaos. Stations arbitrarily changed frequencies, power, and hours of operation, and there was constant inter- ference between stations, often intentional. Radio industry leaders peti- toned Commerce Commissioner Herbert Hoover and, according to historian Erik Barnouw-who titled his 1966 book on radio's early days A Tower in Babel-"encouraged firmness" in government efforts to regu- late and control the competitors. The government's response was the Radio Act of 1927. Order was restored and the industry prospered, but the broadcasters had made an important concession to secure this saving intervention. The 1927 act authorized them to use the airwaves, which belonged to the public, but not to own them. Broadcasters were thus simply the caretakers of the airwaves, a national resource. The act further stated that when a license was awarded, the standard of evaluation would be the public interest, convenience, or necessity. The Federal Radio Commission (FRC) was established to administer the provisions of the act. This trustee model of regulation is based on two premises (Bitter, 1994). The first is spectrum scarcity. Because broadcast spectrum space is limited and not everyone who wants to broadcast can, those who are granted licenses to serve a local area must accept regulation. The second reason for regulation revolves around the issue of influence. Broadcasting reaches virtually everyone in society. By definition, this renders radio powerful. The Communications Act of 1934 replaced the 1927 legislation. The FRC gave way to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), and its regulatory authority, which con- tinues today, was cemented.

Text book material: the early entreprenurs

The Early Entrepreneurs In 1873 former California governor Leland Stanford needed help winning a bet he had made with a friend. Convinced that a horse in full gallop had all four feet off the ground, he had to prove it. He turned to well-known photographer Eadweard Muybridge, who worked on the problem for four years before finding a solution. In 1877 Muybridge arranged a series of still cameras along a stretch of racetrack. As the horse sprinted by, each camera took its picture. The resulting photographs won Stanford his bet, but more important, they sparked an idea in their photographer. Muybridge was intrigued by the appearance of motion created when photos are viewed sequentially. He began taking pictures of numerous kinds of human and animal action. To display his work, Muybridge invented the zoopraxiscope, a machine for projecting slides onto a distant surface. When people watched the rapidly projected sequential slides, they saw the pictures as if they were in motion, This perception is the result of a physiological phenomenon known as persistence of vision, in which the images our eyes gather are retained in the brain for about 1/24 of a second. Therefore, if photographic frames are moved at 24 frames a second, people perceive them as actually in motion absent any flicker or other interruption. Muybridge eventually met the prolific inventor Thomas Edison in 1888. Edison quickly saw the scientific and economic potential of the zoopraxiscope and set his top scientist, Wil- liam Dickson, to the task of developing a better projector. But Dickson correctly saw the need to develop a better system of filming. He understood that shooting numerous still photos, then putting them in sequential order, then redrawing the images onto slides was inherently limit- ing. Dickson combined Hannibal Goodwin's newly invented celluloid roll film with George Eastman's easy-to-use Kodak camera to make a motion picture camera that took 40 photo- graphs a second. He used his kinetograph to film all types of theatrical performances, some by unknowns and others by famous entertainers such as Annie Oakley and Buffalo Bill Cody. Of course, none of this would have been possible had it not been for photography itself. THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHOTOGRAPHY The process of photography was first developed by French inventor Joseph Nicéphore Niépce around 1816. Although there had been much experimentation in the realm of image making at the time, Niépce was the first person to make practical use of a camera and film. He photographed natural objects and produced color prints. Unfortunately, his images would last only a short time. Niépce's success, however, attracted the attention of countryman Louis Daguerre, who joined with him to perfect the process. Niépce died before the 1839 introduction of the daguerreotype, a process of recording images on polished metal plates, usually copper, cov- ered with a thin layer of silver iodide emulsion. When light reflected from an object passed through a lens and struck the emulsion, the emulsion would etch the image on the plate. The plate was then washed with a cleaning solvent, leaving a positive or replica image. In the same year as Daguerre's first public display of the daguerreotype, British inventor William Henry Fox Talbot introduced a paper film process. This process was more important to the development of photography than the metal film system, but the daguerreotype received widespread attention and acclaim and made the public enthusiastic about photography. The calotype (Talbot's system) used translucent paper, what we now call the negative, from which several prints could be made. In addition, his film was much more sensitive than Daguerre's metal plate, allowing for expo- sure times of only a few seconds as opposed to the daguerreotype's 30 minutes. Until calotype, virtually all daguerreotype images were still lives and portraits, a necessity with long exposure times.

Early Magazine Industry

The Early Magazine Industry In 1821 The Saturday Evening Post appeared. Starting in 1729 as Ben Franklin's Pennsylvania Gazette, it was to continue for the next 148 years. Among other successful early magazines were Harper's (1850) and Atlantic Monthly (1857). Cheaper printing and growing literacy fueled expansion of the magazine as they had for the book (see Chapter 3 for more on books). However, an additional factor in the success of early magazines was the spread of social move- ments such as abolitionism and labor reform. These issues provided compelling content, and a boom in magazine publishing began. In 1825 there were 100 magazines in operation; 25 years later there were 600. Because magazine articles increasingly focused on matters of importance to U.S. readers, publications such as the United States Literary Gazette and Amer ican Boy began to look less like London publications and more like a new and unique product. Journalism historians John Tebbel and Mary Ellen Zuckerman (1991) called this "the time of significant beginnings" (p. 13); it was during this time that the magazine developed many of the characteristics we associate with it today. Magazines and the people who staffed them began to clearly differentiate themselves from other publishing endeavors, such as books and newspapers. The concept of specialist writers took hold, and their numbers rose. In addition, numerous HARPI JOU und detailed illustrations began to fill the pages of magazines. Still, these early magazines were aimed at a literate elite interested in hort stories, poetry, social commentary, and essays. The magazine did not ecome a true national mass medium until after the Civil War.

The coming if narrative

The Edison and Lumière movies were typically only a few minutes long and showed little more than filmed reproductions of reality-celebrities, weight lifters, jugglers, and babies. They were shot in fixed frame (the camera did not move), and there was no editing. For the earliest audiences, this was enough. But soon the novelty wore thin. People wanted more for their money. French filmmaker Georges Méliès began making narrative motion pictures, that is, movies that told a story. At the end of the 1890s he was shooting and exhibiting one-scene, one-shot movies, but soon he began making stories based on sequential shots in different places. He simply took one shot, stopped the camera, moved it, took another shot, and so on. Méliès is often called the "first artist of the cinema" because he brought narra- tive to the medium in the form of imaginative tales such as A Trip to the Moon (1902). Méliès had been a magician and caricaturist before he became a filmmaker, and his inventive movies showed his dramatic flair. They were extravagant stage plays in which people disappeared and reappeared and other wonders occurred. A Trip to the Moon came to America in 1903, and U.S. moviemakers were quick not only to borrow the idea of using film to tell stories but also to improve on it. Edwin S. Porter, an Edison Company camera operator, saw that film could be an even better storyteller with more artistic use of camera placement and editing. His 12-minute The Great Train Robbery (1903) was the first movie to use editing, intercutting of scenes, and a mobile camera to tell a relatively sophisticated tale. It was also the first Western. This new narrative form using montage-tying together two separate but related shots in such a way that they take on a new, unified meaning-was an instant hit with audiences. Almost immediately hundreds of nickelodeons, some having as many as 100 seats, were opened in converted stores, banks, and halls across the United States. The price of admission was one nickel, hence the name. By 1905 cities such as New York were opening a new nickelodeon every day. From 1907 to 1908, the first year in which there were more narrative than documentary films, the number of nickelodeons in the United States increased tenfold. With so many exhibition halls in so many towns serving such an extremely enthusiastic public, many movies were needed. To create more films, hundreds of new factory studios, or production companies, were started. Because so many movies needed to be made and rushed to the nickelodeons, people working in the industry had to learn and perform virtually all aspects of production. There was precious little time for, or profitability in, the kind of specialization that marks contem- porary filmmaking. Writer, actor, and camera operator D. W. Griffith perfected his craft in this environment. He was quickly recognized as a brilliant director. He introduced innova- tions such as scheduled rehearsals before final shooting and production based on close adherence to a shooting script. He lavished attention on otherwise ignored aspects of a film's look-costume and lighting-and used closeups and other dramatic camera angles to transmit emotion. All his skill came together in 1915 with the release of The Birth of a Nation. Whereas Porter had used montage to tell a story, Griffith used it to create passion, move emotions, and heighten suspense. The most influential silent film ever made, this three-hour epic was six weeks in rehearsal and nine weeks in shooting, cost $125,000 to produce (making it the most expensive movie made to that date), was distributed to theaters complete with an orchestral music score, had a cast of thousands of humans and animals, and had an admis- sion price well above the usual 5 cents-$3. It was the most popular and profitable movie made and remained so until 1939, when it was surpassed by Gone with the Wind. With other Griffith masterpieces, Intolerance (1916) and Broken Blossoms (1919), The Birth of a Nation set new standards for the American film. They took movies out of the nickelodeons and made them big business. At the same time, however, The Birth of a Nation represented the basest aspects of U.S. culture because it included an ugly, racist portrayal of African Americans and a sympathetic treatment of the Ku Klux Klan. The film inspired protests in front of theaters across the country and criticism in some newspapers and magazines, and it led African Americans to fight back with their own films (see the essay "African American Response to D. W. Griffith: The Lincoln and Micheaux Film Companies"). Nevertheless, The Birth of a Nation found acceptance by the vast majority of people.

The era of specialization

The Era of Specialization In 1956 Collier's declared bankruptcy and became the first of the big mass circulation magazines to cease publication. But its fate, as well as that of other mass circulation maga- zines, had actually been sealed in the late 1940s and 1950s following the end of World War I. Profound alterations in the nation's culture-and, in particular, the advent of television- changed the relationship between magazines and their audience. No matter how large their circulation, magazines could not match the reach of television. Magazines did not have moving pictures or visual and oral storytelling. Nor could magazines match television's timeliness. Magazines were weekly, whereas television was continuous. Nor could they match television's novelty. In the beginning, everything on television was of interest to viewers. As a result, magazines began to lose advertisers to television. The audience changed as well. As we've seen, World War II changed the nature of American life. The new, mobile, product-consuming public was less interested in the traditional Norman Rockwell world of The Saturday Evening Post (closed in 1969) and more in tune with the slick, hip world of narrower interest publications such as GQ and Esquire, which spoke to them about their new and exciting lives. And because World War II had further urbanized and industrialized America, people-including millions of women who had entered the workforce-had more leisure and more money to spend. They could spend both on a wider array of personal interests and on magazines that catered to those interests. Where there were once Look (closed in 1971) and The Saturday Evening Post, there were now Flyfishing, Surfing, Ski, and Easyrider. The industry had hit on the secret of success: specialization and a lifestyle orientation. All media have moved in this direction in their efforts to attract an increasingly fragmented audience, but it was the magazine industry that began the trend.

The internet and the future of the recording industry

The Internet and the Future of the Recording Industry In the 1970s the basis of the recording industry changed from analog to digital recording. That is, sound went from being preserved as waves, whether physically on a disc or tape, to conversion into Is and Os logged in millisecond intervals in a computerized translation process. When replayed at the proper speed, the resulting sound was not only continuous but pristine-no hum, no hiss. The CD, or compact disc, was introduced in 1983 using digital coding on a 4.7-inch disc read by a laser beam. In 1986 "Brothers in Arms" by Dire Straits became the first million-selling CD. In 1988 the sale of CDs surpassed that of vinyl discs for the first time; by 1999 they accounted for 88% of industry revenues; today, CDs account for only 6% of that income (Friedlander, 2018; Perry, 2016). Convergence with computers and the Internet offers other challenges and opportunities to the recording industry. The way the recording industry operates has been dramatically altered by the Internet. Traditionally, a record company signed an artist, produced the artist's music, and promoted the artist and music through a variety of outlets but primarily through the distribution of music to radio stations. Then listeners, learning about the artist and music through radio, went to a record store and bought the music. But this has changed. Music fans now have access to more music from a greater variety of artists than ever before because of the Internet. The Internet music revolution began with the development of MP3, compression software that shrinks audio files to less than a tenth of their original size. Initially developed in 1987 in Germany, it began to take off in the early 1990s as more users began to hook up to the Internet with increasingly faster modems. This open source software, or freely downloaded software, permits users to download recorded music. Today, given the near-universal pres- ence of computers, smartphones, and tablets, rare is the American-especially young Amer- ican-who cannot access online music. The crux of the digital problem for recording companies was that they sold music "in its physical form," whereas MP3 permitted music's distribution in a nonphysical form. First discussed as merely a means of allowing independent bands and musicians to post their music online where it might attract a following, MP3 became a headache for the recording industry when music from the name artists they controlled began appearing on MP3 sites, making piracy, the illegal recording and sale of copyrighted material and high-quality record- ings, a relatively simple task. Not only could users listen to their downloaded music from their hard drives. but they could make their own CDs from MP3 files and plav those discs wherever and whenever they wished. Rather than embrace MP3, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), representing all of the United States' major labels, responded to the threat by developing their own "secure" Internet technology, but by the time it was available for release it was too late: MP3, driven by its availability and ease of use, had become the technology of choice for music fans already unhappy with the high cost of CDs and the necessity of paying for tracks they didn't want in order to get the ones they did. "The industry thought it was sell- ing music, " industry analyst James McQuivey explains. "It was really selling physical objects containing music-CDs-and it wasn't prepared for people buying fewer of them" (in Som- mer, 2014, p. BU1). Today, the CD is going the way of the audiotape and 8-track cartridge. It has been replaced first by the download, and then by streamed music. Downloading occurs in two forms: industry-approved and P2P (peer-to-peer).

The mass circulation era

The Mass Circulation Era The modern era of magazines can be divided into two parts: the mass cir- culation era and the era of specialization, each characterized by a different relationship between medium and audience. Popular mass circulation magazines began to prosper in the post-Civil War years. In 1865 there were 700 magazines publishing; by 1870 there were 1,200, and by 1885 there were 3,300. Crucial to this expansion was the women's magazine. Suffrage-women's right to vote-was the social move- ment that occupied its pages, but a good deal of content could also be described as how-to for homemakers. Advertisers, too, were eager to appear in the new women's magazines, hawking their brand-name products. First published at this time were several magazines still familiar today, such as Good Housekeeping. There were several reasons for this phenomenal growth. As with books, widespread literacy was one reason. Two other reasons were the Postal Act which provided people with leisure time to read and more personal income to spend. , the spirit of the Roaring Twenties Magazines were truly America's first national mass medium. urgeoning magazine industry. Unlike newspapers, they were national in distribution and hoto scope of coverage, and unlike books, they were inexpensive and meant for a large, general audience. Like books, they served as an important force in social change, especially in the muckraking era of the first decades of the 20th century. Theodore Roosevelt coined this label as an insult, but the muckrakers wore it proudly, using the pages of The Nation, Harper's Weekly, The Arena, and even mass circulation publications such as McClure's and Collier's to FIFTEEN CENTS LE agazine agitate for change. Their targets were the powerful. Their beneficiaries were the poor. You can read more about magazines' continuing political and social influence in the essay "Magazines and #MeToo." The mass circulation magazine grew with the nation. From the start there were general interest magazines such as The Saturday Evening Post, women's magazines such as Good Housekeeping, pictorial magazines such as Life and Look, and digests such as Reader's Digest, which was first published in 1922 and offered condensed and tightly edited articles for people on the go in the Roaring Twenties. What these magazines all had in common were the size and breadth of readership. They were mass market, mass circulation publications, both national and affordable. As such, magazines helped unify the nation. They were the country's dominant advertising medium, the primary source for nationally distributed news, and the preeminent provider of photojournalism. Between 1900 and 1945, the number of families who subscribed to one or more magazines grew from 200,000 to more than 32 million. New and important magazines continued to appear throughout these decades. For Glubandh example, African American intellectual W. E. B. DuBois founded and edited The Crisis in 1910 as the voice of the National Association for the Advance- ment of Colored People (NAACP). Time was first published in 1923. Its MARCH 1. 193) brief review of the week's news was immediately popular (it was originally only 28 pages long), and it made a profit within a year. The New Yorker, "the world's best magazine," debuted in 1925.

Start of CDs

Today CDs 1965 James Russell invented the disc Transformed music into digital code on 4.7 inch plastic & aluminum discs Read by lasers Oct. 1: 1982 1* CD player released by SONY: $900 (~$2210.52 in 2015) Last longer than records & cassettes ever did 2000 -CD players came w/ CD burners created Computers w/ CD-RW drives: burn data to a blank CD (copy music, play it, re-record) Made it harder for the recording industry to police unauthorized use of copyrighted material Music videos, MTV (debuted 1981), VH-1, and music downloads have expanded the audience & potential income for artists

William S. paley and David sarnoff

William S. Paley owner of CBS radio & CBS records While the LP (33 1/3 speed) was being developed, he contacted David Sarnoff (RCA executive RCA made record players) Sarnoff not interested in making record players for LPs 1948- -Sarnoff introduced 45 rpm records Ouarter-sized hole in the middle One song on a side Needed a different sized record player than 78s, which RCA built Perfect size for jukeboxes