MCAT 2021 new

Aldol Condensation reaction? What is a keto/enol? what are tautomers? what's a michael addition?

- The aldol condensation involves two reaction series: the aldol addition reaction (aldehyde + alcohol solvent form intermediate enol/enolate) and the dehydration reaction (removal of water to form aldol condensation product). -Dehydration occurs through an elimination (technically, E1cB) mechanism to form an α, β-unsaturated aldehyde (enal) or ketone (enone), not the aldol. 1. * The first step of aldol condensation involves a strong base like hydroxide taking a proton from the α-carbon (not the β-carbon) of a carbonyl compound (aldehyde or ketone) to form the enolate. 2. * The second step of aldol condensation involves the enolate attacking the aldehyde or ketone through a nucleophilic acyl addition mechanism (not substitution). Only carboxylic acid and its derivative can undergo nucleophilic acyl substitution. - Examples are dehydration, nucleophilic addition and aldol reaction. 4. The 1,4-addition (or conjugate addition) of resonance-stabilized carbanions. The Michael Addition is thermodynamically controlled; the reaction donors are active methylenes such as malonates and nitroalkanes, and the acceptors are activated olefins such as α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds.

Social Interaction Behavioral Sciences: Self-Preservation and Interacting w/ Others: Basic Model of Expressing Emotions? Display Rules? Impression Management?: what is ingratiation? aligning actions and alter-casting? Dramaturgical Approach? What is a formal organization? What is bureaucracy? How does Max Weber relate to it? What is an ideal bureaucracy?

-Basic Model of Expressing Emotions: states there's universal emotions and expressions -Display Rules: unspoken rules that govern emotional expression. -Impression management theory states that one tries to alter one's perception according to one's goals. In other words, the theory is about how individuals wish to present themselves, but in a way that satisfies their needs and goals. -Ingratiation: telling interviewer his research is fascinating, even when you couldn't care less -Aligning actions: aligning/justifying your actions by making excuses -Alter-Casting: imposing an identity on someone. "You look like a kind person. Can you sign this petition against animal cruelty?" -Dramaturgical Approach: people create images of thesmelves in the same way actors person a role infront of an audience. Front Stage: where people see you. Back Stage: where you're alone. -A formal organization has its own set of distinct characteristics, including well-defined rules and regulations, an organizational structure, determined objectives + policies, and more. *think of the government!* includes a fixed set of rules for intra-organization procedures and structures that are usually set out in writing which leave little discretion for interpretation. -A bureaucracy is type of formal organization, has a particular focus on efficiency and effectiveness to accomplish the goals of the organization. Max Weber identified several characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy, all of which are aimed at increasing efficiency. An ideal bureaucracy is specialized and organized in a clear hierarchy. There are written rules and regulations with thorough record-keeping. To prevent distraction from the organization's goals, an ideal bureaucracy is impersonal and impartial.

What is Electrical Potential? formula for it? What is electric potential energy? formula? what is a test charge? formula? Magnetism: 1. what is a magnetic field and how do you calculate for it? characteristics of magnetic fields? What do magnetic field lines show us? 2. what are diamagnetic material? 3. what are paramagnetic material? 4. what are ferromagnetic materials? 5. what is a Lorentz Force? 6. what is the right hand rule and what's it used for?

-Electrical potential = electrical PE per unit charge (V = U/q) and units are 1 Volt. -The charge that is used to measure the electric field strength is referred to as a test charge (q). q = F/E -Electrical PE (U): is the amount of work required to move a test charge from one place to another. formula is U= kQq/r 1. A magnetic field is created by magnets and moving charges which is measured in tesla (T). Since magnetic forces act at a distance, we define a magnetic field to represent magnetic forces which point from North to South since opposites attract. Magnetic field lines represent strength and direction of a magnetic field. The magnetic direction is represented as where the north end of a compass would point. The magnetic field is traditionally called the B-field. Strength of B-field is proportional to closeness of magnetic field lines. -magnetic fields exert forces on charges moving in any direction EXCEPT parallel or antiparallel to the magnetic field!! -Formula for magnitude of Magnetic Force on a moving point charge: F= qvBsin(theta) -Formula for magnitude of Magnetic Force on a current-carrying wire: F=ILBsin(theta) 2. Diamagnetic = material that has each subshell filled with 2 spin-paired electrons. these REPEL B-fields 3. paramagnetic = material that wants to have as many subshells occupied as possible even if they're not spin-paired. these ATTRACT B-fields 4. Ferromagnetic materials: materials made from STRONGLY magnetic elements such as iron! "Ferro" means iron. these can be magnetized by other objects, have some unpaired electrons and can become permanently magnetic. 5. Lorentz force (or electromagnetic force): the force exerted on a charged particle q moving with velocity (v) through an electric field (E) and magnetic field (B). or sum of electrostatic and magnetic forces acting on a test charge. 6. Right-Hand Rule: thumb = direction of current, fingers = direction of magnetic field, palm = direction of Force. Point charges may undergo uniform circular motion in a uniform magnetic field wherein the centripetal force is the magnetic force acting on the point charge (aka charge moving around). you use the right-hand rule to determine the direction of the resulting magnetic force.

Electrochemical Cells: Electrolytic cells vs Galvanic(Voltaic) Cells electrons flow from ___ to ___ Galvanic Cells flow from ____ to ____ Electrolytic cells flow from ___ to ___ current flows from ___ to _____

-both require salt bridge -Electrolytic cells, like galvanic cells, are composed of two half-cells--one is a reduction half-cell, the other is an oxidation half-cell. -The difference is that electrolytic cells use NONSPONTANEOUS energy while galvanic cells use SPONTANEOUS energy. - electrons flow from ANODE to CATHODE aka site of oxidation to site of reduction. anode is DEFINED as site of oxidation and cathode is DEFINED as site of reduction. *Think An Ox, Red Cat -Galvanic Cells' electrons flow from ANODE (-) to CATHODE (+) *think spontaneous flow aka redox. Aka anode is site of oxidation thus is naturally (-) -Electrolytic cells' electrons flow from ANODE (+) to CATHODE (-) *think nonspontaneous flow aka opposite of redox where electrons are FORCED to flow to the (-) charge when they don't want to -electrons always flow from anode to cathode (alphabetical) and current always flows from (+) to (-)

Emf and Thermodynamics: when +E(cell) then change in GFE is (+/-)? -E(cell)? Equation for EMF? Equation for total EMF? What is a Coulomb? Equations for change in GFE?

-think, if there IS an electromotive force then it must be spontaneous thus -∆G. -EMF is the force that impels electrons to move. EMF is the energy per Coulomb. Remember that energy is also called work in physical science. -EMF = work/q or EMF = energy (Joules)/charge (Coulomb) EMF is also called "voltage" because the units of EMF are Volts. -A coulomb is the # of electrons per charge. 1C is 6.25 x 10^18 electrons.

1. how to find # of stereoisomers? 2. What are constitutional isomers? 3. What are conformational isomers? 4. What are stereoisomers? Types? 5. What are configurational isomers? 6. what are the 3 types of conformational isomers and how do they differ? 7. relative vs absolute configuration? 8. difference between d, l , D and L? 9. how to read a fischer projection?

1. 2^n where n = # of chiral carbons 2. Constitutional isomers = same molecular formula but different structural formulas. aka same constitution (written molecular formula but different form. also called structural isomers! 3. Conformational isomers = same molecular formula but different shape such as anti, guache and eclipsed, boat vs chair 4. Stereoisomers = same molecular formula, same connectivity, but have different 3-D arrangements across one or more asymmetric (chiral) centers.. all are either configurational or conformational isomers. Types: enantiomers (mirror images), diastereomers (more than 1 chiral center and 1 R is switched), epimers (mirror images EXCEPT 1 chiral carbon has constituents switched) 5. Configurational isomers = same molecular formula and overall FIGURE but R groups are rearranged aka same IUPAC name but uses different prefixes 6. Anti = methyls are 12 o'clock and 6 o'clock, gauche = CH3 are next to each other Eclipsed = both almost aligned in parallel 7. Relative = relative config in comparison to another stx (d and l) Absolute = alone configuration without need for comparison (R and S, D and L) 8. d and l are relative and show optical rotation about a chiral center. D and L show absolute configuration (think glucose and amino acids) 9. wedges = coming towards you, dashes = facing away

Reactions of Carboxylic Acids? 1. What are 2 CA derivatives and how do you synthesize them? 3. What is decarboxylation and what is it's association with CAs and our metabolism? 4. CA Synthesis? 5. CA reduction? reagent and product? 6. Saponification? Reactions of Carbonyl compounds: 7. Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution? 8. Acid Halide Synthesis?

1. Amide and ester. CA + DCC solvent → amide. CA + R-OH (R-Alcohol) → ester. 3. Decarboxylation is removal of carboxyl group and release of CO2. This reaction is usually exothermic and has a VERY high activation energy thus is hard to carry. out. it is a KEY reaction in the TCA carried out by isocitrate dehydrogenase AND alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase which both yield one NADH each. 4. CA Synthesis occurs via Oxidation reactions: An alkane can be oxidized into a 1° alcohol which can be oxidized into an aldehyde which can be oxidized into a CA. Examples of oxidants/oxidizing agents we could use for each of these reactions are: KMnO₄, H₂CrO₄. 5. CA Reduction is where a CA is reduced to a 1° alcohol by a STRONG reducing agent like LiAlH₄. 6. Saponification is where you mix a fatty acid (which is a long chain carboxylic acid) with a strong base such as NaOH which then produces soap! Soap contains a hydrophilic carboxylate head + hydrophobic alkyl chain tail which organize into micelles in hydrophilic environments. 7. Nucelophilic Acyl Substitution: Nu attacks carbonyl carbon and attaches then db of C=O breaks and electrons go to oxygen then we get alkoxide ion intermediate then O's electrons recreate C=O and acyl leaves. aka nucleophile replaces acyl group. *uses SN2 reaction 8. Acid Halide Synthesis: called an acid halide bc CA's OH group is replaced with halide (Cl, Br, etc) . Reagents used = SOCl₂ or PBr₃.

1. Excretory (Urine) Pathway? 2. Renal Portal System? 3. Aldosterone effects vs ADH (vasopressin) effects? Nephron Pathway?

1. Bowman's capsule→PCT→descending limb of LOH→ascending limb of LOH→DCT→Collecting duct→renal pelvis→ureter→bladder→urethra 2. Renal Portal System: Two capillary beds in series (glomeruli & nephron). Blood flow: renal artery→afferent arterioles→glomeruli →efferent arteriole vasa recta, which surround nephron→renal vein. 3. aldosterone is made in the adrenal cortex in response to angiotensin II or high K+ levels. its made from cholesterol and acts at the DCT and collecting duct to increase Na2+ reabsorption (which water follows) WHILEEEE ADH (vasopressin) is secreted by posterior pituitary and increases permeability of water at collecting duct to increase H2O reabsorption!! aka does NOT work with Na2+.

1. Somatosensory System's sensory receptors are classified into five categories. What are they? What are examples of mechanoreceptors? What layer are they located in? 5 ways our skin thermoregulates?

1. Categories: mechano-,thermo-proprio-noci-, and chemoreceptors. There's 4 primary mechanoreceptors: Merkel cells, Pacinian corpuscle, Meissner's corpuscles and Ruffini endings. *My Palms Make Ravioli* all located within the dermis -Merkel Cells: light touch -Pacinian Corpuscles: Deep pressure & high frequency vibration -Meissner's Corpuscles: fine touch/pressure and low frequency vibration -Ruffini Endings: Stretch + proprioception and thermoception *think ruffles stretch out* Thermoregulation: -Sweating: Evaporative cooling -Shivering: Warming -Piloerection: Warming -Vasodilation: cool -Vasoconstriction: warm

Cell Cycle Positive/Negative Growth signals? Mitosis vs Meiosis steps when can nondisjunction occur? Estrogen ____; progesterone ____ the endometrium

1. Cyclin + CDK promote growth 2. mitosis = PMAT starting with duplicated chromosomes with sister chromatids and makes 2 diploid cells. meiosis = PMATx2 and P1 starts with homologous chromosomes & crossing over (aka chromosomal recombination) occurs. then M1, homologous chromosomes sepearate into sister chromatids. in Meiosis II, sister chromatids separate and end up making 4 haploid daughter cells. nondisjunction can occur during anaphase of mitosis, and meiosis I and II. 3. Estrogen establishes, progesterone protects the endometrium.

Cognition, Consciousness and Language Behavioral Sciences: Sleep: 1. What are the stages of sleep and what EEG waves do we produce? 2. What's our sleep cycle? 3. What promotes sleepiness and wakefulness? 4. what stage are we in when we dream? sleep walk? talk? 5. What is the Activation-Synthesis Theory? 6. What are 2 sleep disorders? Consciousness-Altering Drugs: 1. what do depressants do? 2. stimulants? 3. opiates and opiods? 4. hallucinogens? 5. mesolimbic pathway? Alertness: 1. What is selective attention? divided attention?

1. Depressants: Alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines. They ↑ GABA. 2. Stimulants: Amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy. ↑Dopamine, ↑norepinephrine, ↑serotonin at synaptic cleft. 3. Opiates and Opiods: Heroin, morphine, opium, oxycodone & hydrocodone. Can cause death by respiratory depression. 4. Hallucinogens: LSD, peyote, mescaline, ketamine. 5. Mesolimbic Pathway: Mediates drug addiction. Includes nucleus accumbens, medial forebrain bundle, and ventral tegmental area. Dopamine is the main neurotransmitter. Alertness: Selective Attention: Allows one to pay attention to a particular stimulus while determining if additional stimuli in the background requires attention Divided Attention: Uses automatic processing to pay attention to multiple things at one time.

Learning and Memory Behavior Sciences: 1. What is encoding and what is semantic, acoustic and visual encoding and how do they differ? 2. What is sensory and short term memory? 3. what is working memory? 4. what's long term memory? what is explicit and implicit memory? what are other names for these? Types of human memory? be able to draw the tree shown 5. what are semantic networks? 6. what are the 2 types of retrieval? which one is stronger? 7. associated diseases to memory? 8. types of memory recall interference?

1. Encoding is the process of putting new info into memory. There are 3 types of encoding: Semantic, acoustic and visual. Semantic encoding is the strongest type of encoding. 2. Sensory memory lasts less than a second and short-term memory lasts less than one minute. Both are based on neurotransmitter activity. 3. Working memory is a type of short term memory which lasts less than one minute and requires attention and executive function. 4. Long Term Memory requires elaborate rehearsal and is the result of increased neuronal connectivity. It can be divided into 2 groups which each can be further subdivided. Explicit (declarative) memory accounts for memories that require conscious effect and focus in order to recall. Explicit memory has 2 subcategories: episodic(specific personal events) and semantic (general info about the world). Implicit (nondeclarative) memory accounts for acquired skills and conditioned responses to circumstances and stimuli. Implicit has 2 subcategories: priming and procedural memory. Priming = need a certain stimulus to activate. Procedural = automatic aka things like driving a car. 5. Semantic Networks: concepts and words are linked together via strong and weak networks in a mental-map-like manner. Certain triggers will activate certain associated memories. 6. Retrieval: recognition of info is stronger than free recall. 7. Alzheimer's Disease: degenerative brain disorder linked to loss of acetylcholine in neurons that link to hippocampus. causes dementia and memory loss. Korsakoff's Syndrome: Thiamine deficiency in brain leads to retrograde and anterograde amnemia. some people may experience confabulation (fabrication of vivid but fake memories) Agnosia: Physical trauma to the brain causes loss of ability to recognize objects, people and/or sounds. 8. Retroactive Interference: new memories make you forget old memories. aka forget old memories. *think ___active interference means ____ memory is f*cked. Proactive Interference: old memories interfere with learning new memories. aka can't learn new memories

What are the following types of energies and how do you calculate for them: 1. Kinetic energy 2. Potential energy 3. Gravitational potential energy 4. Elastic potential energy 5. Electrical potential energy 6. Chemical potential energy What are conservative vs. nonconservative forces? What is "work"? What is the formula for it? What is "power"? how do you calculate it? what are its units? What is the Work-Energy Theorem?

1. KE: Energy associated with the mvmt of objects. It depends on mass and speed squared. KE = 1/2mv^2 2. PE: Energy stored within a system. 3. Gravitational PE: Related to the mass of an object and its height above a zero point. 𝑈 = 𝑚 𝑔 h 4. Elastic PE: Related to the spring constant and the degree of stretch or compression of a spring squared. U= 1/2 kx^2 5. Electrical PE: the energy between 2 charged particles 6. Chemical PE: the energy stored in the bonds of compounds 7. Conservative Forces: Path independent and do not dissipate the mechanical energy of a system. Examples: Gravity and electrostatic forces. 8. Nonconservative Forces: Path-dependent and cause dissipation of mechanical energy from a system. Examples: Friction, air resistance, and viscous drag.

1. What is mechanical advantage? 2. what are "simple machines" used in mechanical advantage? 3. How do you calculate efficiency?

1. Mechanical Advantage: is a measure of how beneficial it is to use a certain simple machine aka the ratio of output force to input force in a system and is used to analyze the forces in SIMPLE machines like levers and pulleys. [Work in]=[Work out]. MA is expressed in ideal terms where there's no loss of energy to heat or friction. 3. Efficiency is the ratio of the machine's work output to work input and can also be called mechanical advantage. calculated as Fout/Fin.

Nuclear Binding Energy and Mass Defect: 1. what's nuclear binding energy? how is it used? 2. what are the 4 fundamental forces of nature? 3. what is mass defect?

1. Nuclear binding energy = energy released when nucleons bind together. nucleons = particles of the atomic nucleus aka protons and neutrons! this releases energy bc they spontaneously bind. We calculate Nuclear binding energy using E=mc² in order to predict if nuclear fussion or fission is more favorable. m = mass which may vary by the Mass Defect. 2. *think forces of NATURE* from weakest to strongest: Gravitational Force (weakest but has infinite range), Weak Nuclear force (has short range), Electromagnetic Force (infinite range), Strong Nuclear Force (strongest but has short range). These forces come from gravity and atomic interactions. electrons orbit thus naturally create an electromagnetic force! nucleons can be attracted to each other based on electronegativity and the periodic table thus there's weak and strong nuclear forces. 3. Mass Defect: the difference between the mass of isotopes and evenly/completed bonded (#proton=#neutrons) nucleons within the nucleus. isotopes (aka not all are bonded) have more energy thus are heavier (think atomic nuclei).

Motivation, Emotion, and Stress Behavioral Sciences: Personality: 1. Psychoanalytic Perspective? 2. Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality Development? 3. Jung? 4. Adler? Horney? 5. Humanistic Perspective? 6. Type & Trait Theory? What are the suggested types and traits? 9. Social Cognitive Perspective 10. Behaviorist Perspective 11. Biological Perspective Motivation: What did Freud believe we are motivated by? What about Adler? Formation of Identity: 1. Freud's Psychosexual stages of Personality Development 2. Erik Erikson's Theory: 3. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development 4. Vygotsky's Social-cultural Theory? Zone of Proximal Development? 5. Imitation & Role Taking: 6. Reference Group?

1. Psychoanalytic Perspective? Personality results from unconscious urges & desires. Freud, Jung, Adler, and Horney. 2. Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality Development argued that personality is formed through conflicts among 3 fundamental structures of the human mind: the id, ego and superego. Id: most primative of the 3 and is concern w/ instant gratification of basic physical needs and urges. "I want to do that NOW" Ego: Mediator between the two and the conscious mind. "Maybe we can compromise". Superego: is concerned with social rules and morals and can be thought of as a "moral compass/conscience" and considers what is right and wrong "It's not right to do that." All three operate, at least in part, in the unconscious. 3. Jung? Collective unconscious links all humans together. Personality is influenced by archetypes (an original model). 4. Adler believed birth order shapes our personality. He proposed the oldest child starts out as the parents' focus but once more siblings come, they lose attention and compensate by becoming overachievers. Therefore, the youngest children may end up spoiled, leaving the middle child as the mediator between the two. Horney proposed neurosis (dramatic/irrational) resulted from basic anxiety caused by interpersonal relationships. 5. Humanistic Perspective? Emphasizes that people strive for happiness and self-realization aka follow Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and Rogers's unconditional positive regard (aka a term for being valued and treated positively regardless of behavior/unconditional positive treatment) 6. Type & Trait Theory: Personality can be described by identifiable traits that carry characteristic behaviors. Type Theories: Ancient Greek humors, Sheldon's somatotypes, divisions into Type A and Type B, and Myers-Briggs Type Inventory. Trait Theories: *think OCEAN-PEN-3. Big Five (OCEAN mnemonic.): Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. PEN: Psychoticism (nonconformity), extraversion (sociable), neuroticism (arousal in stressful situations). 3 Basic Traits: Cardinal traits (traits around which a person organizes their life), central traits (major characterizes of personality), secondary traits (more personal characteristics and limited in occurrence). 9. Social Cognitive Perspective: Individuals react with their environment in a cycle called triarchic reciprocal determinism. aka the relationship between person, environment and behavior. 10. Behaviorist Perspective: Our personality develops as a result of operant conditioning. E.g. it is reward and punishment-based. 11. Biological Perspective: Behavior can be explained as a result of genetic expression. Freud believed that we are motivated by sexual and aggressive urges, but Adler (1930, 1961) believed that feelings of inferiority in childhood (aka inferiority complex) are what drive people to attempt to gain superiority and that this striving is the force behind all of our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. Adler also believed in the importance of social connections, seeing childhood development emerging through social development rather than the sexual stages Freud outlined. Adler identified three fundamental social tasks that all of us must experience: occupational tasks (careers), societal tasks (friendship), and love tasks (finding an intimate partner for a long-term relationship). Rather than focus on sexual or aggressive motives for behavior as Freud did, Adler focused on social motives Vygotsky's sociocultural theory views human development as a socially mediated process in which children acquire their cultural values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies through collaborative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society. He coined the term "Zone of Proximal Development" defined as the difference between the current state of knowledge and the potential state of knowledge

Cognition, Consciousness and Language Behavioral Sciences: Problem Solving: 1. Define the following types of problem solving: Trial-and-Error, Algorithms, Deductive and Inductive Reasoning 2. what is a mental set? 3. what's functional fixedness? 4. what are heuristics? 5. what is an availability heuristic? 6. what is representativeness heuristic? 7. confirmation bias? 8. Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences? Consciousness: 1. What is "alertness"? what types of waves do we show during certain parts of consciousness? how long is each sleep cycle? 2. what is hypnosis? what is it used for?

1. Trial-and-Error, Algorithms: think a+b=c Deductive Reasoning uses facts to draw conclusions. "You have to be 21 to enter a bar. I see a person in the bar so they must be at least 21" *think when you DEDUCE something, you take away from something concrete* Inductive Reasoning makes observations to draw conclusions. "I noticed only Texans say "howdy". This person said "Howdy" so they must be a Texan" *think when you induce something, you force an action/thought/etc* 2. Mental Set: an unconscious tendency to approach a problem in a particular way. (you restart your computer when you have issues, thus this is the way you go about any technical issues) 3. Functional fixedness is a special type of mental set that occurs when the intended purpose of an object hinders a person's ability to see its potential other uses. 4. Heuristic: a mental shortcut to make a judgment or a shortcut to solving a problem or making a judgment when you're too lazy/overwhelmed/otherwise unable to solve it the proper way. aka the method isn't perfect/ideal but it gets the job/goal done. 5. The availability heuristic is when you make a judgment about something based on how available examples are in your mind. 6. The representativeness heuristic: the tendency to make decisions about actions/events based on our standard representations of the events. 7. Confirmation Bias: when someone looks for ideas/evidence that supports what he believes and completely disregards info that refutes it 8. Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences: 7 areas of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal. Alertness: From Sleep stages 1-4: theta, theta, delta, delta. awake and resting/drowsy/eyes closed but not asleep: alpha, awake and alert: = beta. TTDDAB. REM Sleep: interestingly, the mind appears awake on EEG but person is asleep but shows beta waves Each sleep cycle (Stage 1-4 +REM) is ~90 minutes.

Charges: 1. what is the fundamental unit of charge of electrons and protons? 2. what are conductors and insulators? Coulomb's Law: 1. what is coulomb's law? associated formula? 2. what is an electric field? how do you calculate for it? 3. what are field lines and how do you read them? Special Cases in Electrostatics: 1. What are equipotential lines? 2. what is an electric dipole?

1. e = 1.6x10^-19C 2. conductors allow electrons to move free and uniformly while insulators resist electron movement and offer uneven movement aka some areas have more movement than others (if any movement at all) Coulomb's Law is a formula: F=kQq/r^2 which calculates the magnitude of electrostatic force between 2 point charges (q). The force is located in the center between the 2 charges. k= coulomb's constant, 9 x 10^9Nm^2/C^2 Equipotential Lines: A line on which the potential at every point is the same. Equipotential lines are always perpendicular to electrical field lines. Work will be done when a charge is moved from one equipotential line to another. No work is done when a charge moves from a point on an equipotential line to another point on the same equipotential line. Electric Dipole: Generated by two charges of opposite sign separated by a fixed distance d. In an external electric field, an electric dipole will experience a net torque until it is aligned with the electric field vector. An electric field will not induce any translational motion in the dipole regardless of its orientation with respect to the electric field vector.

Diffraction: 1. What is diffraction? 2. what is Young's Double-Slit experiment? Polarization: 1. what is plane-polarized light? 2. what is circular polarized light?

1. the bending of light 2. shows constructive and destructive interference of waves that occur as light passes through parallel slits, resulting in minima (dark fringes) and maxima (bright fringes) of intensity. 3. Plane-Polarized Light: a polarizing filter only lets light through if the E field of the wave aligns with the openings in the filter. The E fields of the exiting light oscillate along the SAME axis. *these only have x and y planes 4. Circular Polarized Light: all the light rays have electric fields with equal intensity and amplitude but differ in rotating direction. Circularly polarized light is created by exposing unpolarized light to special pigments or filters. *these have x, y and z planes

Genetic Recombination occurs via transformation, conjugation, transduction and transposons. What is the definition of each? how do prokaryotes reproduce?

1. transformation = gets genetic info FROMM environment 2. conjugation = think sex pili 3. transduction = transduce using bacteriophage 4. transposons = jump

How to name an IUPAC? highest to lowest functional groups?

1.) Find the parent chain aka the longest carbon chain that contains the highest-priority functional group. 2.) Number the chain in such a way that the highest-priority functional group receives the lowest possible number. 3.) Name the substituents with a prefix. Multiples of the same type receive (di-, tri-, tetra-, etc.). 4.) Alphabetize substituents and separate numbers from each other by commas and from words by hyphens. lowest priority group goes first, highest priority group goes last!!! Fx Groups: Carboxylic Acid > Ester > Acid Halide > Amide> Nitrile > Aldehyde > Ketone > Alcohol > Thiol (-SH) > Amine

FLUIDS AND ELASTICITY OF SOLIDS: Density of water? Formula for density and specific gravity? Formula for magnitude of gravitational force for fluids? Bernouli's Principle/equation? Archimede's Principle?

1000 kg/m^3 or 1 g/cm^3 p = m/V specific density = pobject/pH2O F(gravity) = pVg, another term is Archimedes principle which is F(buoyancy) = p(fluid)V(submerged)g. these can be used to solve the upwards buoyoant force and the downwards force of an object in water. -The buoyancy force is caused by the pressure exerted by the fluid in which an object is immersed. The buoyancy force always points upwards because the pressure of a fluid increases with depth. Bernouli's Principle: as speed increases, pressure decreases.Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in static pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy. P₁ + 1/2pv₁²+pgh₁ = P₂ + 1/2pv₂²+pgh₂ Archimedes principle, which states that the buoyant force exerted on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid the body displaces.

Motivation, Emotion, and Stress Behavioral Sciences: Motivation: What is: 1. Motivation 2. Instincts 3. Instinct Theory 4. Optimal Arousal Theory 5. Types of Drives? 6. Drive Reduction Theory 7. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs 8. Self-Actualization 9. Self-Determination Theory 10. Incentive Theory 11. Expectancy-Value Theory 12. Opponent-Process Theory 13. House Money Effect 14. Gambler's Gallacy 15. Prisoner's Dilemma Stress: What is: 1. Stress 2. Stress Apprasial 3. Stressors 4. General Adaptation Syndrome 5. 3 Stages of Stress

11. Expectancy-Value Theory: The amount of motivation for a task is based on the expectation of success and the value of that success. 12. Opponent-Process Theory: Explains motivation for drug use: as drug use increases, the body counteracts its effects, leading to tolerance and uncomfortable withdrawal symptoms. 13. House Money Effect: After a prior gain, people become more open to assuming risk since the new money is not treated as one's own. 14. Gambler's Fallacy: If something happens more frequently than normal, it will happen less frequently in the future, or vice versa. 15. Prisoner's Dilemma: Two people act out of their own self-interest, but if they had cooperated, the result would have been even better.

What are Newton's Three Laws of Motion? how do you add, and subtract vectors?

1st: Law of action and reaction (object remains at rest if there's no force acted upon it) 2nd: Law of inertia (any acceleration is the result of a net force greater than 0 aka F=ma 3rd: two objects interacting with one another will experience equal and opposite forces. Fab = -Fba

What are the laws of thermodynamics? what's thermal equilibrium? temperature? thermal expansion? heat of transformation? specific heat? isobaric? isothermal? adiabatic? isovolumetric(isochoric)? Formulas for: 1. temperature 2. thermal expansion 3. heat 4. change in system's internal energy 5. heat of transformation 6. work of a gas?

2nd law of thermodynamics: In a closed system, up to and including the universe, energy will spontaneously and irreversibly increase in "disorder"/entropy Entropy: A measure of how much energy has spread out or how spread out energy has become. "disorder"

Skeletal System: Skeletal muscle: red fibers vs white fibers' twitch? 3 types of muscles and which ones have sarcomeres/are striated? Axial vs Appendicular Skeleton? What is the bone matrix composed of? Osteoblasts vs -clasts? Hormones/Vitamin involved in bone remodeling? Composition of myofibril? where are sarcomeres found?

3 Types: Smooth, Cardiac and Skeletal -Smooth = nonstriated, no sarcomeres and uninucleated -Cardiac = lightly striated, has sarcomeres, autonomic and cells connected with intercalated discs that contain gap junctions -Skeletal = striated, loads of myoglobin, mitochondria and voluntary movement Bone matrix = a central canal surrounded by concentric rings called lamellae. inbetween the rings are lacunae which is where osteocytes reside. Osteocytes travel from lacunae to other lacunae via microscopic canals called canaliculi. *think canal = canaliculi ↑ blood Ca2+ levels results in thyroid releasing Calcitonin which stimulates osteoBlasts to Build Bone [and inhibits osteoclasts] and decreases Ca2+ blood levels ↓ blood Ca2+ levels results in PT glands releasing PTH which stimulates osteoClasts to reabsorp/breakdown bone to help increase blood Ca2+ levels WITH THE HELP OF VITAMIN D. -2 myosin (thick filament) wrap around each other to form a myofibril. There are segments of non-wrapped around parts of the myofibril which are called sarcomeres! -Sarcomere length is from one Z line to another Z line. Z line = where actin is anchored and end of Sarcomere M line = middle of myosin filament and myosin anchor I band= thin letter and holds thin filaments ONLY H band = thick letter and holds thick filaments ONLY A band = All length of myosin filament

1. what is the scientific method? FINER method? 2. what are the 4 tenets of medical ethics? 3. what are the research ethics? 4. what's internal validity and how do you measure it? external validity? 5. what are cohort studies? cross-sectional studies? case control studies? 6. Hill's criteria? 7. types of bias? 8. confounding variable? 9. mediating variable? 10. moderating variable?

7. Types of Bias: Selection Bias: The sample differs from the population. Detection Bias: Arises from educated professionals using their knowledge in an inconsistent way by searching for an outcome disproportionately in certain populations. Hawthorne Effect: Behavior of subjects is altered simply by knowing that they are being studied. Social Desirability Bias: A type of response bias that is the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others. 8. Confounding Variable: An extraneous variable that relates to BOTH the dependent and independent variables. 9. Mediating Variable: The means by which the IV affects the DV. It is the "middleman" between the IV and DV. 10. Moderating Variable: Influences the already established relationship between the IV and DV. Moderators affect the strength of the relationship between the two variables.

Social Structure and Demographics Sociology: Theories & Institutions: Functionalism: Conflict Theory: Conflict Sociology: Symbolic Interactionism: Micro Sociology: Social Constructionism: Rational Choice Theory: Feminist Theory: Social Institutions: 4 Tenets of Medicine: Demographics: Demographics: Fertility Rate: Birth & Mortality Rate: Migration: Ethnic Migrants: Demographic Transition: Social Movements: Globalization: Urbanization: Culture: Culture: Material Culture: Symbolic Culture: Cultural Lag: Language: Value: Belief: Ritual: Norms:

A Functionalist perspective examines the roles that social structures play in PROMOTING UNITITY WITHIN A SOCIETY. A demographic transition is defined as a period over which a society beginning with high birth and death rates sees both rates drop due to improved healthcare and health education.

Nucleophilic Addition Reactions: What's their purpose and product? 1. what are bad leaving groups in nucleophilic addition reactions? 2. good leaving groups in these reactions? 3. Aldehyde + Alcohol = ? 4. Ketone + Alcohol = ? 5. Nitrogen/Nitrogen Derivative + Carbonyl = ? 6. HCN + Carbonyl = ? 7. Common oxidizing reagents for alcohols + their products? 8. Common reducing agents for certain reactants + their products?

Aldol condensations are important in organic synthesis, because they provide a good way to form carbon-carbon bonds. Product = see pic 1. strong bases 2. weak bases 3. hemiacetal 4. hemiketal 5. depends on if its a 1, 2 or 3 degree amine but forms imines, oximes, hydrzones and semicarbazones 6. cyanohydrins 7. PCC (OA) used with primary and secondary alcohol to make aldehyde and ketone. KMnO4 or H2CR2O4 used with primary and secondary alcohol to make CA and ketone. BOTH END WITH O4 8. NaBH4 (RA) + aldehydes/ketones to make primary/secondary alcohols! LiAlH4 (aka LAH) with aldehydes, ketones, CA, ester to make primary or secondary alcohols! ALKALI METAL (group 1) + group 5 + H4

Amino acid abbreviations + structure + significance Nonpolar, polar, charged amino acids? Essential Amino Acids? Groups? S containing ones? OH containing ones? large ring ones? ones that are glucogenic? ketogenic? both? What does ketogenic and glucogenic mean? which amino acids can be phosphorylated? which ones are found in GPCR domains? which one can be converted into neurotransmitters? which neurotransmitters? which one creates turns in Beta-pleated sheets and can create kinks in alpha helices (which is why it's rarely found there)

Amino acid abbreviations + structure + significance: disulfide bonds are made of cysteine +cysteine = cystine. Nonpolar: GAV-LIMP-PCT Polar: STAG-T Essential Amino Acids: ones that your body cannot synthesize and must be gained through diet. There's 9: PVT TIM HALL. Phenylalanine, Valine, Tryptophan, Threonine, Isoleucine, Methionine, Histidine, Arginine, Leucine, Lysine. *note that arginine (10th) is required for young peeps but not for adults S containing ones? cysteine and methionine OH containing ones? serine, threonine, tyrosine, aspartic and glutamic acid. (aka 3 polar uncharged and then 2 (-) charged) large ringed ones? tryptophan, phenylalanine tyrosine and maybe histidine (kinda) Glucogenic: methionine, histidine, valine Ketogenic: lysine, leucine (lazy Ls) ones that are both glucogenic and ketogenic? to be both, you gotta be FITT. (F) phenylalanine, (I) isoleucine, (TTT): tyrosine, tryptophan, threonine. A ketogenic amino acid is an amino acid that can be degraded directly into acetyl-CoA, which is the precursor of ketone bodies. A glucogenic amino acid is an amino acid that can be converted into glucose through gluconeogenesis. which amino acids can be phosphorylated? only amino acids with terminal -OH group which ones are found in GPCR domains? lots of cysteine, threonine and serine found in GPCR domain. threonine and serine tend to be on the C terminus for phosphorylation which one can be converted into neurotransmitters? which neurotransmitters/hormones? (2) tyrosine can be converted into dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine. tryptophan can be converted into serotonin and melatonin which one creates turns in Beta-pleated sheets and can create kinks in alpha helices (which is why it's rarely found there): proline creates kinks in alpha helices (which is why its rarely found there) and helps create turns in beta pleated sheets

What's an alkane/alkene/alkyne/diol look like? How to identify Carboxylic acid's carbonyl group? suffix for carboxylic acid? carboxylic acid derivatives and what they look like? What do primary/secondary/tertiary alcohols and amines look like?

COOH derivatives: esters (OH is replaced with OR) & amides (OH is replaced with NH) Primary, secondary, tertiary alcohols and amine = # of C attached to substituent

DO FLASHCARDS FOR P/S

DO THEM

Embryogenesis and Developmental steps (5)? process of gastrulation? and neurulation? Fetal shunts?

Embryogenesis: fertilization→morula (solid mass of cells)→blastula(implanted morula which uses trophoblasts)→gastrulation(-derms form things)→neurulation (mesoderm develops a notochord. notochord induces ectoderm)

Motivation, Emotion, and Stress Behavioral Sciences: Emotion: 1. What are the 3 components of emotion? 2. Universal Emotions? 3. 3 Theories of emotions? Self-Concept & Identity: 1. What is self-concept? 2. what are identities? 3. what is self-esteem? self-efficacy? 4. Learned helplessness? 5. Locus of Control types?

Emotion: 1. 3 Components of Emotion: Cognitive (subjective), behavioral (facial expression + body language aka voluntary stuff) and physiological (changes in autonomic system) components of emotions. 2. Universal Emotions (6): Happiness, Sadness, Fear, Anger, Disgust, Surprised. mnemonic: Happy Sad FADS 3. Theories of Emotion (3): aka theories on how we experience physiological and emotional response to stimulus. -James-Lange: stimulus→physiological response→emotion "my hearts beating fast, so i'm scared!! -Cannon-Bard: stimulus→physiological AND emotional response. "my heart is beating fast anddd i'm scared!!" -Schactner-Singer: stimulus→physiological response + interpretation of situation → leads to emotional response "my heart is beating fast because there's a scary bear, so now i'm afraid!!" 1. What is self-concept? The sum of ways we describe ourselves. 2. what are identities? Individual components of our self-concept related to the group to which we belong. 3. what is self-esteem? self-efficacy? Self esteem is based on how close our actual self is to our ideal and ought self. the closer, the better our self esteeem. Self-Efficacy is tje degree to which we see ourselves as being capable of a given skill or situation. 4. Learned helplessness? A state of hopelessness that results from being unable to avoid repeated negative stimuli. think about getting bullied over and over again and achieving learned helplessness. 5. Locus of Control types? Internal: We control our own success/failure External: Outside factors have more control.

What's a solubility based extraction used for? how's recrystallization work? Distillation: Simple vs Vacuum vs Fractional Distillation?

Extraction: combines 2 immiscible liquids where one is soluble and the other is insoluble. Recrystallization: product is dissolved in minimum amount of hot water. If the impurities are more soluble, they'll recrystallize & exclude impurities while the flask cools Distillation: separates liquids based on different BPs. liquid with lowest BP vaporizes first and is collected as the distillate Simple: used if bps are under 150C and at least 25C apart Vacuum: used if bps are above 150C to prevent product degradation. the vacuum lowers air pressure to decrease BP Fractional: used if bps are less than 25C apart bc it allows more refined separation of liquids

GPCR signaling PKA pathway

GPCR→adenylyl cyclase turns ATP into cAMP→PKA inhibits glycogen synthesis and promotes glycogen breakdown

Griffith experiment? Avery-MacLeod McCarty? Hershey-Chase? What is stabilizing/directional/disruptive selection? what is adaptive radiation?

Griffith: used rats + H and S-strain bacteria with heat and discovered bacteria could carry genetic information via transformation. Avery-MacLeod- McCarty: people thought proteins were the genetic material thus this experiment repeated Griffith's experiment but also used proteases. Discovered genetic material was DNA and NOT proteins. Hershey-Chase: used a centrifuge + radiolabeled R and S bacteriophage on bacteria. Confirmed and convinced the public that genetic material = DNA Stabilizing = favors average phenotypes and doesn't really cause population to change Directional = favors ONE extreme phenotype and causes population to change in ONE direction Disruptive = favors TWO extreme phenotypes and causes population to change in TWO directions and can lead to speciation Adaptive Radiation: phenomenon when one common ancestor gives rise to multiple species

Humoral Immunity vs Cell-Mediated (Cytotoxic) Immunity MHC-I vs MHC-II? 3 Types of Granulocytes and what they're activated by?

Humoral uses loads of B cells which secrete antibodies that defense against extracellular pathogens. Cell-Mediated uses loads of T cells that defend against infected cells, cancers and transplant issues. Both use innate and acquired immune defenses. MHC-I: present on all nucleated cells and alerts CD8+ cytotoxic T cells to intracellular antigens MHC-II: present on professional APCs (dendritic cells, macrophages, B cells) and alerts CD4+ Helper T cells + regulatory T-cells to extracellular antigens. Granulocytes: NEB 1. Neutrophils: activated by bacteria, increases phagocytosis 2. Eosinophils: activated by parasites & allergens and increases histamines 3. Basophils: activated by allergens, inhibits blood clotting

Total Lung Capacity: Residual Volume: Vital Capacity: Tidal Volume: Expiratory Reserve Volume: Inspiratory Reserve Volume: Fluid Balance: Hydrostatic Pressure? Osmotic Pressure?

Hydrostatic Pressure: Blood against vessel walls. Generated by heart contraction and elasticity of arteries. Osmotic Pressure: "Sucking" pressure generated by solutes as they draw H2O into the bloodstream.

Social Thinking Behavioral Sciences: Social Behavior: Interpersonal Attraction: Aggression: Attachment: Secure Attachment: Avoidant Attachment: Ambivalent Attachment: Disorganized Attachment: Social Support: Emotional Support: Esteem Support: Material Support: Informational Support: Network Support: Foraging: Mating System: Monogamy: Polygamy: Promiscuity: Mate Choice: Altruism: Game Theory: Inclusive Fitness:

Interpersonal Attraction: things that make people like each other and is influenced by physical attractiveness, similarity, self-disclosure, reciprocity and proximity. Attachment: emotional bond to another Types of Attachment (4): Secure = child shows strong preference for caregiver. Avoidant = child avoids attachment thus shows no preference for caregiver vs stranger. Ambivalent = occurs when caregiver is inconsistent with child thus child is distress when caregiver leaves and doesn't care when caregiver comes back. Disorganized = occurs when caregiver is erratic/abusive and child shows no clear pattern in response to caregiver's absence/presence. Social Support: degree to which person feels cared for or "supported" by social network Types of Support: Emotional, Esteem (affirms qualities/skills of person), Material (provides physical/monetary support), Informational (provides info/knowledge to person, Network (provides a sense of belonging to a person). Mating System: describes how a group is organized in terms of sexual behavior such as Monogamy and Polygamy. A theory of foraging behavior arguing that natural selection has created optimal strategies for food selection (based on nutritional value and costs of locating, capturing, and processing food) and for deciding when to leave a particular patch to seek resources elsewhere. 2 Types of Polygamy: PolyGYNY: one male w/ multiple women, PolyANDRY = one female w/ multiple males. Mate Choice: selection of mate based on attraction + traits Altruism: helping another with the intent to benefit someone else at some cost to him/herself Game Theory: explains decision making where pros and cons are weighted. Inclusive Fitness: measures organism's success in population based on how well it propagates ITS OWNNN GENESS + how well the offspring can then support OTHERs.

Nuclear Reactions: 1. what's nuclear fusion? 2. what's nuclear fission? 3. what's radioactive decay? 4. alpha decay vs beta(-) decay vs beta(+) decay vs gamma decay? 5. what's electron capture? positron emission? 6. formula for half life?

Note: If the problem just says "beta", they mean "beta negative". Beta-negative is the default. *note that all have to do with the NUCLEUS* Nuclear fUssion is where small nuclei combine into larger nuclei while nuclear fIssion is the reverse reaction aka where a large nucleus splits into smaller nuclei. in BOTH reaction, energy is RELEASED (-∆G) because product is more stable than reactants. Radioactive Decay: loss of small particles from the nucleus. Beta (-) Decay: decay of a neutron into a proton w/ emission of an electron Beta (+) Decay (aka Positron Emission): decay of a proton into a neutron with emission of a positron Gamma Decay: emission of a high energy photon, resulting in a more stable nucleus Electron Capture: inner shell absorbs an electron and combines it with a proton, resulting in +1 neutron. Half-Life: product remaining = initial product x (1/2)^n

Hemoglobin: what's P50 on a DISSOCIATIVE curve for hemoglobin? 1. Structure? 2. Type of binding? what shape does it take on a graph? 3. its allosteric inhibitors? what are their effects? 4. CO2 transport? O2 transport? 5. Fetal hemoglobin? 6. P50: Oxygen pressure when 50% of hemoglobin has an O2 bound. P50 is [high/lower] for HbF due to the high affinity HbF has for oxygen. 7. what happens in Sickle Cell Anemia? 8. What happens in hypoxia? Myoglobin: 1. Structure? Type of Binding? 2. O2 affinity? Compared to hemoglobin? 3. # of heme groups? Compared to hemoglobin? 4. Affect of 2,3-BPG?

P50= point at which hemoglobin is 50% saturated with O2 on a dissociation curve. left shift in P50 means it has ↑O2 affinity (since less O2 is needed to reach 50)+ doesn't want to release O2. right shift means ↓O2 affinity (since more is needed to reach 50) + more willing to release O2. 1. Structure? Found in blood. It has four polypeptide chains (tetramer), each combined with an iron-containing heme group. Most oxygen transport takes place through the use of hemoglobin. A small amount of oxygen will still dissolve in the plasma and be transported on its own. 2. Type of binding? cooperative binding which is sigmoidal (S-shaped)! When an O2 binds to one of the four binding sites, it becomes more likely that the remaining sites will bind to O2. 3. its allosteric inhibitors? CO2, H+ and 2, 3-BPG. CO2 & H+ cause heme group to release O2 due to a decrease in O2 affinity!!! *this is bc CO2 will enter RBC and will be processed by carbonic anhydrase and make H+ and bicarbonate thus ↓pH. A lower pH means less O2 affinity and P50 shifts to the right. 2,3-BPG binds to the middle of hemoglobin tetramer and makes alpha and beta subunits release their O2s due to ↓O2 affinity. ****fetal hemoglobin has alpha and gamma subunits thus 2,3BPG doesn't affect it. 4. CO2 transport in hemoglobin? You exercise and produce CO2 then CO2 binds to hemoglobin and causes it to release O2 to your muscles. After delivering O2 to a muscle, the bicarbonate is still in hemoglobin and the RBC carries it to the lung and drops it off. 5. Fetal hemoglobin? HbF has a higher O2 affinity thus compared to adult hemoglobin, it's P50 is shifted to the left. 6. lower 7. what happens in Sickle Cell Anemia? hemoglobin has missense mutation where Glu→Val. P50 shifts left. 8. What happens in hypoxia? Oxygen deprivation. Myoglobin: 1. myo=muscle thus hemoglobin type thing in muscle. oNLY HAS ONE HEME GROUP (thus cannot exhibit cooperative binding and has a hyperbolic curve (hyper-increases immediately) + since it is a monomer, 2,3BPG can't bind to a "middle" so 2,3BPG doesn't affect myoglobin) and is NOT pH-sensitive. it also has an ↑O2 affinity relative to hemoglobin so it binds more tightly.

Lipids: Characteristics of Phospholipids: Saturation: Glycerophospholipids: Sphingolopids: Sphingomyelins: Glycosphingolipids: Gangliosides: Waxes:

Phospholipids: Amphipathic and form the bilayer of membranes. Contain a hydrophilic (polar) head and hydrophobic (nonpolar) tails. The head is attached by a phosphodiester linkage, and determines the function of the phospholipid. Saturation: amount of hydrogens on the FA tail which determines fluidity of membrane. the more saturated, the less fluid. Glycerophospholipids: glycerol + phospholipid Sphingolopids: spingosine backbone + FA (sometimes also have phosphate group) Sphingomyelins: The major class of sphingophospholipids and contain a phosphatidylcholine. Part of the myelin sheath. Glycosphingolipids: sugar + sphingosine. cerebrosides have 1 sugar + sphingosine. gangliosides have 2+ sugars + sphingosine. Waxes: have long chain FAs esterified to long chain alcohols. used as protection against evaporation and parasites in plants and animals.

What does calcitonin do? Who secretes it? What does parathyroid hormone do? Who secretes it? What are the adrenal medulla's secretions? hows it function and where is it? Where is the Pineal Gland? what does it secrete?

Pineal Gland: Located in the epithalamus, tucked into a groove between the two thalamus halves. Secretes melatonin: Regulates sleep / wakefulness and controls the circadian rhythm.

Social Stratification Behavioral Sciences: Social Class: Social Stratification: Functionalism: Socioeconomic Status: Social Class: Prestige: Power: Anomie: Strain Theory: Social Capital: Meritocracy: Social Mobility: Poverty: Relative Deprivation Theory: Social Reproduction: Social Exclusion: Spatial Inequality: Globalization: Epidemiology and Disparities: Incidence: Prevalence: Mortality Ethnic Migrants: Morbidity: Second Sickness: Affordable Care Act: Medicare: Medicaid:

Psychological studies of globalization attest to the utility of treating cultures as evolving, interacting systems, rather than static, independent entities. Globalization refers to the process of interaction and integration among the people, companies and governments of different nations

What are nucleophiles and what are their characteristics? how about electrophiles? SN1/SN2? E1/E2? reagents? Which reactions use 1, 2 or 3 degree substrate as reactant?

SN1: unimolecular. 2 steps: first leaving group leaves then nucleophile attacks carbonyl carbon and then attaches. product: racemic mixture SN2: Substition, Nucleophile, Bimolecular. 1 cohesive step (puts SN1's steps together) and results in substitution with an change in configuration at chiral centers (aka S to R or R to S) E1: 2 steps: unimolecular. leaving group leaves then nucleophile attacks beta-H from carbocation and results in a db formed. E2: bimolecular. E1 steps combined into 1 step BUT beta-hydrogen target must be "anti" to leaving group. also formed db -SN1/E1 use polar protic solvents, do not react with 1° reactants, and perform 1st order reactions. (think 1 = 1 H and not 1°) -SN2/E2 use polar aprotic solvents and perform 2nd order reactions -SN2 uses weak or strong base and no 3° rxns! -E2 usually uses a bulky/strong base!

LAB TECHNIQUES: What's Southern/Northern/Western Blotting? What does chromatography do? 1. what's the stationary phase? 2. what's the mobile phase? 3. HPLC vs gas chromatography vs gel-filtration vs ion-exchange vs affinity vs thin-layer chromatography 4. What is Rf in relation to thin-layer chromatography? What are the steps in PCR? what polymerase is use? what characteristic does the primer need to have?

SNOW DROP Chromatography separates 2 or more molecules from a mixture. The stationary phase is the phase that doesn't move (usually polar) and the mobile phase is the phase that does move (usually nonpolar). The mobile phase moves through the stationary phase picking up the compounds to be tested HPLC: uses high pressure to pass solvent phase through stationary phase. Gas: vaporizes liquid before separation then molecules are separated based on polarity and boiling point. mobile phase is an inert gas. Gel-Filtration (aka size-exclusion): separates by size only and larger molecules elute first Ion Exchange: separates by NET charge using a column with charged beads. Cation Exchange = (-) beads used so (-) proteins elute first. Anion Exchange = (+) beads used so (+) proteins elute first. *REMEMBER THAT THE LONG IT TAKES TO ELUTE, THE BETTER ANALYSIS WE GET. Affinity: separates based on affinity for specific LIGANDS used. proteins with low affinity to ligands elute first. Thin-layer: uses sheet coated in a POLAR silica gel places vertical in a container with nonpolar liquid. mobile phase UTILIZES CAPILLARY ACTION AND NONPOLAR MOLECULES HAVE THE HIGHEST Rf VALUE! Retention Factor(Rf) = [distance spot moved]/[distance mobile phase moved] PCR: Primer must have high GC content. uses Taq polymerase because its very heat-stable and is most active around 70°C. PCR Steps (3): 1. Denaturating (96°C) 2. Annealing (55-66°C) 3. Extension (72°C) then repeats until there's enough DNA.

Social Processes, Attitudes, and Behavior Behavioral Sciences: Group Psychology: Social Facilitation: Deindividuation: Bystander Effect: Peer Pressure: Social Loafing: Polarization: Groupthink: Culture: Assimilation: Multiculturalism: Subcultures: Attitudes and Behavior: 1. What are attitudes? 2. What's the Functional Attitudes Theory? 3. What is Learning Theory? 4. What is the Elaboration Likelihood Model? 5. What is the Social Cognitive Theory? Socialization: 1. What is socialization? 2. What are sanctions and what are the types? 3. What are "norms" and what are the 2 types of norms? 4. What are "taboos" 5. What is a stigma? 6. What's deviance? 7. What is the Differential Association Theory? 8. What is conformity? 9. What is Compliance? 10. What is obedience?

Social Facilitation: Describes the tendency of people to perform at a different level when others are around. Deindividuation: A loss of self-awareness in large groups. Bystander Effect: When in a group, individuals are less likely to respond to a person in need. Peer Pressure: The social influence placed on individuals by others they consider equals. Social Loafing: An individual does not pull his or her weight in a group setting. Polarization: The tendency toward making decisions in a group that are more extreme. Groupthink: The tendency for groups to make decisions based on ideas and solutions that arise within the group without considering outside ideas. Culture: The beliefs, ideas, behaviors, actions, and characteristics of a group or society. Assimilation: The process by which an immigrant or minority takes up elements of mainstream culture. Assimilation is a specific type of socialization. To experience assimilation, a person must first have their own culture, then absorb elements of a new culture. Multiculturalism: The encouragement of multiple cultures within a community to enhance diversity. Subcultures: A group of people within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture.

What is spectroscopy? What is a conjugated system? 1. What is IR spectroscopy? what peaks are important and what are their ranges + peak type? 2. What is NMR spectroscopy? 3. UV Spectroscopy? 4. What is Mass Spectrometry? peaks?

Spectroscopy: shining light at certain wavelength and frequency to hit a sample and then receiver. conjugated system is a system with double then single then double bond. 1. IR spectroscopy shines IR light on sample, the sample's molecules enter an excited state then we measures their absorbance (which shows molecule's bond stretching bending, vibrations, etc) to infer functional groups present in molecule. we can only use heteroatomic molecules in IR spectroscopy since these have dipole moments. most have OH peak at 3300 cm-1 thus fingerprint region is what we mostly pay attention to which is 1500 - 400 cm-1! O-H = 3300 cm-1 w/ broad peak. N-H = 3300cm-1 w/ sharp peak, carbonyl (C=O) = 1750 cm-1 (sharp peak) 2. NMR spectroscopy places organic compound against a magnetic field which charges compound's nuclei and causes them to characteristically spin (aka have a magnetic moment). if there's resonance structures then we'll see alpha energy state flipped to beta. once nuclei calm back down, we measure their energy to analyze electronic structure. size/AUC of each signal shows us # of equivalent protons. splitting/multiplicity of each signal tells us about # of nearby protons (spin-spin splitting). protons bound to C have shielding and their signals have lower frequencies (upfield which is on the right) aka HAVE LOW ELECTRONEGATIVITY. deshielded protons are more electronegative and have higher frequencies (downfield which is on the left). When a proton is coupled, the number of neighbouring hydrogens is one less than the number of peaks in the multiplet. use N+1 when predicting the multiplicity of a given molecule. 3. UV Spectroscopy (uses 200-400nm light): most useful for studying compounds with double bonds and/or heteroatoms with lone pairs that create conjugated systems. UV spectra are plotted as % transmittance or absorbance vs. Wavelength. To appear on a UV spectrum, a molecule must have a small enough energy difference between its HOMO and LUMO to permit an electron to move from one orbital to the other. The smaller the difference between HOMO and LUMO, the longer the wavelengths a molecule can absorb. 4. Mass Spectrometry: used to determine molecular weight and molecular structure. The charged molecule collides with an electron, resulting in the ejection of an electron from the molecule, making it a radical. Bases "100" on y interval off tallest peak aka called Base Peak.

What does amphoteric and aliphatic mean? How are peptide bonds formed? how can they be cleaved? Synthesis of amino acids via what reaction?

Strecker Synthesis: Aldehyde + NH4Cl (ammonium chloride) & potassium cyanide to intermediate w/ H20. then hydrolyze intermediate to produce alpha-amino acid Gabriel Synthesis: uses potassium phthalimide + strong base to perform deprotonation of phthalimide. then use a primary alkyl halide in SN2 reaction. result = replace H with R group

Sensation and Perception Behavioral Sciences: where is the fovea, macula, and retina of the eye? 1. where are cones and where are rods? 2. define the 2 following binocular cues: retinal disparity and convergence 3 +4. pathway from the retina? what are horizontal and amacrine cells? 5. what is the feature detection theory? what's parallel processing? trichromatic theory? magnocellular processing? parvocellular processing? 6. smell info (aka olfactory signals) do not travel through the ______ 7. what do pheromones affect? 8. what are the types of taste? 9. what is somatosensation? what are the 4 touch modalities? 10. what's two point threshold? 11. what is physiological zero? 12. what are nociceptors? 13. what is kinesthetic sense? 14. what is the visual pathway? 15. what's top-down processing? 16. what's bottom-up processing? 17. what is Gestalt's Theory of Visual Perception? what are Gestalt's Principles? what are they governed by?

The retina is the light-sensitive tissue that lines the interior of the eye and contains all our rods/cones. The macula is the functional center of the retina because it functions for visual acuity (sharp vision) and is located towards the center of the posterior region of the eye and within the macula's very center is the fovea (also called macula lutea). 1. Cones are found primarily in the FOVEA and have a very FAST recovery time relative to rods (this is why it takes so long for eyes to adjust to a dark room but not to different colors). Rods are found in the periphery of the eye aka outside the macula. Rods are much more photosensitive (light sensitive) and can detect dim light. 2. Binocular Cues are for seeing depth. Retinal Disparity: space between our eyes means each eye sees images slightly differently which helps us see DEPTH. Convergence: the degree to which our eyes "converge" in sight aka as we look towards our nose help our brain understand DEPTH + ANGLE 3 +4. Pathway from the retina: stimulus→rods/cones→bipolar cells→retinal ganglion cells→optic nerve. Horizontal and amacrine cells are two types of retinal interneurons that modulate flow of info. Horizontal cells regulate into from photoreceptors to bipolar cells. Amacrine cells regulate info from bipolar cells to retinal ganglion cells. 5. Feature Detection Theory: theory that all complex stimuli can be broken down into individual parts that are each analyzed by a specific cell/pathway. Parallel processing is the act of multiple types of cells working together to help us perceive color, form, and motion all at once.Trichromatic Theory states there's 3 different types of photoreceptors that each detect a certain wavelength (blue, green and red). aka there's a photoreceptor for blue, green and red. Parvocellular pathway is made of specialized cells ONLY used for seeing high spatial resolution (image clarity while staying still) and color. Magnocellular Pathway is made of specialized cells ONLY used for seeing high temporal resolution (image clarity while moving). 6. olfactory motor/sensory signals do not travel through the thalamus! 7. Pheromones have an effect on social foraging and sexual behavior. 8. 5 types of taste: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami 9. Somatosensation refers to things our skin can feel. Four touch modalities: pressure, pain, vibration, temperature. 10. Two-Point Threshold: minimum distance needed to distinguish 2 points of skin stimulation as two distinct stimuli. 11. Physiological Zero: the normal temperature of skin to which objects are compared to 12. Nociceptors: pain receptors 13. Kinesthetic Sense: proprioception 14. what is the visual pathway? [retinal pathway]eye→optic nerves→optic chiasm→optic tracts→LGN→visual radiations→visual cortex 15. what's top-down processing? *think of a birds-eye view, where you see the object as a whole first then zoom in for detail. when our thinking/background knowledge influences how we understand/perceive something. ORRR getting the big picture of something then filling in the gaps. 16. what's bottom-up processing? Details→whole. processing segments of info then piecing them together to get the big picture. 17. what is Gestalt's Theory of Visual Perception? what are Gestalt's Principles? what are they governed by? Theorizes how humans group similar elements, recognize patterns and simplify complex images when we perceive objects. Proximity, Similarity, Continuity, Closure, Connectedness. All are governed by the Law of Prägnanz which is a German term for "good figure" and holds that we'll perceive things in a way that makes them appear as simple as possible.

Psychological Disorders Behavioral Sciences: Types of Psych Disorders: what are positive vs negative symptoms? what is dysthymia? what is avolution? 1. Schizophrenia? 2. Depressive Disorders (3 types)? 3. Bipolar and Related Disorders? Difference between hypo vs hypermania? 4. Anxiety Disorders? 5. Difference between obsessions and compulsions? 8. Dissociative Disorders (5)? Dissociative Amnesia:? Dissociative Fugue? Dissociative Identity Disorder? Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder? 9. Somatic Symptom Disorder? Illness Anxiety Disorder? Conversion Disorder? Hypochondriasis? 10. Personality Disorders? aka what's in the 3 clusters which we must know!

Types of Psych Disorders: Positive Symptoms: add something to behavior, cognition or affect such as delusions or hallucinations. Negative Symptoms: the loss of something such as avolution (lack of motivation) Dysthymia: persistent mild depression 1. Schizophrenia is a psychological disorder characterized by major disturbances in thought, perception, emotion, and behavior. Schizophrenia is considered a disorder of psychosis, or one in which the person's thoughts, perceptions, and behaviors are impaired to the point where they are not able to function normally in life. 2. Depressive Disorders: Major Depressive Disorder, Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia for at least 2 years that doesn't meet criteria for MDD), Seasonal Affective Disorders: occurs in the winter. 3. Bipolar and Related Disorders: Bipolar I: at least one manic episode. *think one symptom Bipolar II: hypomanic episode + one depressive episode. *think 2 symptoms Cyclothymic Disorder: hypomania w/ dysthymia Hypo vs Hypermania: hypermania = intense periods of excitedness and energized mood with no sleep. hypomania = still intense period of excitedness + energized mood but not as intense as hypermania. 4. Anxiety Disorders: generalized anxiety disorder, phobias, social anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, panic disorder 5. Obsessions: persistent, intrusive thoughts & impulses. #can'tstopwon'tstop. Compulsions: repetitive tasks that relieve tension but cause impairment in person's life 6. Body Dysmorphic Disorder: unrealistic and negative evaluation of one's appearance 7. PTSD: intrusive symptoms such as flashbacks and nightmares, etc (you know this one) 8. Dissociative Disorders: Dissociative Amnesia: can't recall past experiences Dissociative Fugue: assumption of a new identity Dissociative Identity Disorder: multiple personalities Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder: feeling detached from the mind and body, or environment. 9. Somatic Symptom & Related Disorders: Somatic Symptom Disorder "Somatoform Disorder". A somatic symptom causes disproportionate concern Illness Anxiety Disorder: being scared of gettttting an illness Conversion Disorder:associated with prior trauma and involves unexplained symptoms resulting in loss of body function Hypochondriasis is a type of Illness Anxiety Disorder where person strongly believes they have some illness despite no symptoms. 10. Personality Disorders are patterns of maladaptive behavior that cause distress or impaired function. Categorized as Cluster A, B and C aka "weird, wild and worried" Cluster A "weird": Paranoid, shizotypal, schizoid Cluster B "wild": antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic Cluster C "worried": avoidant, dependent and obsessive-compulsive.

Rate Law and Reaction Order. what can affect it?

an expression relating the rate of a reaction to the concentration of the reactants. first order reaction means that the reactant concentration and the rate of reaction are at a 1:1 ratio aka if we double the reactant concentration then rate of the reaction will also double. -changes in TEMPERATURE can affect rate of reaction and change reaction order!

Divisions of the cerebral hemispheres? Cerebellum? Forebrain vs Midbrain vs Hindbrain Functions of Left vs Right Hemispheres? What's this term called? Function of the hypothalamus? Function of the limbic system and its components? Function of Pineal Gland? Basal ganglia?

cerebrum = top brain with left and right hemisphere. each has 4 lobes: -Frontal lobe = voluntary movement, expressive language and for managing higher level executive functions. Executive functions refer to a collection of cognitive skills including the capacity to plan, organise, initiate, self-monitor and control one's responses in order to achieve a goal. in charge of specialized motor control + thought/planning + some speech. -Temporal = processing auditory information and with the encoding of memory -Parietal = responsible for integrating sensory information, including touch, temperature, pressure and pain -Occipital = vision Cerebellum = balance and fine motor movements. -has midbrain (regulates motor and sensory info and relays it to the rest of the body), pons (respiration and inhibitory functions) and medulla (helps regulate respiration, as well as cardiovascular and digestive functioning). -The forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain make up the three major parts of the brain. -The structures in the forebrain include the cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, limbic system, and the olfactory bulb. -The midbrain consists of various cranial nerve nuclei, tectum, tegmentum, colliculi, and crura cerebi. -The hindbrain, also referred to as the brainstem, is made of the medulla, pons, cranial nerves, and back part of the brain called cerebellum. -Aka dominant (usually left) versus nondominant (usually right) hemispheres based on right handed people. left = analytic; language, logic and math. right = intuition, creativity, music cognition and spatial processing. includes faces, emotion and sense of direction. -called lateralization where parts of brain are specialized for certain functions -Hypothalamus is responsible for the four Fs: fighting, fleeing, feeding, and fornication. -The Limbic System is primarily associated with emotion and memory contain hippocampus (memory and learning), amygdala (react aggressively or defensively important for emotion and memory), septal nuclei -Pineal Gland is in charge of circadian rhythm (sleep cycle) and producing melatonin. -Basal Ganglia: lies in the middle of the brain. coordinates muscle movement and routes information to the brain. communicates with the CNS and PNS. malfunction of the basal ganglia has been shown to be an underlying cause of parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, obsessive-compulsive disorder

Fluids in Physiology: 1. The circulatory system behaves as a [open/closed] system with [constant/nonconstant] flow. 2. How do you calculate for blood volume flow? 3. How do you calculate for change in Pressure in the circulatory system? 4. What is the relationship between cross-sectional area and resistance and/or velocity in the circulatory system?

closed, nonconstant. The nonconstant flow = our pulse!

What is esterification? phosphorylation?

esterification: Sugars react with carboxylic acids and their derivatives, forming esters phosphorylation: A phosphate ester is formed by transferring a phosphate group from ATP onto the sugar. This rxn is similar to esterification

Control of Gene Expression in prokaryotes and eukaryotes? What is the Jacob-Monod Model? what is an operon? inducible system? repressible system? what do transcription factors do? promoters? enhancers? How is do replication, transcription and translation start and stop in eukaryotes? in prokaryotes?

explains how Operons work Eukaryotes Replication: starts at origin of replication (there's multiple in eukaryotes) via initiator protein which unwinds short segment then helicase comes in and is read 3' to 5' and made 5' to 3. DNA primase attaches and adds a RNA primer then DNA polymerase extends it. IN PROKARYOTES, there's only 1 origin of replication. Transcription: has initiation, elongation and termination. starts at promoter sequence (TATA box) within recognition site which is 25-30 bps upstream from start site of transcription. uses RNA Pol. II. RNA gets alternatively spliced. terminates via rho protein bumping off RNA polymerase or a hairpin loop. Translation: Kozak sequence read then start codon AUG and then tRNA complex helps properly bind nucleotides to ribozyme complex and then stops via UAA, UAU, UAG. In prokaryotes, the Shine Dalgarno sequence is upstream to AUG

Hooke's Law

force is proportional to the extension k = spring constant (aka tension/stiffness of the spring)

Nervous System: 1. Na+/K+ pump? 2. Types of Glial Cells? 3. white vs gray matter? how are they arranged in the brain and spinal cord? 4. monosynaptic vs polysynaptic reflex arcs? 5. sympathetic vs parasympathetic preganglionic and postganglionic neurons?

gray = actual neurons

Auditory Pathway? Temporal Theory vs Place Theory?

sound passes through vestibulocochlear nerve→brainstem→medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus→auditory cortex in temporal lobein some people, linguistic processing is only is the left hemisphere -Temporal Theory: we hear sound and the hairs in our basilar membrane vibrate harder for us to interpret sound intensity -Place Theory: certain specialized hair in certain parts of basilar membrane vibrate based on sound intensity for us to interpret it

VSEPR Model

sp = 2 dbs and linear with 180° bond angle sp² = 3 electron groups or one db + 1 single bond and trigonal planar or bent with 120° sp³ = 4 electron groups and tetrahedral with 109.5°

Geometric Optics: 1. What is reflection? 2. what is the law of reflection? what is an incident ray? angle of incidence? angle of reflection? reflected ray? 3. Spherical mirrors: what do we have to know about this? 4. what is refraction? 5. what is dispersion? 6. what's snell's law and when would i use it? 7. what is total internal reflection? 8. what is the critical angle and how do i calculate for it? 9. how do i know if convex or concave lenses are virtual or real? inverted or upright? converging or diverging? 10. how do i calculate for focal length? Formula for index of refraction? what is the speed of light in a vacuum? in a medium?

speed of light in a medium (c) = 3 x 10^8 m/s

What is the fluid mosaic model? Membrane transport: what is osmotic pressure and what's the formula for it? types of diffusion? how's cholesterol affect fluidity? what are desmosomes and hemidesmosomes?

the more cholesterol, the less fluid Desmosomes bind adjacent cells by anchoring to their cytoskeletons. Hemidesmosomes are similar, but their main function is to attach epithelial cells to underlying structures

What is instantaneous speed and velocity? what's linear motion? what is the kinematics equation used when given initial velocity, acceleration and change in time to find final velocity? what about when given only initial velocity, acceleration and change in position in order to find velocity? or when given velocity and change in time to find change in position when velocity is constant? what's projectile motion and how do you calculate it? how do you go about measuring force on inclined planes? how about circular motion? Formula for centripetal force?

vf=v₀ + a∆t vf²=v₀² + 2a∆x ∆x = v∆t centripetal force: F = mv²/r