MCAT General and Organic Chemistry

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steric hinderance

A steric effect caused by bulky groups at the site of the reaction that make it difficult for the reactants to approach each other. have higher energy levels resulting in higher heats of combustion.

Aldosterone

A steroid hormone produced in the adrenal cortex that increases reabsorption of sodium and water and the excretion of potassium.

condensed formula

A structural formula that uses groupings of atoms, in which central atoms and the atoms connected to them are written as a group to convey molecular structural formula. Ex: CH4=Methane, CH3-CH3=Ethane, CH3-CH2-CH3=Propane

Substrate

A substrate is a molecules upon which an enzyme acts.

Lymph Node

A swelling along a lymphatic vessel that contains phagocytic cells. Their role is to filter the lymph and remove/destroy foreign particles.

Inducible System

A system in which a repressor bound to an operator prevents transcription. Addition of inducers can activate an inactive inducible system by preventing the repressor from binding to the operator.

Transverse Tubules

A system of tubules that provides channels for ion flow throughout the muscle fibers to facilitate the propagation of electrical signals from the nervous system.

Lymphatic System

A system of vessels and lymph nodes that collect interstitial fluids and return them to the circulatory system, thereby maintaining a plasma protein and fluid balance. The lymphatic system is also involved in lipid absorption and lymphocyte production.

Repressible System

A system that is normally "turned on" but can be inactivated by the addition of a repressor or a corepressor.

Retina

A thin layer of cells containing photoreceptors at the back of the eye that converts light signals into neural impulses.

Prosthetic Group

A tightly bound cofactor is also known as a prosthetic group (i.e., Heme).

Transport Protein

A transport protein helps move polar molecules and certain ions across the cell membrane.

Meiosis

A two-phase cell division in germ cells that results in the formation of four haploid cells from one diploid cell.

Primase

A type of RNA polymerase that adds short segments of RNA during replication to which DNA polymerase can add nucleotides. Without primase, DNA replication cannot be initiated.

Molecular formula

A type of molecular notation representing the quantity of constituent atoms, but not the nature of the bonds that join them.

Hydrogen bond

A type of weak chemical bond formed when the slightly positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to the slightly negative atom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule.

Cardiac Sphincter

A valve between the esophagus and the stomach that prevents the content of the stomach from traveling back up through the esophagus.

Pyloric Sphincter

A valve between the stomach and the small intestine that regulates the flow of chyme into the small intestine.

Mitral Valve

A valve located between the left atrium and the left ventricle. The valve consists of two cusps and prevents backflow of blood from the ventricles to the atria.

Tricuspid Valve

A valve located between the right atria and the right ventricle. The valve consists of three cusps and prevents backflow of blood from the ventricle to the atria.

Vestigial Structure

A vestigial structure is a remnant structure that has lost its ancestral function (e.g., tail bone in man).

How is a zymogen activated?

A zymogen is activated when a part of it is cleaved off or otherwise modified.

Cr, Mo, W, Cu, Ag, Au

"Instead of s2d4, it's s1d5 and s1d10 because they want to achieve a half-full or full d subshell." This describes the situation for these 6 elements: "_________________"

absorption spectrum

"_________________"

emission spectra

"_________________"

excited states

"_________________"

ground state

"_________________"

orbits the nucleus

"_________________" decribes the behavior of the hydrogen electron in the Bohr model.

spherical probability cloud

"_________________" decribes the location of the hydrogen electron in quantum mechanics.

effective nuclear charge

"_________________" is the nuclear charge experienced by the outermost electrons of an atom (actual pull due to charge of nucleus minus the shielding caused by inner shell electrons: Abbreviated as Z(eff)

Rayleigh scattering

"_________________" is the reason the sky is blue

The Aufbau principle

"_________________" states that an electron occupies the lowest-energy orbital that can receive it

Pauli exclusion principle

"_________________" states that no electron can have the same quantum state as another electron in an atom

Hund's rule

"_________________" states that orbitals of equal energy are each occupied by one electron before any orbital is occupied by a second electron, and all electrons in singly occupied orbitals must have the same spin

Chargaff's rule

# purines = # pyrimidines

Percent yield

(Actual Yield/Theoretical Yield) x 100%

HOMO

(Lewis Acids/Bases) Between HOMO and LUMO which is "filled" prior to the formation of the lewis complex?

covalent bond

(chemistry) This bond results when there is a sharing of electrons between two atoms, resulting in the overlap of their electron orbitals.

Catalyst

(chemistry) a substance that initiates or accelerates a chemical reaction without itself being affected

Stoichiometry

(chemistry) the relation between the quantities of substances that take part in a reaction or form a compound (typically a ratio of whole integers)

nonbonding electrons

(consider the bonds in the atom above) Name for the valence electrons not involved in forming covalent bonds. Also called unshared pairs or lone pairs

bonding electrons

(consider the bonds in the atom above) Name for the valence electrons that participate in bonding

dashes

(consider the bonds in the atom above) The bonding electrons are represented by dashes or dots?

dots

(consider the bonds in the atom above) The nonbonding electrons are represented by dashes or dots?

Mole

(physics and chemistry) the simplest structural unit of an element or compound

Anode

+ end

Kinesin moves toward

+ end

First base to be transcribed is deemed

+1

Cathode

- end

Dynein moves toward

- end

pH=-log {H+} pOH=

--log [OH-]

log 1/2

-0.3

log 1/3

-0.47

spin quantum

-1/2 to 1/2

Lineweaver-Burke plot x-intercept

-1/Km

pH>pI

->anode (+ electrode)

pH<pI

->cathode (- electrode)

Axon Hillock

-Part of neuron that connects the cell body (soma) to the axon. The impulses the neuron receives from all the dendrites are summed up at the axon hillock to determine whether an action potential will be initiated.

work done in a gas

-Pchange in V

deltaGo=

-RTlnK RTln Q/K

Chromatin

-chromosomes in their uncoiled active state -chromatin is not visible under a light microscope

Oxytocin

-increases the strength of contractions during childbirth

Fspring=

-kx

log 1/2=

-log 2

mCdeltaT heating=

-mCdeltaT cooling

Isotonic

-medium and a cell are isotonic when the solute concentrations of the medium and the cell are equal.

Upendulum

-mgL (1-costheta)

Fpendulum=

-mgsintheta

delta Grxn (electrochemical cell)

-nFEcell

Glycogen

-primary form in which carbohydrates are stored in the liver -easily converted to glucose-6-phosphate when the body needs it

qE=mg E= mg/q

.

Gas constant

.08206 l •atm/ mol •k

Membrane potential is never

0

90 degrees cos= sin= tan= R/h=

0 1 - -

What percentage of sons will inherit their father's sex-linked gene?

0% of the sons

log 1.33

0.13

log 1.6

0.2

log 1.8

0.25

log 2

0.3

log 3

0.47

60 degrees cos= sin= tan= R/h=

0.5 0.86 1.73 2.4

kb water=

0.51 C kg/mole

log 4

0.6

log 5

0.7

45 degrees cos= sin= tan= R/h=

0.71 0.71 1 4

log 6

0.77

log 7

0.85

30 degrees cos= sin= tan= R/h=

0.86 0.5 0.58 6.7

log 8

0.9

log 9

0.95

beta decay 120/50X

0/-1 e- 120/51 Z

beta+ decay 120/50X

0/1 e- 120/49 Q

Give the correct number of electrons: in the third shell of sodium

1

Pyrimidines have __ rings

1

o degrees cos= sin= tan=

1 0 0

water's heat capacity

1 cal/g K

difference btwn equivalence points

1 equivalent of titrant

IUPAC Nomenclature

1) * the longest carbon chain with the most substituents determines the base name 2)* the end carbon closet to a carbon with a substituent is always the first carbon. in the case of a tie, look to the next substituent 3)* any substituent is given the same number as its carbon 4)* if the same substituent is used more than once, use the prefixes di-, tri-, tetra, and so on 5)* order the substituents alphabetically (ignore prefix)

resonance structure rules

1)atoms must be moved 2)number of unpaired electrons must remain the same 3)resonance atoms must lie in the same plane 4)only proper lewis structures allowed

Bisphosphoglycerate mutase

1,3-BPG → 2,3-BPG; 2,3-BPG binds to beta chain of HbA decreasing affinity for oxygen

What are the two major tissue components of the skeleton?

1. Cartilage 2. Bone

What are the two major subsystems of the nervous system?

1. Central nervous system 2. Peripheral nervous system

Key rxns in TCA

1. Citrate formation 2. Isomerization to isocitrate 3. α-ketoglutarate + CO2 formation 4. Succinyl-CoA + CO2 formation 5. Succinate formation 6. Fumarate formation 7. Malate formation 8. OAA formation

Name two types of reversible inhibitors

1. Competitive 2. Noncompetitive

Complex I steps

1. NADH to FMN → FMNH2 2. FMNH2 to Fe-S → Fe-S (reduced) 3. Fe-S (reduced) to Q → QH2

FA degredation steps

1. Oxidation 2. Hydration 3. Oxidation 4. Splitting

Galactose metabolism

1. Phosphorylated by galactokinase to Gal-1P 2. Gal-1P uridyl transferase w/ UDP-Gluc; Gal-1P → G-6P + UDP-Gal 3. UDP-Gal epimerase; UDP-Gal → UDP-Gluc

Fructose metabolism

1. Phosphorylation by fructokinase to F-1P 2. Aldolase B; F-1P → DHAP + Glyceraldehyde → GAP

Posttranscriptional processing

1. Splicing introns/exons 2. 5' cap 3. 3' Poly-A-tail

Complex II steps

1. Succinate reduced to FAD → FADH2 2. FADH2 to Fe-S oxi → Fe-S red 3. Fe-S red to Q → QH2

Name the following parts of a sarcomere:

1. Z line. 2. H zone. 3. I band. 4. M line. 5. A band.

limiting reagent

1. balance chemical equation 2.fine number of moles of all reactants 3. whichever one has the least amount of moles is your limiting reagent 4.subtract the number of moles of non limiting from limiting reagent and this is your left over reactant 5. convert it to proper units

stoich problems

1. balance the equation 2. take the number grams needed and convert it to moles 3.use mole to mole ratio est. by the equation balancing 4.now convert moles to grams of the reactant needed and you have your answer

percent yeild

1. find limiting reagent 2.stoich analysis of that and product 3. number you get is the theoretical yeild 4.actual yeild/theoretical yeild

nominclature

1. metals that can form more than one positive ion are named with a roman numeral ex. Fe(^3+) is iron(III) 2. ous and ic, the metal with the lesser charge gets ous while the metal with the higher charge gets ic ex. Fe(^2+) ferrous Fe(^3+) ferric 3.monoatomic ions from ending and add ide ex. H- hydride 4. polyatomic more oxygen -ate (ate them) less oxygen -ite (lITEer) ex. no2- nitrite no3-nitrate 5. for extened seriss of oxyanions yours hypo for less and per or hyper for more ex. clo-hopychorite clo2-cholorite clo3-chlorate clo4-percholrate 6.when adding hydrogen add hydrogen infront 7.will list other polyatomic to know in other cards

translational motion lack vo d=

1.2at^2+vot+do

kf water=

1.86 C kg/mole

souability rules

1.all salts containing ammonium and alkali metal cations are souable 2. all salts containing nitrate no3- and acetate ch3coo- are souable 3. halides excluding fluorine, are souable unless with hg pb ag 4. all salts of sulfate ions so42-are water souable unless with ca sr ba pb 5. all metal oxides are insoluble unless formed with alkali metals, ammonium CaO Sro and Bao 6.all hydroxides are insouble with the acceptation of those formed with alkali metals ammonium and ca sr and ba 7.all carbonates co32- phosphates po42- suflides and sulfites are insoulble unless formed with ammonium or alkli metals

when pH=pKa this means ___ of an equivalent has been added

1/2

UAM no a x=

1/2 (vox+vfx)deltat

free fall y=

1/2 at^2 5t^2

Uspring=

1/2 kx^2

nodes=

1/2 lambda apart destructive interference

pH=1/2 pka-1/2log [HA] pOH=

1/2 pKb-1/2 log[A-]

pendulum frequency

1/2pi * sqrt g/L

spring frequency

1/2pi * sqrt k/m

antinodes=

1/4 lambda apart max displacement

Lineweaver-Burke plot y-intercept

1/Vmax

intesity correlates to

1/r^2

decibels=

10 log (Isound/Io)

Normal blood sugar

100 mg/dL or 5.6mM

What percentage of daughters will inherit their father's sex linked gene?

100% of daughters will inherit their father's sex-linked gene.

Enzyme activity tends to double every

10C to a point

deci-

10^-1

pico-

10^-12

weak acid

10^-14< Ka < 1 0< pKa < 14 weak CB 10^-14< Kb < 1 0< pKb < 14

femto-

10^-15

atto-

10^-18

centi-

10^-2

milli-

10^-3

inverse of 10^4

10^-5

micro-

10^-6

nano-

10^-9

[H+]=

10^-pH

[OH-]=

10^-pOH

deka

10^1

tera-

10^12

penta-

10^15

exa-

10^18

hecto-

10^2

kilo-

10^3

mega-

10^6

giga-

10^9

beta capture 120/50X + 0/-1 e-

120/49 Q

beta + capture 120/50X + 0/1 e-

120/51 Z

alpha capture 120/50X + 4/2 alpha

124/52 A

Halogens

17 7A

Half life

1=50% 2=25% 3=12.5%

cm^3 =

1ml

What is the Electronic Structure for Sodium?

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

What is the Electronic Structure for Magnesium?

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

What is the Electronic Structure for Phosporus?

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3

What is the Electronic Structure for Sulfur?

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4

What is the Electronic Structure for Chlorine?

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

What is the Electronic Structure for Argon?

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

GLycolysis produces __ ATP per glucose

2

Give the correct number of electrons: in the first energy level of Chlorine

2

Purines have __ rings

2

Complex IV steps

2 Cyt c w/ Fe2+ +2H + 1/2 O2 → 2 Cyt c w/ Fe3+ +2H2O

Single terpene

2 isoprenes

Integrins

2 membrane spanning elements that bind/communicate with ECM

standing waves lambda third harmonic=

2/3L

Prostaglandins

20 C - carboxy acids derived from arachidonic acid/regulate cAMP synth

one gram of an ideal gas occupies what at standard temperature

22.4L

TCA produces __ ATP per glucose

25

standing waves lambda second harmonic=

2L/2

max number of electrons within a shell

2N^2

period pendulum

2pi sqrt L/g

period spring

2pi sqrt m/k

Sesquiterpenes

3 isoprenes

DNA Poly reads in this direction

3' → 5'

RNA poly reads in this direction

3' → 5'

gas motion KE=

3/2 RT

Physiological temp.

310K (37C)

sp2 p and s character

33.3 s 66.7p

What is the optimal temperature and pH for most enzymes in the body?

37°C and 7.4 respectively

h2o is densest at

4 C

alpha decay 120/50 X

4/2 alpha 116/48 Y

max range at ___ degrees

45

Huckel's rule

4n + 2 = # of pi electrons

Give the correct number of electrons: in the outer shell of Nitrogen

5

DNA poly synthesizes in this direction

5' → 3'

RNA poly synthesizes mRNA in this direction

5' → 3'

mRNA is synthesized in this direction

5' → 3'

Ribosomes translate in this direction on mRNA and synthesize new polypeptide in this direction

5' → 3', N → C

What percentage of sons will inherit their mother's sex-linked gene (assuming a heterozygous mother)?

50% of sons will inherit their mother's sex-linked gene.

sp b and s charachter

50/50

Prokaryotic ribosomal subunit size

50S + 30S = 70S

Eukaryotic ribosomal subunit size

60S + 40S = 80S

Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz voltage equation

61.5 log ((PNa x [Na]out) + (PK x [K]out) + (PCl x [Cl]in)/(PNa x [Na]in) + (PK x [K]in) + (PCl x [Cl]out)

Give the correct number of electrons: in the highest occupied energy level of Chlorine

7

5' cap is composed of

7-methylguanylate triphosphate cap

Physiological pH

7.4

Given: P = dominant (purple) p = recessive (white) What would be the genotypic ratio of a Pp × Pp cross?

75% purple : 25% white

Give the correct number of electrons: in the second energy level of Magnesium

8

HClO2 ___ HCO2 in terms of acidity

>

Hsub___Hvap___Hfusion

>

Ssub___Svap___Sfus

>

Ribosomal binding sites

A (aminoacyl), P (peptidyl), E (exit)

Gametocyte

A cell from which gametes form by meiotic division, especially a spermatocyte or an oocyte.

Cell Wall

A cell wall protects the cell from external stimuli and desiccation.

Electron Transport Chain

A chain of cytochromes and other proteins in the inner membrane of the mitochondria that transfers electrons from NADH and FADH2 to oxygen. The energy released from the series of oxidations is used to create a proton gradient, which ATP synthase then uses to synthesize ATP.

Chromatid

A chromatid is one half of a replicated chromosome. Sister chromatids are attached by the centromere.

Indeterminate Cleavage

A cleavage that results in cells maintaining their totipotency, or ability to develop into a complete organism.

Determinate Cleavage

A cleavage whose future differentiation pathways are determined.

Coenzyme

A coenzyme is an organic cofactor for an enzymatic reaction (e.g., vitamin).

Cofactor

A cofactor is a nonprotein molecule that is incorporated into an enzyme and is required for proper functioning.

Nucleosides

A compound consisting of a purine or pyrimidine base and a pentose sugar

carbanion

A compound containing a negatively charged carbon atom. A carbon-based anion.

Michaelis Constant

A constant, Km, that is a measure of the kinetics of an enzyme reaction and that is equivalent to the concentration of substrate at which the reaction takes place at one half its maximum rate.

Test Cross

A cross between an organism of an undetermined genotype and another that is homozygous recessive for the trait of interest.

Monohybrid Cross

A cross between two organisms where only one trait is being studied.

Dihybrid Cross

A cross between two organisms where two distinct traits are being studied.

Cytochrome

A cytochrome is a molecular electron carrier involved in oxidative phosphorylation.

Zygote

A fertilized egg.

Cartilage

A firm, elastic, translucent connective tissue consisting of collagenous fibers embedded in chondrin. Produced by cells called chondrocytes. Cartilage is the principal component of embryonic skeletons and can harden and calcify into bone.

Epiglottis

A flap of cartilage that covers the glottis when swallowing food in order to prevent food particles from entering the larynx.

Inversion

A form of chromosomal rearrangement in which a portion of a chromosome breaks off and rejoins the same chromosome in the reverse position.

Translocation

A form of chromosomal rearrangement in which a portion of one chromosome adds on to a nonhomologous chromosome.

Cortisol

A glucocorticoid that increases the blood's glucose level.

polyatomic ion

A group of covalently bonded atoms that has an overall electrical charge is called a(n)

Ganglion

A group of neural cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system (plural: ganglia).

Heterotroph

A heterotroph is an organism that breaks down organic nutrients for energy.

Histone

A histone is a structural protein complexed with eukaryotic DNA to form a chromosome.

Prolactin

A hormone synthesized and released by the anterior pituitary that stimulates milk production and secretion in female mammary glands.

Contrast the number of chromosomes in a human diploid and a human haploid cell.

A human diploid cell has 46 chromosomes. A human haploid cell has 23 chromosomes.

What would happen to a cell if it were put in a hypertonic solution?

A hypertonic solution would cause water to flow out of a cell and cause the cell to shrink.

How does a large charged molecule cross the cell membrane?

A large charged particle usually crosses the cell membrane with the help of a carrier protein.

Superior Vena Cava

A large vein that returns deoxygenated blood from the head and neck regions to the right atrium of the heart.

Inferior Vena Cava

A large vein that returns deoxygenated blood from the lower body and the extremities to the right atrium of the heart.

Surfactant

A liquid substance produced by the lung that reduces surface tension in the alveoli. Surfactant prevents lung collapse and decreases the effort needed to expand the lungs (inhale).

Synovial Fluid

A lubricant found in movable joints.

Saltatory Conduction

A means by which action potentials jump from node to node along an axon.

Electronegativity

A measure of the ability of an atom in a chemical compound to attract electrons

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

A modified form of endoplasmic reticulum, which stores calcium that is used to trigger contraction when the muscle is stimulated.

achiral

A molecule that has a plane of symmetry in any of its possible conformations must be identical to its mirror image. Optically inactive.

Regulator

A molecule, other than the substrate, that can bind to the allosteric site of an enzyme and either increase its activity (allosteric activator) or decrease its activity (allosteric inhibitor).

Monocytes

A monocyte phagocytizes foreign matter.

What is the difference between a polysynaptic and monosynaptic reflex?

A monosynaptic reflex involves only one sensory neuron and one motor neuron. A polysynaptic reflex involves one or more interneurons, in addition to a sensory neuron and a motor neuron.

Follicle

A multilayered sac of cells in the ovary that protects and nourishes the developing ovum until ovulation.

Salt

A neutral compound composed of a positive and negative ion together

Beta decay

A nuclear reaction in which a neutron changes into a proton and into an electron, and the atoms emits a beta particle, which is the electron. It increases the atomic number of the atom without changing the mass.

Plasmid

A plasmid is a smaller extrachromosomal ring of DNA sometimes found in bacteria. It replicates independently of the bacterial chromosome.

Chemical reaction

A process during which chemical bonds between atoms are broken and new ones are formed. Producing one or more different substances.

Gluconeogenesis

A process in the liver by which glucose is produced using by-products of glycolysis, lipids, or fats.

Exocytosis

A process in which a vesicle within the cell fuses with the cell membrane and releases its contents to the extracellular medium.

Repolarization

A process that occurs when the voltage-gated Na+ channels close and voltage-gated K+ channels open, allowing K+ to rush out of the cell and repolarize it.

Depolarization

A process that occurs when the voltage-gated Na+ channels open, allowing Na+ to rush into the cell and depolarize it.

Prophage (Provirus)

A prophage is a virus that has integrated its DNA into the host cell's DNA.

Membrane Receptor

A protein (or glycoprotein) that binds to molecules in the extracellular environment.

What are the components of a virus?

A protein coat and nucleic acid.

Hemoglobin

A protein found in erythrocytes made up of four polypeptide chains, each containing a heme group. Hemoglobin is responsible for transporting oxygen from the alveoli to the cells.

Na+/K+ Pump

A protein that hydrolyzes one ATP to transport three Na+ out of the cell for every two K+ transports into the cell.

Limiting reactant

A reactant that is totally consumed during a chemical reaction, limits the extent of the reaction, and determines the amount of product.

Catabolic Process

A reaction that breaks down complex molecules and releases energy. An autotroph is an organism that can harness sunlight to create energy via photosynthesis (e.g., plants)

Semiconservative Replication

A replicated molecule of DNA contains one strand from the original DNA molecule (used as the template) and a newly synthesized DNA strand.

Ribosome

A ribosome is the site of protein translation (assembly) during protein synthesis.

Action Potential

A sharp change in the membrane potential of neurons or muscle cells caused by a change in the selective permeability to K+ and Na+ using ion-gated channels. Action potentials are all-or-none events.

Refractory Period

A short period of time immediately following an action potential in which neurons or muscle cells are unresponsive to a stimulus. In some cases, called relative refractory periods, a stimulus that is much larger than the threshold can cause an action potential even in a cell that would normally be unresponsive.

Interkinesis

A short rest period between meiosis I and meiosis II during which DNA is not replicated.

Passive Immunity

A short-lived immunity resulting from the transfer of antibodies into an individual who does not produce those antibodies.

Ductus Arteriosus

A shunt that connects the pulmonary artery to the aorta in order to bypass the fetal lung.

Foramen Ovale

A shunt that connects the right atrium to the left atrium in order to bypass the fetal lung.

Ductus Venosus

A shunt that connects the umbilical vein to the inferior vena cava in order to bypass a fetal liver.

Polar Body

A small, short-lived haploid cell created during oogenesis that receives very little cytoplasm, organelles and nutrients.

Excited state

A state in which an atom has a higher potential energy than it has in its ground state.

Fat soluble vitamins

A, D, E, K

continuity equation

A1V1=A2V2

Where and how does ADH affect the nephron?

ADH makes the collecting duct more permeable to H2O by inserting water channels called aquaporins.

DNA Gyrase

AKA Topoisomerase II - introduces neg supercoiling

Glucogenic amino acid

ALl but Leucine and lysine

Which compound is needed to release myosin from its binding site on actin?

ATP is needed to release myosin from its binding site on actin.

Primary active transport

ATP is used directly

How do ATP, NAD+, NADP+, and FAD store energy?

ATP stores energy in its high-energy phosphate bonds. NAD+, NADP+, and FAD store energy in high-potential electrons.

Adenylate cyclase

ATP → cAMP

Electrophile

Accepts a pair of electrons to make a covalent bonds so it's like a Lewis acid

Acid

According to the Arrhenius concept, if HNO3 were dissolved in water, it would act as an __________.

covalent

According to the IUPAC nomenclature system, the types of compound that use prefixes in their names are

What is the primary product of pyruvate decarboxylation?

Acetyl CoA

Pyruvate DH complex is inhibited by

Acetyl-CoA

Pyruvate carboxylase is activated by

Acetyl-CoA

Citrate formation

Acetyl-CoA + OAA → Citryl-CoA → Citrate + CoA (via citrate synthetase)

Acetyl-CoA carboxylase

Acetyl-CoA activates in cytoplasm for incorporation into FA's via acetyl-CoA carboxylase

Isomerization to isocitrate

Aconitase, citrate → cis-aconitate → isocitrate

PEP carboxykinase

Activated by glucagon and cortisol, OAA → PEP w/ GTP

Glucose-6-phosphate DH

Activated by insulin and NADP+, inhibited by NADPH, G-6P → Ribose -5P

apoA-I

Activates LCAT = catalyzes cholesterol esterification

apoC-II

Activates lipoprotein lipase

Calcitriol

Active form of vitamin D, increases calcium/phosphate uptake in the intestines

Competitive inhibition

Active site inhibition, overcome by increasing substrate; does not affect Vmax, increases Km (does not move y-intercept)

Adaptive Radiation

Adaptive radiation is the emergence of a number of distinct lineages from a single ancestral species. The different lineages usually result when a group begins to exploit a different niche.

DNA methylation

Add methyl groups to cytosine/adenine nucleotides (methylation = silencing genes)

Ligase

Addition/Synthesis

DNA poly δ

Adds DNA where RNA primer was in eukaryotes

What is the base-pairing in DNA? How many bonds hold these bases together?

Adenine - Thymine (2 H bonds) Cytosine - Guanine (3 H bonds)

Purines

Adenine and guanine are called purines. They have characteristic bicyclic nitrogenous bases and pair with pyrimidines in double-stranded DNA in order to keep the width of the strand constant.

GLUT4

Adipose, muscle cell glucose transporter (low Km)

What is the source of sex hormones in post-menopausal women?

Adrenal Cortex

Sister Chromatids

After replication, each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids held together at a central region called the centromere. After the mitotic spindle pulls the sister chromatids apart, each chromatid is referred to as a chromosome.

Passage of Air During Inhalation

Air travels through the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and finally, alveoli (site of gas exchange).

Free fatty acids travel bound to

Albumin

Alditol

Aldose is reduced to alcohol

What important mineralocorticoid is released by the adrenal cortex?

Aldosterone is an important mineralocorticoid released by the adrenal cortex and involved in salt and water regulation.

Name the two distinct groups into which all cells can be categorized.

All cells can be categorized as either prokaryotes or eukaryotes.

Peripheral Nervous System

All neurons that are not part of the central nervous system, including sensory and motor neurons that connect to the central nervous system. Can be divided further into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

Somatic Cells

All the cells in an organism that not germ (reproductive) cells.

Leydig Cells

Also referred to as "interstitial cells of Leydig," Leydig cells are located in the testes and secrete testosterone and other androgens.

Where are amino acids, glucose, and vitamins reabsorbed in the nephron?

Amino acids, glucose, and vitamins are reabsorbed into the proximal convoluted tubule.

NH4 +

Ammonium

Retrovirus

An RNA virus that codes for the enzyme reverse transcriptase, which uses the RNA as a template for DNA synthesis.

Acrosome

An acrosome is the enzyme-containing cap-like structure on the head of a sperm.

Holoenzyme

An active enzyme containing all necessary cofactors.

Bile

An alkaline fluid synthesized in the liver, stored in the gall bladder, and released into the duodenum. Bile aids in the emulsification, digestion, and absorption of fats.

What happens to an enzyme in the presence of an allosteric inhibitor?

An allosteric inhibitor prevents an enzyme from binding to its substrate by stabilizing the inactive configuration.

Anabolic Process

An anabolic process is a reaction that builds complex molecules and requires energy.

Describe the difference between anabolic and catabolic processes.

An anabolic process is a reaction that builds complex molecules and requires energy. A catabolic process is a reaction that breaks down complex molecules and releases energy.

Anticodon

An anticodon is a 3-base sequence on tRNA that is complementary to the mRNA codon.

What is the difference between an apoenzyme and a holoenzyme?

An apoenzyme is an enzyme without its corresponding cofactor. Aholoenzyme contains its cofactor.

Autotroph

An autotroph is an organism that can harness sunlight to create energy via photosynthesis (e.g., plants).

Reverse Transcriptase

An enzyme in retroviruses that uses RNA strands as templates for synthesizing cDNA (complementary DNA) molecules.

DNA Polymerase

An enzyme that polymerizes a complementary DNA strand in the 5' to 3' direction using a template DNA strand. A primer is necessary for DNA polymerase to initiate polymerization.

Apoenzyme

An enzyme that requires cofactors in order to become catalytically active.

Helicase

An enzyme that unwinds the double helix of a DNA molecule and separates the two strands, allowing replication to take place.

Allosteric Enzyme

An enzyme with one or more additional bonding sites, called allosteric sites, that change the conformation of the enzyme when occupied, usually promoting or inhibiting enzymatic activity.

Dendrite

An extension of the neuron that transmits impulses toward the cell body and the axon.

Hyperventilation

An increase in the rate of inhalation. Lack of oxygen or a decrease in blood pH (an increase in blood acidity) promotes hyperventilation.

Contrast inducible and repressible systems

An inducible system requires the presence of an inducer for transcription to occur. A repressible system is in a constant state of transcription unless a corepressor is present to inhibit transcription.

Newton's first law

An object in motion (or at rest) will tend to stay in motion (or at rest) until it is acted upon by an outside force.

Newton's first law (law of inertia)

An object in motion (or at rest) will tend to stay in motion (or at rest) until it is acted upon by an outside force.

Operon

An operon is a group of genes or segment of DNA that regulates (bacterial) transcription.

Placenta

An organ formed by the uterus and the extraembryonic membranes of the fetus. The placenta contains a network of capillaries through which exchange between the fetal circulation and maternal circulation takes place.

Facultative Anaerobe

An organism that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present, but that can switch to fermentation when oxygen is not available.

What is the function of immunoglobins (antibodies)?

Antibodies attract other cells that can phagocytize an antigen or cause the antigens to clump together.

ADH

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also known as vasopressin, acts on the collecting duct to increase water reabsorption. ADH is produced by the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary.

sigma

Are hybridized bonds sigma bonds? or pi bonds?

Intermolecular attractions

Are weaker than either ionic or covalent bonds

intesity=P/

Area

Positively charged amino acids

Arg, Lys, His

shield

As you fill up a shell, the effective nuclear charge increases because the atomic number (protons) is increasing while the same-shell electrons you add do not "_________________" one another.

Binary Fission

Asexual reproduction by which prokaryotes divide. The circular DNA molecule replicates and then moves to opposites sides of the cell. The cell then divides into daughter cells of equal size.

Negatively charged amino acids

Asp, Glu

DNA poly δ + ε

Assisted by PCNA; sliding clamp that strengthens interaction between DNA polys and template strand

The smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics of the element is a(n)

Atom

Hemidesmosomes

Attach to basement membrane

Van der Waals' forces

Attractive forces between separate molecules (not the bonds between atoms) caused by positively and negatively charged regions within a molecule.

pI is found by

Average pKa's between which total charge is -1 and 1

archimede's principle

B=rhofluid*Vdis*g rho obj>rho fluid gapparent< g

floating object

B=rhomed*Vdisplaced*g W=mg=rhoobj*Vobj*g W=B rhoobj*Vobj*g=rhomed*Vdis*g Vdis/Vobj=rhoobj/rhomed <1

sunk object

B=rhomedium*Vobj*g W=mg=rhoobj*Vobj*g W/B=rhoobj/rhomed=specific gravity

nonmetal hydroxides

BL acids

metal hydroxides

BL bases

Describe bacterial DNA.

Bacterial DNA consists of a single circular chromosome.

Nucleotides

Basic units of DNA molecule, composed of a sugar, a *phosphate*, and one of 4 DNA bases

HCO3 -

Bicarbonate

Liposomes

Bilayer

Desmosomes

Bind adjacent cells w/ attachment to cytoskeleton (found at interface of two layers of epithelial tissue)

Selectins

Bind to carbs on other cells

tRNA is activated by this mechanism

Binding of amino acid acyl to hydroxyl of tRNA (activated with ATP) via aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase

Uncompetitive inhibition

Binds to E-S complex (allosterically), increasing affinity (Km down), lowering Vmax (Lineweaver-Burke plot lines parallel)

Noncompetitive inhibition

Binds to allosteric site, [S] will not change it, decreases Vmax, does not change Km (does not move x-intercept)

Vitamin B7

Biotin

Blood

Blood is made up of plasma (the liquid component) and cellular components. The cellular components are erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), and platelets.

Capillaries

Blood vessels composed of a single layer of endothelial cells, facilitating exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid.

Coronary Arteries

Blood vessels that supply the heart with oxygenated blood.

Coronary Veins

Blood vessels that transport deoxygenated blood from the heart toward the right atrium.

Ionic bonds

Bond formed by a transfer of one or more electrons from an atom to another ex: NaCl

Glycosphingolipids

Bound to sugar

bromate

BrO₃ ⁻

Denaturing DNA =

Break H-bonds

Mechanical Digestion

Breakdown of food particles into smaller particles through such activities as biting, chewing, and churning.

Acid

Bronsetd= proton donating species Lewis= electoron acceptor

base

Bronsted= a proton acceptor lewis= electron donor

Terpenes

Built from isoprenes

Cholecystokinin

CCK is a hormone that is secreted by the duodenum in response to the presence of chyme. CCK stimulates the release of bile and pancreatic enzymes into the small intestine. Cholecystokinin is also widely distributed in the brain plays a role in satiation.

cyanide

CN ⁻

carbonate

CO₃ ⁻²

What is the role of calcium in the initiation of sarcomere contraction?

Calcium binds with troponin, which causes a conformational shift in tropomyosin, expressing the myosin binding site.

3

Calculate the effective nuclear charge of this Al atom.

Luminous intensity

Candela (cd)

CO3 -2

Carbonate

Which types of muscle are striated?

Cardiac and skeletal muscle are striated.

Which types of muscle display myogenic activity?

Cardiac and smooth muscle display myogenic activity.

Inner membrane of mitochondria does not have cholesterol, instead it has

Cardiolipin

Vitamin A

Carotene: Vision, immune func., growth/dev., (present in retinal/ol, retinoic acid)

Carnitine

Carries fatty acids across mitochondrial membrane; FA-CoA → FA-carnitine → FA-CoA

Hepatic Portal Vein

Carries nutrients (monosaccharides, amino acids, and small fatty acids) absorbed in the small intestine to the liver, where they are modified to enter circulation.

Enzymes

Catalysts (usually proteins) that accelerate reactions by reducing the activation energy without being consumed or altered by the reaction. Note that enzymes affect only the rate of reaction; they do not effect thermochemistry of the reaction or the number of products that can eventually be formed.

Oxidoreductases

Catalyze redox rxns (transfer of e-)

Helicase

Causes + supercoiling

CAM

Cell adhesion molecules

Mitosis

Cell division and/or nuclear division in somatic cells that results in the daughter nucleus receiving a full complement of the organism's genome.

Cell Theory

Cell theory states that all living things are composed of cells; cells are the basic functional unit of life; cells arise only from pre-existing cells; and cells carry their genetic information in the form of DNA.

Name the components of a typical bacterial cell.

Cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and DNA.

Neural Crest Cells

Cells at the tip of the neural fold; this group of cells gives rise to many components of the peripheral nervous system.

Osteoclasts

Cells in the bone matrix that are involved in bone degradation.

Osteoblasts

Cells in the bone tissue that secrete the organic constituents of the bone matrix. Osteoblasts develop into osteocytes.

Oligodendrocytes

Cells that produce myelin in the central nervous system.

Schwann Cells

Cells that produce myelin in the peripheral nervous system.

Types of sphingolipids

Ceramides, sphingomyelins, glycosphinngolipids

Nuerotransmitters

Chemical messengers released from synaptic clefts of a neuron that can bind and stimulate a postsynaptic cell.

ClO3 -

Chlorate

ClO2 -

Chlorite

Vitamin D

Cholecalciferol, converted to calcitriol

CrO4 -2

Chromate

Portal Systems

Circulatory routes in which blood travels through two capillary beds before returning to the heart. Some examples include the hepatic portal system, the renal portal system, and the hypophyseal portal system.

Control points of TCA

Citrate synthase, isocitrate DH, α-ketoglutarate DH complex

hypochlorite

ClO ⁻

chlorite

ClO₂ ⁻

chlorate

ClO₃ ⁻

perchlorate

ClO₄ ⁻

tRNA (Transfer RNA)

Class of RNA bearing an anticodon (complementary to a codon) and the amino acid for the corresponding codon. tRNA is vital in translation, as it brings the amino acids to the ribosome and ensures that each codon matches up with the proper amino acid.

rRNA (Ribosomal RNA)

Class of RNA that is a structural component of ribososmes. rRNA is synthesized in the nucleolus.

mRNA (Messenger RNA)

Class of RNA that is created from the transcription of DNA (and post-transcriptional processing in eukaryotes). mRNA serves as the template for protein synthesis during translation.

nonmetal

Classify the following element as Metal or Non-Metal: Chlorine

metal

Classify the following element as Metal or Non-Metal: Nickel

nonmetal

Classify the following element as Metal or Non-Metal: Phosporus

nonmetal

Classify the following element as Metal or Non-Metal: Sulfur

nobel gas

Classify the following element: Argon

halogen

Classify the following element: Bromine

transition metal

Classify the following element: Copper

alkaline earth metal

Classify the following element: Magnesium

alkali metal

Classify the following element: Sodium

Lyase

Cleavage of a single molecule into multiple

β-amylase

Cleaves at nonreducing end of glycogen to form maltose

Phospholipase C

Cleaves phospholipids from membrane → PIP2

Chyme

Combination of partially digested food and acid that forms in the stomach.

Nucleosomes

Complex of DNA wrapped around histone

Centromeres

Composed of heterochromatin w/ high G-C content

imine

Compound with a carbon double-bonded to nitrogen (C=N).

Molarity

Concentration Moles of solute / liters of solution

Which type of photoreceptor cell is specialized for color vision? Which type is specialized for low light conditions?

Cones are for color and rods are for night vision.

Umbilical Cord

Connects the vasculature of the fetus to the placenta.

30

Consider a neutral atom with 30 protons and 34 neutrons. The atomic number of the element is ________.

30

Consider a neutral atom with 30 protons and 34 neutrons. The number of electrons in this atom is ________.

Spliceosome

Contains snRNA that couples with mRNA and excises

[He]2s^2 2p^1

Conventional notation for electronic structure: Boron B

[Ar]4s^2 3d^10 4p^5

Conventional notation for electronic structure: Bromine Br

[Ar]4s^1 3d^5

Conventional notation for electronic structure: Chromium Cr

[Ar]4s^1 3d^10

Conventional notation for electronic structure: Copper Cu

[Ne]3s^2

Conventional notation for electronic structure: Magnesium Mg

Convergent Evolution

Convergent evolution refers to the independent development of similar characteristics by non-related groups.

F=kq1q2/r2

Coulomb's Law

F=kq1q2/r^2

Coulomb's Law

Secondary transport

Coupled

chromate

CrO₄ ⁻²

dichromate

Cr₂O₇ ⁻²

CN -

Cyanide

Vitamin B12

Cyanocobalamin

Complex IV

Cytochrome c oxidase; transfers e- from cytochrome c to oxygen

Pyrimidines

Cytosine and thymine are called pyrimidines. They have characteristic monocyclic nitrogenous bases and pair with purines in double-stranded DNA in order to keep the width of the strand constant.

Cytosol

Cytosol is the fluid component of the cell's cytoplasm.

Malate-aspartate shuttle

Cytosolic OAA → Malate (via malate DH); oxidizes NADH → NAD+, malate can pass through mitochondrial membrane to be reoxidized

acetate

C₂H₃O₂ ⁻

oxalate

C₂O₄ ⁻²

charged aa

D E R H K

PIP2 is cleaved into

DAG + IP3

Why are telomeres present

DNA polys cannot complete synthesis of the 5' end (gets shorter every time)

DNA poly β + ε

DNA repair

Heterochromatin

Dark and silent

Histone acetylation

Decreases positive charge = lowers interaction of histones w/ DNA

DNA sequencing uses

Deoxyribonucleic acid (polymerization stops there)

Incomplete Dominance

Describes a situation in which an organism heterozygous for a trait will have a phenotype that is intermediate to both alleles. Neither allele, therefore, is dominant or recessive.

Tertiary structure

Determined by hydrophobicity

Large proteins are degraded by

Digestion w/ pepsin/trypsin then Edman degredation

UV light can cause

Dimers between adjacent T's

Diploid

Diploid cells have two copies of each chromosome, usually one from the mother and one from the father. Eukaryotic somatic cells are diploid.

Primary Spermatocytes

Diploid cells that undergo meiosis I to form two haploid secondary spermatocytes.

Gap junction

Direct cell-cell; connexons, water solute passage

How does directional selection affect the phenotype of a population?

Directional selection favors the expression of one phenotypic extreme.

Euchromatin

Dispersed, light, expressed

How does disruptive selection affect the phenotype of a population?

Disruptive selection favors the phenotypic extremes, leading to the expression of two or more phenotypic forms.

Divergent Evolution

Divergent evolution refers to the process whereby related groups independently develop dissimilar characteristics.

Autonomic Nervous System

Division of the peripheral nervous system that is responsible for involuntary movement.

Somatic Nervous System

Division of the peripheral nervous system that is responsible for voluntary movement.

RNA does/does not proofread

Does not

Nucleophile

Donates a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond. It is the same as a Lewis base

Groups that point right in fischer projection will point __ in Haworth projection

Down

Leading Strand

During DNA replication, the strand of DNA that is continuously synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction. The template strand is read in the 3' to 5' direction.

Lagging Strand

During DNA replication, the strand of DNA that is synthesized in small fragments called Okazaki fragments and then ligated together. The Okazaki fragments are synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction, but the overall synthesis is in the 3' to 5' direction. The template strand has a 5' to 3' polarity.

Nernst equation

E = RT/zF ln ([ion out]/[ion in]); 61.5/z log ([ion out]/[ion in]) assuming physiological temp

What energy molecules are released in one turn of the citric acid cycle?

Each turn of the citric acid cycle results in 1 GTP, 3 NADH, and 1 FADH2.

Small proteins are degraded by

Edman degredation

What is the electrical conduction pathway of the heart?

Electrical conduction pathway of the heart is: Sinoatrial node → Atrioventricular node → Bundle of His → Purkinje fibers

Myelin Sheath

Electrically insulating substance that surround axons, secreted by Schwann cells (in the peripheral nervous system) and oligodendrocytes (in the central nervous system). Action potential cannot actively propagate in areas of the axon that are mylinated.

arrhenius acid

Electron pair acceptor & proton donor, that produces H+ ions when dissolved in water

arrhenius acid (most specific definition)

Electron pair acceptor & proton donor, that produces H+ ions when dissolved in water

bronsted lowry acid

Electron pair acceptor that is a proton donor

bronsted lowry acid (intermediate definition)

Electron pair acceptor that is a proton donor

lewis acid (most inclusive definition)

Electron pair acceptor that may or may not donate a proton

arrhenius base

Electron pair donor & proton acceptor that produces OH- ions when dissolved in water

arrhenius base (most specific definition)

Electron pair donor & proton acceptor that produces OH- ions when dissolved in water

bronsted lowry base

Electron pair donor that is a proton acceptor

bronsted lowry base (intermediate definition)

Electron pair donor that is a proton acceptor

lewis base

Electron pair donor that may or may not accept a proton

lewis base (most inclusive definition)

Electron pair donor that may or may not accept a proton

Ionization energy

Electrons are attracted to the nucleus of an atom, so it takes energy to remove an electron. The energy required to remove an electron from an atom is called the first ionization energy. Once an electron has been removed, the atom becomes a positively charged ion. The energy required to remove the next electron from the ion is called the second ionization energy, and so on.

What is the difference between an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland?

Endocrine glands secrete their hormones directly into the bloodstream. Exocrine glands secrete substances that are transported by ducts.

Endocytosis

Endocytosis is a process in which the cell membrane invaginates, forming an intracellular vesicle containing extracellular medium.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transport of materials throughout the cell.

Synaptic Terminals

Ends of axons that form one side of the synaptic cleft; the location where neurotransmitters are stored.

Electron affinity

Energy released when an atom or ion in the gaseous state gains an electron. Increases from left to right and from bottom to top on the Periodic Table.

Binding energy

Energy that holds the protons and neutrons together in the nucleus, defined by the equation E = mc². m = mass defect, c = speed of light in a vacuum.

Enhancers

Enhance gene expression by multiple proteins

How do you deal with unsaturated FA

Enoyl-CoA isomerase

Hypotonic refers to cell/environment having less solute

Environment

Chemical Digestion

Enzymatic breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules.

Carbonic Anhydrase

Enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of carbonic acid to carbon dioxide and water as well as the formation of carbonic acid from carbon dioxide and water.

DNA Ligase

Enzyme that covalently links the Okazaki fragments together.

Zymogen

Enzyme that must undergo processing before it can catalyze reactions.

Ecell=

Eo - (RT/nF) lnQ Eo - (0.059/n) log Q

What are some of the effects of epinephrine?

Epinephrine effects include: -increased heart rate -increased blood glucose level -increased blood supply to brain, muscle, and heart -decreased digestion and excretion

Osmotic pressure

Equilibrium happens when pressure stops move DC of water .

Saponification

Ester hydrolysis w/ strong base (TAG + 3NaOH = Glycerol + 3 Na(Fatty Acids))

Waxes

Esters of long chain fatty acids w/ long chain alcohols

What is the net gain in ATP from cellular respiration?

Eukaryotes = 36 ATP; Prokaryotes = 38 ATP.

What is a key differentiating criterion between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles; however, prokaryotic cells do not.

RNA poly II

Eukaryotic, locates TATA box; hnRNA (pre-processed RNA) synth + snRNA synth in nucleus

Newton's Third Law

Every action has an equal and opposite reaction

What happens to interstitial fluid that doesn't diffuse into a capillary?

Excess interstitial fluid is picked up by the lymphatic system and returned to the circulatory system.

higher

Excited states are "_________________" in energy than ground states.

F1

Extramembrane (phosphorylation)

T/F Enzymes affect Keq

F

T/F Enzymes affect thermodynamics

F

T/F Enzymes affect ΔG

F

T/F Enzymes affect ΔHrxn

F

T/F all human amino acids are specified by codons

F

T/F mRNA in eukaryotes is polycistronic

F

Name all of the hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland.

F (FSH: Follicle-Stimulating Hormone ) L (LH: Luteinizing Hormone) A (ACTH: Adrenocorticotropic Hormone) T (TSH: Thyroid Stimulating Hormone) P (Prolactin) E (Endorphins/Enkephalins) G (GH: Growth Hormone)

solids stress/sigma=

F/A

Law of Gravitation

F=Gm1m2/r^2 (physics) the law that states any two bodies attract each other with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them

k>G

F=Gm1m2/r^2 F=kq1q2/r^2 gravitational force is weaker compared to the much stronger electrostatic force because _ is larger than _

Coulomb's Law

F=kq1q2/r^2 electric force between charged objects depends on the distance between the objects and the magnitude of the charges.

Dihydrolipoyl DH

FAD is used to reoxidize lipoic acid

Hormone sensitive lipases are stimulated by

Fall in insulin, epi and cortisol

(T/F) DNA synthesis proceeds in the 3' to 5' direction.

False, DNA synthesis proceeds in the 5' to 3' direction.

(T/F) LH and FSH are secreted only in females.

False, LH and FSH are produced and secreted in males as well as females.

(T/F) In a resting neuron, Na+ concentration is higher inside the cell than outside the cell.

False, Na+ concentration is higher outside a resting neuron.

(T/F) Blood entering the pulmonary capillaries has a higher partial pressure of O2 than the air in the alveoli.

False, O2 partial pressure is lower in the pulmonary capillary blood than in the alveolar air.

(T/F) Bacteria and viruses are examples of prokaryotic cells.

False, bacteria are prokaryotic while viruses are non-living acellular structures.

(T/F) All enzymes in the body operate most efficiently at a pH of around 7.4.

False, certain enzymes in the digestive tract work best at acidic (e.g. stomach) and basic (e.g. duodenum) pH's.

(T/F) Chief cells secrete HCL into the stomach.

False, chief cells secrete pepsinogen into the stomach; parietal cells secretes HCL into the stomach.

(T/F) Constriction of blood vessels in the skin leads to decreased body temperature.

False, constriction of blood vessels in the skin leads to increased body temperature.

3 (T/F) Enzymes get used up during the course of a reaction.

False, enzymes are catalysts and therefore don't get used up during the course of a reaction.

(T/F) Facilitated diffusion is a passive process that requires energy.

False, facilitated diffusion is a passive process that moves a solute down its concentration gradient and therefore DOES NOT require energy.

(T/F) Adult hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than fetal hemoglobin.

False, fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen.

(T/F) Gray matter is composed of axons and white matter is composed of cell bodies.

False, gray matter is composed of cell bodies and white matter is composed of axons.

(T/F) Homologous chromosomes code for different traits.

False, homologous chromosomes code for the same traits.

(T/F) Dizygotic (fraternal) twins are identical.

False, monozygotic twins are identical.

(T/F) Most coenzymes are synthesized by the body.

False, most coenzymes are obtained from outside sources.

(T/F) In humans, most sex-linked genes are located on the Y chromosome.

False, most sex-linked genes are on the X chromosome.

(T/F) Platelets play a key role in the immune response.

False, platelets are key players in clot formation.

(T/F) All arteries carry oxygenated blood and all veins carry deoxygenated blood throughout the body.

False, pulmonary arteries and umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood while pulmonary veins and umbilical veins carry oxygenated blood.

(T/F) Sensory nerves enter the spinal cord ventrally and motor nerves leave the spinal cord dorsally.

False, sensory nerves enter dorsally and motor nerves leave ventrally.

(T/F) The diaphragm contracts during exhalation.

False, the diaphragm relaxes during exhalation and contracts during inhalation.

(T/F) A neuron can conduct during the absolute refractory period.

False, the neuron is unable to respond to stimulus during the refractory period.

(T/F) The nucleus is surrounded by a single-layered membrane.

False, the nuclear membrane is double-layered.

(T/F) Systole is when the heart relaxes and diastole is when the ventricles contract.

False, the ventricles contract during systole and the heart relaxes during diastole.

(T/F) Proteins synthesized by RER are secreted directly into the cytoplasm.

False, they are secreted into the cisternae of RER and then sent to smooth ER, where they are secreted into vesicles.

(T/F) Mitochondria replicate in a manner similar to a cell's other organelles.

False, they replicate via binary fission.

(T/F) Within a sarcomere, thick filaments are made of actin and thin filaments are made of myosin.

False, thin filaments are made of actin and thick filaments are made of myosin.

(T/F) Cilia and flagella are specialized arrangements of microfilaments and function in cell motility.

False, while cilia and flagella do function in cell motility, they are composed of microtubules.

(T/F) All enzymes in the body are proteins.

False, while most enzymes are proteins, a select few are RNA subunits or ribozymes.

White Fibers

Fast-twitch muscle fibers. They are primarily anaerobic and fatigue more easily than red fibers.

Fatty Acid Activation

Fats must be activated using two ATP molecules before they can be converted into acetyl CoA and enter the citric acid cycle.

iron (III) sulfate

Fe2(SO4)3 is called _______________.

How does feedback inhibition regulate an enzymatic process?

Feedback inhibition uses an end product as an allosteric inhibitor to the enzyme catalyzing the reaction.

Name the three categories of enzymatic regulatory inhibition

Feedback, reversible, and irreversible inhibition.

effective nuclear charge

Filling to the next shell causes a jump in atom size because of decreased "_________________"

Villi

Fingerlike projections that extend out of the small intestine in order to increase surface area for maximum absorption.

Fitness According to Darwin

Fitness is the ability of an organism to mate and produce fertile offspring.

Vitamin B9

Folic acid

huckels rule

For a molecule to be aromatic it must have 4n+2 pi electrons

How to calculate formal charge of an atom

Formal charge is valence electrons - {number of bonds + number of unbonded electrons}

Tetrad

Four chromatids that result when a pair of homologous chromosomes synapse during prophase I of meiosis.

Malate formation

Fumarase = Fumarate → Malate

nonpolar aa

G A V L I P M F

complimentary colors R O Y

G B V *chlorophyll absorbs red, appears green

Glycogenin

G-6P → G-1P + UDP → G-1P-UDP → Glycogen; stimulated by G-6P/insulin/inhibited by epi, glucagon through protein kinase

Glucose 6-phosphatase

G-6P → Glucose to circumvent hexo/glucokinase

DNA base excision repair occurs in phase

G1, G2 glycosylase, AP endonuclease

DNA nucleotide excision repair occurs in phase

G1, G2 via excision endonuclease

Mismatch repair happens in phase

G2

DNA mismatch repair occurs in phase

G2 via MSH2, MLH1

Gq

GPCR - Activated phospholipase C

Gi

GPCR - inhibits adenylate cyclase = Decrease in cAMP

Gs

GPCR - stimulates adenylate cyclase = Increase in cAMP

Peptidyl transferase requires

GTP

Lactose

Galactose-β-1,4-glucose

Nodes of Ranvier

Gaps between segments of myelin sheath where action potentials can propagate, allowing for saltatory conduction.

Alleles

Genes coding for alternative forms of a given trait.

Linked Genes

Genes that are located on the same chromosome.

How does genetic drift differ from gene flow?

Genetic drift refers to changes in the gene pool due to chance. Gene flow refers to the changing of the gene pool due to the migration of individuals.

Log calculations

Getting rid of logs on both sides means doing 10^ on each side

+3

Give the correct VALENCE for ions of the following element: Al

-1

Give the correct VALENCE for ions of the following element: Cl

+1

Give the correct VALENCE for ions of the following element: K

-2

Give the correct VALENCE for ions of the following element: O

Pyloric Glands

Glands located in the walls of the stomach that secrete the hormone gastrin in response to certain substances in food.

Endocrine Glands

Glands that synthesize and secrete hormones into the circulatory system. Examples include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland, thymus, pancreas, testes, ovaries, adrenal glands, thyroid gland, and parathyroid glands.

Exocrine Glands

Glands that synthesize and secrete substances either into the digestive tract or the surface of the body through the use of ducts. The gall bladder, pancreas, and mammary glands are examples of an exocrine glands.

Glycogenolysis is activated by/inactivated by

Glucagon in liver;AMP, epi in muscle/ATP in muscle

Contrast how glucagon and insulin affect blood glucose levels

Glucagon increases blood glucose levels. Insulin decreases blood glucose levels.

Gluconeogenesis is activated in the liver by

Glucagon, epi

Irreversible enzymes of glycolysis

Gluco/Hexokinase, PFK-1, Pyruvate kinase

What is the net reaction for glycolysis?

Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2NAD+ → 2Pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2H+ + 2H2O

G-1P

Glucose 1-phosphate

Sucrose

Glucose-α-1,2-fructose

Maltose

Glucose-α-1,4-glucose

Non polar/non aromatic amino acids

Gly, Ala, Val, Leu, Ile, Met, Pro

Glycogen synth begins with

Glycogenin

Contrast the locations of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle

Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm while the citric acid cycle occurs in the inner mitochondrial matrix.

Cadherins

Glycoproteins, mediate Ca2+ dependent cells, hold similar cells together

Globosides

Glycosphingolipids bound to many sugars

Cerebrosides

Glycosphingolipids bound to one sugar

Base excision repair

Glycosylase removes incorrect base

Which type of leukocyte plays a key role in inflammation and allergic reactions?

Granular leukocytes (basophils, eosinophils, and neutrophils) are active in inflammation and allergic reactions.

Do the following represent elements in a Group, a Period, or neither? O, S, Se

Group

Transition metals

Groups 3-12, 1-2 electrons in the outer energy level, less reactive than alsali-earth metals, shiny, good conductor of thermal energy and electrical current, high density

Secondary structure of polypeptides

H-bonds, intramolecular stabilizations

Ceramides

H-head group

Histones

H2A,H2B, H3, H4, H1

hydrogen carbonate/ bicarbonate

HCO₃ ⁻

haloacid trend

HI>HBr>HCl>HF longer bond correlates with weaker bond correlates with easier removal of proton

highest energy occupied molecular orbital

HOMO stands for

hydrogen sulfite/ bisulfite

HSO₃ ⁻

hydrogen sulfate/ bisulfate

HSO₄ ⁻

pKa means

Half the molecules are protonated/deprotonated

Haploid

Haploid cells have only one copy of each chromosome. Gametes (sperm and egg cells) in humans are haploid.

Sphingomyelins

Have phosphatidylethanolamine or phosphatidylcholine head group (head group has no net charge)

Sphingolipids

Have sphingolipid backbone

Transcription factors

Help RNA poly locate and bind to promoter

GLUT2

Hepatocytes, pancreatic cell glucose transporter (very high Km)

hnRNA

Heterogeneous nuclear RNA; primary transcript formed

Strong Acids

High Ka HCL HBr HI H2SO4 HCLO4 HNO3

Strong Bases

High Kb LiOH - lithium hydroxide NaOH - sodium hydroxide KOH - potassium hydroxide RbOH - rubidium hydroxide CsOH - cesium hydroxide *Ca(OH)2 - calcium hydroxide *Sr(OH)2 - strontium hydroxide *Ba(OH)2 - barium hydroxid

R state

High affinity "relaxed"

HDL

High density; Picks up cholesterol accumulating in blood

How would high levels of ADH affect urine concentration?

High levels of ADH result in concentrated urine.

According to the Bohr effect, what effect would high levels of H+ and HCO3- have on hemoglobin's affinity for O2?

High levels of H+ and HCO3- would decrease hemoglobin's affinity for O2. The O2 saturation curve would be shifted to the right.

Lower Km

Higher affinity

Contrast homologous and analogous structures

Homologous structures are similar in structure and origin but not function (e.g., whale flippers / human arms), whereas analogous structures are similar in function but not in origin (e.g., insect wings / bird wings).

Fischer projections

Horizontal goes up, vertical goes down

Testosterone

Hormone secreted by the interstitial cells of the testes. Testosterone is responsible for embryonic sexual differentiation, male sexual development, and the maintenance of masculine secondary sexual characteristics.

Progesterone

Hormone synthesized and released by the ovaries, corpus luteum, and placenta. During the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, the corpus luteum secretes progesterone, which, along with estrogen, stimulates the development and maintenance of the endometrial walls for implantation of the embryo.

Estrogen

Hormone synthesized and released by the ovaries, the ovarian follicles, the corpus luteum, and the placenta. Estrogen stimulates the development of the female reproductive tract and secondary sexual characteristics and is partly responsible for the LH spike that causes ovulation. Estrogen, along with progesterone produced by the placenta during the second trimester of pregnancy, helps inhibit the onset of a new menstrual cycle by blocking GnRH release.

Calcitonin

Hormone synthesized and released by the thyroid gland that decreases plasma Ca2+ concentration.

Amino Acid Derived Hormones

Hormones that are synthesized from amino acids. Some amino acid derived hormones act via secondary messengers, while others act in a fashion similar to steroid hormones by crossing the plasma membrane into the cell.

11

How many protons are in an isotope of sodium with a mass number of 25?

5

How many valence electrons does A have?

sp2

Hybridization of the double bond?

sp

Hybridization of the triple bond?

water

Hydrogen sulfide, H2S, has a shape similar to _____.

Hydrolase

Hydrolysis

Succinate formation

Hydrolysis of thioester = succinate + CoA (uses GTP)

Peptide Hormones

Hydrophilic hormones incapable of permeating the cell membrane that bind to surface receptors and act through secondary messengers.

OH -

Hydroxide

Hyperpolarization

Hyperpolarization refers to a state where the potential across the membrane is more negative than the resting potential.

ClO -

HypoChlorite

dihydrogen phosphate

H₂PO₄ ⁻

iodate

IO₃ ⁻

Acid naming

Ic are derivatives of anions ending in ate ous are derivatives of ones ending in ite

Equilibrium and Gibbs free energy

If K is high then energy will be negative which means the products are favored If K is low then energy will be positions which means the reactants are favored

stronger

If Q or q is big, the ionic bond is weaker or stronger?

weaker

If Q or q is small, the ionic bond is weaker or stronger?

weaker

If r is big, the ionic bond is weaker or stronger?

stronger

If r is small, the ionic bond is weaker or stronger?

ionic

If the electronegativity difference between elements X and Y is 2.1, the bond between the elements X-Y is ______.

ionic

If the electronegativity difference is too great, an "_________________" bond occurs instead of a covalent one.

Active Immunity

Immunity resulting from the production of antibodies during a previous infection or a vaccination.

e

In a covalently bonded molecule, the number of electrons that an atom shares with others is usually equal to the number of electrons ____________. a) in the atom b) in its nucleus c) in all the atoms d) in its ion e) needed to give it noble gas arrangement

anion negative

In an ionic bond, if Q represents a cation, q represents the charge on the _ _ _ _ _, and it is _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Post-transcriptional RNA Processing

In eukaryotes, once an RNA molecule is transcribed, it is spliced (introns are removed and exons are spliced together) and a 5' cap and 3' poly-adenine tail are added. RNA in prokaryotes does not undergo such processing.

Orbital structure of H

In the Bohr model, the hydrogen electron orbits the nucleus

What is the composition of a myelin sheath?

In the CNS, myelin is composed of the membranes of oligodendrocyes. In the PNS, myelin is composed of the membranes of Schwann cells.

up, right

In the periodic table, the effective nuclear charge increases as we go "_________________"

inner

In this Al atom, when considering the electrons in the second shell, what shell are the shielding electrons located in?

Zymogens

Inactive precursors (-ogen)

The only way to increase vmax

Increase number of enzyme

Bohr Effect

Increasing the concentration of H+ and CO2 reduces hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen, allowing for the transfer of oxygen to cells that require it most.

Inducible operator system

Inducer binds to repressor, binds to regulator blocking RNA poly from finding promoter site = positive control

Tumor supressor genes

Inhibit cell cycle

Isocitrate DH is regulated by

Inhibited by ATP, NADH

Citrate synthase is regulated by

Inhibited by ATP, NADH, citrate, succinyl-CoA

α-ketoglutarate DH complex is regulated by

Inhibited by succinyl-CoA, NADH, ATP (slows cycle), stimulated by ADP and Ca2+

Mixed inhibition

Inhibitor can bind to E or E-S, if E - Km goes up, if E-S - Km goes down, if both Vmax is decreased

Zona Pellucida

Inner layer of cells surrounding the oocyte. These cells are secreted by follicle cells. Penetration of the zona pellucida by a sperm forces the secondary oocyte to complete meiosis II.

Cofactors are often organic/inorganic

Inorganic

Glucokinase is induced by

Insulin

Gluconeogenesis is inhibited in the liver by

Insulin

How is PFK-1 activated by insulin

Insulin activates PFK-2, F-2,6-BP activates PFK-1

Pyruvate DH complex is activated by

Insulin in the liver, not responsive in nervous tissue

IDL

Intermediate density; picks up cholesterol from HDL to become LDL

F0

Intermembrane (proton engine)

Which type of neuron serves as a link between motor and sensory neurons?

Interneurons (associate neurons) link sensory and motor neurons.)

Peristalsis

Involuntary contractions of smooth muscle that push food through the digestive tract.

Apolipoproteins

Involved in signalling and transport of FA

Centrioles

Involved in spindle formation during cell replication. They are found only in animal cells.

b

Ionic bonding is expected in which of these compounds? a) Cl2 b) KF c) OF2 d) HF e) H2

increasing radii

Ionization energy decreases as you go down because of

decreasing radii

Ionization energy increases as you go right because of

Gamma ray

Ionizing. Form of electromagnetic radiation produced from sub-atomic particle interaction (electron-positron annihilation, radioactive decay). Most are generated from nuclear reactions within interstellar medium of space. Highest frequency, shortest wavelength.

yes, sp3

Is blue a hybridized orbital? If it is, what is the hybridization?

Theoretical yield

Is the maximum amount of product that could be formed from given amounts of reactants.

alkali metals

Is the name for this family of elements

alkaline earth metals

Is the name for this family of elements

halogens

Is the name for this family of elements

noble gases

Is the name for this family of elements

transition metals

Is the name for this family of elements

Rate limiting step in TCA

Isocitrate DH

α-ketoglutarate + CO2 formation

Isocitrate oxidized to oxalosuccinate (isocitrate DH), oxalosuccinate decarboxylated to α-ketoglutarate + CO2

very weak acid

Ka < 10^-14 pKa > 14 strong CB Kb >> 1 pKb < 0

strong acid

Ka >> 1 pKa < 0 weak CB Kb < 10^-14 pKb > 14

Single strand DNA binding proteins

Keep DNA from reannealing

Ketogenic amino acids are converted to

Ketone bodies

At vmax/2

Km = [S]

Kp vs Kc

Kp is pressure Kc is concentrations

All amino acids are L/D config

L

standing waves first harmonic

L= lambda/2 longest wavelength T=2L/v f= v/2L

lowest energy unoccupied molecular orbital

LUMO stands for

Name the following components of an osteon (Haversian system)

Lamellae Osteon Canaliculi Lacuna Haversian

Metals

Large atoms that tend to lose electrons to form positive ions and positive oxidation states Characteristics such as malleable, ductile, shine and conductivity describe ______.

Hypodermis

Layer of loose connective tissue below the dermis that binds the dermis to the body.

Missense

Leads to different amino acid

Chylomicrons

Least dense, transport dietary TAGs/cholesterol from intestine → tissue

Water moves

Less solute to high solute

Negative Super coiling

Less twists

Ligaments

Ligaments connect bone to bone and strengthen joints.

Photoreceptors

Light-sensitive proteins.

Spongy Bone

Lighter and less dense than compact bone, it consists of an interconnecting lattice of bony spicules (trabeculae). The cavities between the spicules contain bone marrow.

Starches

Linked α-D-glucose

Dihydroxypropyl transacetylase

Lipoic acid disulfide oxidizes acetyl to acetyl-CoA

Glucokinase is only found in

Liver

Liver Functions

Liver functions include regulation of blood glucose, detoxification of toxins, beta-oxidation of fatty acids, and destruction of old red blood cells.

Role of RNA poly I in eukaryotes

Located in nucleolus/synth rRNA

Role of RNA poly II in eukaryotes

Located in nucleus/synth hnRNA (some snRNA)

Role of RNA poly III in eukaryotes

Located in nucleus/synth tRNA (some rRNA)

Gastric Glands

Located in the stomach; secreted HCL and various enzymes (e.g., pepsin) when stimulated by gastrin.

Seminiferous Tubules

Located in the testes, the seminiferous tubules are the site of sperm production.

Glycogen

Lots of α-1,6 bonds

T state

Low affinity "tense"

LDL

Low density; delivers cholesterol to cells

How would low levels of aldosterone affect blood pressure?

Low levels of aldosterone lead to reduced plasma volume and therefore reduced blood pressure.

Water moves from high/low osmotic pressure to high/low

Low to high

Higher Km

Lower affinity

Which type of leukocyte plays a key role in immune response?

Lymphocytes are key players in immune response.

M1V1=

M2V2 titration/neutralization problems

Thermoregulation

Maintenance of a constant internal body temperature.

Osmoregulation

Maintenance of water and solute concentrations.

OAA formation (in TCA)

Malate DH = malate → OAA (NAD+ → NADH)

The number of neutrons in an atom is equal to __________

Mass Number - Atomic Number

Atomic weight

Mass number of an element is approximately equal to its molar mass/atomic weight

Mg(HSO4)2

Match the Chemical Name with the Correct formula: Magnesium Hydrogen Sulfate

MgSO4

Match the Chemical Name with the Correct formula: Magnesium Sulfate

MgS

Match the Chemical Name with the Correct formula: Magnesium Sulfide

MgSO3

Match the Chemical Name with the Correct formula: Magnesium Sulfite

Spermatozoa

Mature sperm specialized for transporting a male's genetic information to the ovum.

vmax

Max velocity = saturation

angular momentum (l)

Max; 4l+2 range 0---> -l

apoB-48

Mediates chylomicron secretion

Active Transport

Membrane transport that utilizes energy. Unlike other methods of transport, active transport can move particles from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration.

Lysosome

Membrane-bound vesicle that contains hydrolytic enzymes used for intracellular digestion.

Mendel's Law of Segregation

Mendel's postulation that there are alternate versions of genes that account for genetic variation. Each individual has two alleles for each gene, one maternal and one paternal in origin. During meiosis, these two alleles separate into two different gametes.

Magnesium Hydrogen Sulfite

Mg(HSO3)2

osmotic pressure pi=

MiRT

Km

Michaelis constant = half saturation

Microtubules

Microtubules maintain cell shape, form the spindle apparatus and provide tracks along which organelles can move In addition, they make up cilia and flagella.

Activation energy

Minimum amount of energy required to trigger a chemical reaction.

permanganate

MnO₄ ⁻

Noncompetitive Inhibitor

Molecule that inhibits the activity of an enzyme by binding to a regulatory site on the enzyme, thereby changing the conformation of the enzyme. Because these inhibitors do not directly compete with the substrate, increasing substrate concentration usually has little effect in counteracting this inhibition of the catalytic rate.

Competitive Inhibitor

Molecule that inhibits the activity of an enzyme by directly binding the active site of the system. This type of inhibition is usually reversible and can be overcome by increasing the substrate concentration.

Energy Carriers (NADH, NADPH, FADH2)

Molecules involved in cell respiration that serve as energy stores, releasing energy when oxidized to NAD+, NADP+, and FAD.

Molality

Mols of solute/ kg of solvent

Micelles

Monolayer

Positive Super coiling

More twists

Transferase

Moves func. group

electron spin

Ms

Compact Bone

Much more dense than spongy bone, compact bone consists of haversian systems (osteons).

Number of origin of replication sites in eukaryotes

Multiple

Ciliary Muscles

Muscular tissue in the eye, attached to the lens, that is used to control the lens's shape.

Iris

Muscular tissue in the ye that controls the amount of light allowed in through the pupil.

Oncogenes

Mutated genes that cause cancer (often cell cycle protein encoding genes)

Frameshift Mutation

Mutation in which a number of nucleotides (except multiples of three) are either deleted or inserted. Such mutations lead to a shift in the DNA reading frame and often result in the translation of nonfunctional proteins.

Point Mutation

Mutation in which one nucleotide base is substituted for another. The protein products are often functional.

Complex I

NADH-CoQ oxidoreductase, transfers e- from NADH to Q → QH2; uses Fe-S and flavoprotein, 4H are pumped out

Ammonium

NH₄ ⁺

does VP depend on shape/volume of container?

NO

Nitrite

NO₂ ⁻

Nitrate

NO₃ ⁻

done (1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d)

Name all the orbitals in order, then type "done"

Sequence the following structures of the respiratory tract: Alveoli, trachea, larynx, nares, pharynx, bronchi, bronchioles

Nares, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli

TATA box is located

Near -25

Anions

Negatively charged ions

Do the following represent elements in a Group, a Period, or neither? He, H, I

Neither

Glomerulus

Network of capillaries within the Bowman's capsule that serves as the site of filtration. Blood cells and proteins are too large to be filtered, but ions, glucose, and amino acids readily pass into the filtrate.

Efferent Neurons

Neurons that carry information from the central nervous system to other parts of the body.

Afferent Neurons

Neurons that carry information to the central nervous system from outlying tissues and sense organs.

object (inertia) action (sum of the forces) reaction (negative F)

Newton's mnemonic 1) o 2) a 3) r

Vitamin B3

Niacin

NO3 -

Nitrate

NO2 -

Nitrite

negative unfavorable a half-filled subshell is especially stable

Nitrogen's electron affinity is "_________________" Adding an electron or taking one away from Nitrogen is energetically "_________________" This is because "_________________"

Must amino acids have the amino group/carboxy acid bound to same carbon?

No

cDNA lacks

Non coding portions of DNA

Which of the following is a Characteristic of Non-Metals? a) Shiny. b) Malleable. c) Good Conductors of Heat d) Low Melting Points. e) Good Conductors of Electricity

Non-metals have (d) Low Melting Points.

Name the hormones synthesized by the posterior pituitary gland.

None. The posterior pituitary stores hormones (oxytocin and ADH) that are synthesized in the hypothalamus.

Codon

Nonoverlapping group of three nucleotides. During translation, each codon is read to determine the next step in protein synthesis, usually by dictating which amino acid is added.

Steroid Hormones

Nonpolar hormones that permeate the cell membrane and act by binding to intracellular receptors.

2

Number of atoms bonded to sp carbon? (no unbonded electron pairs)

3

Number of atoms bonded to sp2 carbon? (no unbonded electron pairs)

4

Number of atoms bonded to sp3 carbon? (no unbonded electron pairs)

3

Number of hybrid orbitals in sp2?

4

Number of hybrid orbitals in sp3?

2

Number of hybrid orbitals in sp?

What is the final electron acceptor of the electron transport chain?

O2, which then forms water.

hydroxide

OH ⁻

London dispersion forces

Occur between two instantaneous dipoles; the weakest dipole-dipole force (vs. hydrogen bonds which are the strongest dipole-dipole forces).

Proto-oncogenes

Oncogenes before they are mutated

Number of origin of replication sites in prokaryotes

One

Phosphorylizing glycogen results in

One G-1P

Amylose

Only 1,4 bonds

Role of IP3

Open Ca2+ channels

Heterozygous

Organisms containing two different alleles for the same gene on corresponding chromosomes.

Homozygous

Organisms containing two identical copies of the same gene on corresponding chromosomes.

Corona Radiata

Outer layer of cells surrounding the oocyte. These cells are secreted by follicle cells.

Starting with the ovary, name the different structure of the female reproductive tract.

Ovary, oviduct (Fallopian tube), uterus, cervix, vagina

Where does oxidative phosphorylation occur?

Oxidative phosphorylation occurs at the inner mitochondrial membrane during the electron transport stage of cellular respiration.

peroxide

O₂ ⁻²

when affecting V and both P and T change

P > T

pascal's law

P=F/A P1-P2=rho*deltay*g Ptot=Patm+rhogh

PDH is regulated by

PDH kinase - phosphorylates w/ high ATP (inactivates)

reworking the ideal gas law for temperature

PM/densityR

nonpolar

POLAR or NON-POLAR? carbon dioxide

nonpolar

POLAR or NON-POLAR? carbon tetrachloride

polar

POLAR or NON-POLAR? hydrogen sulfide

polar

POLAR or NON-POLAR? water

phosphite

PO₃ ⁻³

phosphate

PO₄ ⁻³

Homologous Chromosomes

Paired chromosomes in a diploid cell that contain different alleles for the same trait at corresponding loci, although not necessarily similar functions.

Why is pancreatic juice basic (high pH)?

Pancreatic juice contains bicarbonate ion, which serves to neutralize the acidic chyme from the stomach. This is necessary because pancreatic enzymes work best at a basic pH.

Vitamin B5

Pantothenic acid

Parallel Evolution

Parallel evolution refers to the process whereby related groups independently develop similar characteristics due to analogous environmental pressures.

What do parietal cells secrete into the stomach?

Parietal cells secrete HCl into the stomach.

Facilitated Diffusion

Passive movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration using carrier molecules. -Does not require energy.

Simple Diffusion

Passive movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration without the use of energy.

Osmosis

Passive movement of water from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration; can also be considered a "diffusion of water" from higher water concentration to lower water concentration.

Electron configuration

Patterned order by which electrons fill subshells and energy levels in an atom. First number designates principal quantum number (n); s, p, d, f, or g specify the subshell (l); and the superscript indicates the number of electrons in that subshell.

MnO4 -

Permanagate

apoB-100

Permits uptake of LDL by liver

apoE

Permits uptake of chylomicron remnants + VLDL by the liver

Peroxisomes

Peroxisomes make hydrogen peroxide and digest fats into smaller molecules.

Lytic Cycle

Phase in viral replication in which the host cell is lysed and releases new virons.

Interphase

Phase of the cell cycle in which cell division does not take place. Includes the G1 phase, S phase, and G2 phase. Cells in interphase may or may not be growing.

Lysogenic Cycle

Phase of viral replication in which the DNA of the bacteriophage becomes integrated in the host's genome and replicates as the bacteria replicates.

PO4 -3

Phosphate

Vitamin K

Phylloquinone, menaquinone, essential for posttranscriptional modification of prothrombin

Phenotype

Physical manifestation of an individual's genotype.

What is the difference between pinocytosis and phagocytosis?

Pino- endocytosis of liquids and small particles Phago- endocytosis of large particles

Which type of eukaryotic cells have a cell wall?

Plant cells and fungal cells have a cell wall.

Episomes

Plasmids that have the ability to integrate into the host genome.

P ideal=

Pobs + a n^2/Vol^2 a= (-) if particles repel

Gangliosides

Polar head group w/ one or more N-acetylneuraminc acid

Native PAGE

Polyacrylamide gel - uses native/functional protein to compare molecular size/charge

3' Poly-A-tail

Polyadenosyl tail added to 3' end of mRNA transcript (3' is degraded in cytoplasm)

Ascending Limb of the Loop of Henle

Portion of the nephron not permeable to water. As the filtrate flows up the ascending limb through decreasing concentration of the interstitial fluid, ions (Na+ and Cl-) are actively pumped out of the filtrate, decreasing filtrate concentration.

Descending Limb of the Loop of Henle

Portion of the nephron permeable only to water. The filtrate becomes more concentrated (loses water) as it travels through the descending limb due to the increasing concentration of the interstitial fluid.

Collecting Duct

Portion of the nephron permeable to water and ions. As the filtrate flows down the collecting duct through the increasing concentration of the interstitial fluid, the filtrate is concentrated further. The degree of water reabsorption in the collecting duct is controlled by the action of the hormones ADH and aldosterone.

Nonsense

Premature stop codon

Tight junctions

Prevent solutes from leaking between cells

Antioxidant

Prevents oxidative damage

Mesoderm

Primary germ layer that lies in between the ectoderm and the endoderm. Gives rise to the musculoskeletal system, circulatory system, excretory system, gonads, connective tissue throughout the body, and portions of the digestive and respiratory organs.

What is the sequence of development for a mature sperm cell?

Primary spermatocyte → Secondary spermatocyte → Spermatid → Spermatozoa

Fermentation

Process by which the cell is able to anaerobically replenish the NAD+ used during glycolysis by oxidizing NADH. In this process, pyruvate (the product of glycolysis) is reduced by NADH to form ethanol (in yeast) or lactic acid (in humans).

Pentose phosphate pathway

Produce NADPH and ribose-5-phosphate

Glucagon

Produced and secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas, glucagon increases blood glucose concentration by promoting gluconeogenesis and the conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver.

Insulin

Produced and secreted by the beta cells of the pancreas, insulin decreases blood glucose concentrations by facilitating the uptake of glucose by muscle and adipose cells and the conversion of glucose to glycogen in muscle and liver cells.

Somatostatin

Produced and secreted by the delta cells of the pancreas, somatostatin inhibits the release of glucagon, insulin, and several other hormones throughout the body.

dipole moment

Product of the amount of partial charge at either end of a molecule's dipole multiplied by the distance between them, given equation "p=qd". P is the dipole moment, q is the partial charge, and d is the distance separating the dipole

The Law of Mass Action

Products^coefficients/Reactants^coefficients

PCNA

Proliferating cell nuclear antigen

Interrupts α-helices

Proline

β-sheet

Proline is found in turns

What is the order of the four stages of mitosis?

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase

Immunoglobulins

Protein antibodies, each of which is produced in response to a specific foreign substance. An immunoglobulin recognizes and binds to its specific antigen and triggers an immune response.

Where do protein digestion and lipid digestion begin?

Protein digestion begins in the stomach and lipid digestion begins in the small intestine respectively.

Fibrin

Protein responsible for blood clotting.

Nucleotide excision repair

Protein searches for bulges and then cuts them

Blood Antigens

Proteins found on the erythrocyte cell surface. Three antigens used to differentiate blood groups are A, B, and Rh. If a host organism is transfused with erythrocytes containing antigens that the host does not have, an immune response will be triggered, such as in the case of erythroblastosis fetalis.

Bradford Protein Assays

Protonated/Deprotonated = brown-green/blue

Effective Nuclear Charge

Pull on valence electrons due to the charge of the nucleus (minus the opposite pull of shielding electrons)

Vitamin B6

Pyridoxal phosphate

PDH

Pyruvate DH complex, Pyruvate → Acetyl CoA

3 enzymes in PDH

Pyruvate DH, dihydroxypropyl transacetylase, dihydrolipoyl DH

Pyruvate DH

Pyruvate → CO2 + Acetyl-CoA

Pyruvate carboxylase

Pyruvate → OAA

Complex III

QH2 cytochrome c oxidoreductase; transfers e- from QH2 to cytochrome c

absolute configuration

R(clockwise) or S(Counterclockwise)- way to physically describe the orientation of atoms about a chiral center. How two enantiomers are distinguished.

theta decreases as

R/h increases

Ribonucleic Acid

RNA is similar to DNA, but the sugar in RNA is a ribose instead of a deoxyribose, and adenine pairs with uracil instead of thymine.

Name three differences between RNA and DNA

RNA uses ribose instead of deoxyribose. RNA replaces thymine with uracil. RNA is usually single-stranded.

PFK-1

Rate limiting step in glycolysis; F-1P → F-1,6-BP; inhibited by citrate/ATP, activated by AMP/insulin

Isomerase

Rearranges bonds

5' cap

Recognition site for ribosomes

AP endonuclease

Recognizes apurinic/apyrimidinic site (abasic site) and cleaves behind it to base excise repair

Purpose of fermentation

Recycle NAD+; Pyruvate + NADH → Lactate + NAD+

Monosynaptic Reflex

Reflex pathway that has only one synapse between the sensory neuron and the motor neuron (e.g., knee-jerk reflex).

Operon structure

Regulator, promoter, operator, structural

MSH2, MLH1

Remove mismatched errors

DNA poly I

Removes RNA primer and adds DNA in prokaryotes

RNase H

Removes RNA primer in eukaryotes

snRNA

Removes introns from mRNA

DNA poly γ

Replicates mitochondrial DNA

s-block, p-block

Representative elements include these parts of the periodic table.

Repressible operator system

Repressor binds to corepressor which binds to operator = negative control

What happens to respiratory rate when high concentrations of CO2- and/or H+ are in the blood?

Respiratory rate increases.

Monozygotic Twins

Results when a single zygote splits into two embryos. Since both embryos contain identical alleles, they are often called identical twins.

Dizygotic Twins

Results when two ova are fertilized by two different sperm. Since the two resulting embryos develop from distinct zygotes, they do not have identical alleles.

Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase

Reverses PFK, F-1,6-BP → F-1P; activated by ATP; inhibited by AMP, F-2,6-BP

Vitamin B2

Riboflavin

rRNA

Ribosomal RNA - functions as ribozymes

Starting with the right atrium, trace the path of blood flow throughout the body.

Right atrium, tricuspid valve, right ventricle, pulmonary arteries, pulmonary capillaries, pulmonary veins, left atrium, bicuspid valve, left ventricle, aorta, arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins, vena cava.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum serves as an attachment point for ribosomes, which functions in protein synthesis for membrane bound proteins and proteins to be excreted from the cell.

polar uncharged aa

S T C Y N Q

DNA proofreading occurs in phase

S via DNA poly

All amino acids have __ config.

S, except cysteine (due to priority)

Cystine

S-S bond (no sulfhydryl)

elevator accelerating up

S-W=ma

elevator decelerating

S=W+ma

thiocyanate

SCN ⁻

Name the different structures of the male reproductive tract.

SEVEN UP: Seminiferous tubules (testes), epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, (nothing), urethra, penis.

sulfite

SO₃ ⁻²

sulfate

SO₄ ⁻²

If [S] is below Km

SUbstrate conc. drastically affects rxn rate

What enzyme does saliva contain and what does it digest?

Saliva contains salivary amylase, which digests starch (carbohydrates).

Structural isomer

Same molecular formula but different bond connectivity.

Ribosome translation occurs at __ in prokaryotes and __ in eukaryotes

Schine-Delgarno sequence; 5' cap

selenate

SeO₄ ⁻²

DNA ligase

Seals ends of DNA together

Histone 1

Seals off DNA

Intestinal Glands

Secrete maltase, sucrase, lactase, aminopeptidase, dipeptidase, and enterokinase into the small intestine.

Pineal Gland

Secretes melatonin, and is thought to help regulate sleep wake cycles in response to external lighting cues.

Pancreas

Secretes pancreatic amylase, trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase, and lipase into the small intestine.

Large Intestine

Section of the GI tract that consists of the cecum, the colon, and the rectum. The major function of the large intestine is to absorb salts and water.

Exons

Segments of coding eukaryotic mRNA that are spliced together during post-transcriptional processing.

Introns

Segments of noncoding eukaryotic mRNA that are spliced out during post-transcriptional processing and are not translated into proteins.

Semi-log plot

Semi-log plots: for the purposes of the MCAT, semi-log plots convert exponential curves into straight lines.

Affinity chromatography

Separation based on affinity (difficult to unbind protein of interest)

Ion exchange

Separation based on charge

Size-exclusion

Separation based on size (big first)

Polar amino acids (non charged)

Ser, Thr, Asn, Gln, Cys

GLycerol 3-P shuttle

Shuttles NADH into mitochondria; Glycerol 3-P → DHAP reduces FAD → FADH2 which reduces Q → QH2 which reduces flavoprotein and DHAP to make glycerol 3-P inside mitochondria

silicate

SiO₃ ⁻²

Analogous Structures

Similar structures that share a common function but not similar origins.

Homologous Structures

Similar structures that share a common origin.

What kinds of nucleic acid are found in viruses?

Single- or double-stranded DNA or RNA.

Proximal Convoluted Tubule

Site where glucose, AA, and other important organic mol are reabsorbed from the filtrate into the interstitial fluid. The proximal convoluted tubules lie in the cortex of the kidney.

Proximal Convoluted Tubule

Site where glucose, amino acids, and other important organic molecules are reabsorbed from the filtrate into the interstitial fluid. The proximal convoluted tubules lie in the cortex of the kidney.

List some nonspecific immune defense mechanisms.

Skin, ciliated mucosa, macrophages, lysozyme, interferons and inflammatory responses are all examples of nonspecific defense mechanisms.

Red Fibers

Slow-twitch muscle fibers. They are primarily aerobic and contain many mitochondria and myoglobin.

Rate-determining step

Slowest step in a reaction mechanism determining the overall rate of reaction.

Okazaki Fragments

Small fragments of DNA that form the lagging strand during DNA replication.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth ER)

Smooth ER is the site of lipid synthesis and poison detoxification, and it is involved in protein transport within the cell.

Which component of the nervous system innervates smooth muscle?

Smooth muscle is innervated by the autonomic nervous system.

SDS-PAGE

Sodium dodecyl sulfate - separates proteins based on mass alone by disrupting covalent interactions creating neg. charge on everything

Microfilaments

Solid rods of actin that are involved in cell movement and cell wall support.

α-helices

Stabilized by H-bonds between COO- and NH3+

Hyperpolarization

State where the potential across the membrane is more negative than the resting potential.

Posterior Pituitary

Stores and releases hormones (oxytocin and ADH) synthesized by the hypothalamus. The release of these hormones is triggered by an action potential that originates in the hypothalamus.

Secondary Immune Response

Subsequent infections by antigens trigger a more immediate response by the memory cells produced during the primary response.

If [S] is above Km

Substrate conc. does not affect rxn rate (saturation)

Fumarate formation

Succinate DH = succinate → fumarate

Complex II

Succinate-CoQ oxidoreductase; receives e- from succinate

SO4 -2

Sulfate

SO3 -2

Sulfite

In which layer of the skin are sweat glands, sense organs, and blood vessels located?

Sweat glands, sense organs and blood vessels are located in the dermis.

Lymph Nodes

Swellings along the lymph vessels where lymph is filtered by leukocytes to remove antigens.

H He Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

Symbols for the 1st 18 elements?

What is the purpose of synapsis and crossing over and in what phase of meiosis do they occur?

Synapsis and crossing over, which occur in prophase 1 of meiosis, provide an opportunity for genetic variation.

Glucocorticoids

Synthesized and released by the adrenal cortex, glococorticoids raise blood glucose levels while decreasing protein synthesis.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone

Synthesized and released by the anterior pituitary, ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to synthesize and secrete glucocorticoids. ACTH is regulated by corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRF), which is relesed by the hypothalamus.

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone

Synthesized and released by the anterior pituitary, FSH stimulates maturation of ovarian follicles in females and maturation of the seminiferous tubules and sperm production in males. FSH is regulated by estrogen and gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH).

Growth Hormone

Synthesized and released by the anterior pituitary, GH stimulates bone and muscle growth as well as glucose conservation. GH is inhibited by somatostatin and stimulated by growth hormone-releasing hormone (secreted by the hypothalamus).

Luteinizing Hormone

Synthesized and released by the anterior pituitary, LH stimulates ovulation and formation of the corpus luteum. LH is regulated by estrogen, progesterone, and gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH).

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone

Synthesized and released by the anterior pituitary, TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to absorb iodine so that it can synthesize and secrete thyroid hormone. TSH is regulated by the thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH), which is released by the hypothalamus.

Endorphins

Synthesized and released by the anterior pituitary, endorphins inhibit the perception of pain.

Parathyroid Hormone

Synthesized and released by the parathyroid gland, PTH increases blood Ca2+ concentration by increasing Ca2+ reabsorption in the kidneys and by stimulating calcium release from bone.

Thyroid Hormones

Synthesized and released by the thyroid gland, thyroid hormones (triiodothyronine and thyroxine, known as T3 and T4, respectively) stimulate cellular respiration as well as protein and fatty acid synthesis and degradation.

Adrenal Cortex

Synthesizes and releases corticosteroid (including glucocorticoids and mineralcorticoids) when stimulated by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).

Adrenal Medulla

Synthesizes and releases epinephrine and norepinephrine, which stimulate an increase in the metabolic rate and blood glucose levels.

Anterior Pituitary

Synthesizes and releases many vital hormones, including follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, prolactin, endorphins, and growth hormone (the "FLAT PEG" hormones). The anterior pituitary is under the hormonal control of the hypothalamus.

DNA poly α + δ

Synthesizes daughter strands 5' → 3' in eukaryotes

DNA poly III

Synthesizes daughter strands 5' → 3' in prokaryotes

T/F electric fields can accelerate a particle from rest and DO work on a charged particle

T

T/F magnetic fields cannot accelerate a charged particle from rest and DO NO work on a charged particle

T

T/F simple harmonic oscillation period and amplitude are independent of eachother

T

Keq changes with

T ONLY only includes solutes & gases

T lymphocytes

T lymphocytes are involved in cell-mediated immunity. They are responsible for the body's defense against viral and fungal infections.

Yes

T or F Dipole Dipole interactions are negligible in the gas phase. Why or why not?

Yes (because the molecules are too far apart)

T or F Dipole Dipole interactions are negligible in the gas phase. Why or why not?

T

T or F It does not matter what shapes the orbitals have or what types they are. They can be s orbitals or p orbitals or hybrid orbitals. What makes each of these a sigma bond is that the orbital overlap occurs directly between the nuclei of the atoms.

T

T or F With electrostatic energy, the negative sign is frequently dropped and only the magnitude of the electrostatic energy is used.

F

T or F the dipole moment measures the swing of electrons back and forth between atoms

T

T or F, an integer includes 0?

F

T or F? An sp3 hybridized carbon is a triple bond?

Binding substrate causes R/T to go to R/T

T to R

DHAP is used in liver/adipose tissue for

TAG synth

Lipases

TAG → DAG + FA → MAG + 2FA → Glycerol + 3FA

Eukaryotic promoter

TATA box

According to the ATOMIC THEORY, atoms are neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction.

TRUE

Telomeres

TTAGGG repeating unit; high GC content knots off chromosome

Ketose sugars are reduced by

Tautomerization - rearrange bonds by moving hydrogen = double bond

VP increases with

Temperature

mRNA is complementary to the

Template strand, it is identical to the coding strand

Terpenoids

Terpene derivatives

principal

The "_________________" quantum number defines what shell the electron is in

magnetic

The "_________________" quantum number describes an orbital's ORIENTATION in space

spin

The "_________________" quantum number describes the DIRECTION in which an electron spins

angular momentum

The "_________________" quantum number describes the SHAPE of the orbital

principal

The "_________________" quantum number describes the SIZE of the orbital

angular momentum

The 3 images depict a change in the "_________________" quantum number

magnetic

The 3 images depict a change in the "_________________" quantum number

principal

The 3 images depict a change in the "_________________" quantum number

During contraction, what happens to the width of the A band?

The A band is always of constant width.

Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi receives vesicles from smooth ER, modifies them, and repackages them into vesicles for distribution.

The Group 8A elements a) are unreactive and rarely found in combination with other elements. b) are good conductors of electricity. c) melt at high temperatures d) are liquids at room temperature. e) react vigorously with water.

The Group 8A elements (a) are unreactive and rarely found in combination with other elements.

During contraction, what happens to the H zone and I band?

The H zone and the I band contract and decrease in length.

What protein complex is responsible for the resting potential (−70 mV) of a neuron?

The Na+/K+ pump is responsible for the neuron's resting potential.

Rh Factor

The Rh factor is an antigen on the surface of RBCs. Following the birth of an Rh+ child, an Rh− mother develops antibodies to the Rh factor. These antibodies can attack the blood cells of any future Rh+ fetuses carried by the mother.

shape

The VSEPR theory allows us to determine the most favorable _____ of a molecule

ionic

The _____ bond forms when electrons transfer completely from one atom to another, resulting in oppositely charged species that attract each other via electrostatic interaction.

electronegativity

The ability of an atom to attract the shared electrons in a covalent bond is its ____________.

Wild Type

The allele for a given trait that is most common in the population of the organism found in nature.

Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment

The alleles of different genes assort independently during meiosis. We now know that this is true only for unlinked genes.

Expiratory Reserve Volume

The amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a normal exhalation.

Residual Volume

The amount of air that must remain in the lung at all times in order to prevent lung collapse.

dash line wedge formula

The black wedge is assumed to be coming out of the page, the dashed wedge is assumed to be going into the page, and the lines are assumed to be in the plane of the page.

Appendicular Skeleton

The bones of the pelvis, the pectoral girdles, and the limbs.

a

The carbon tetrachloride molecule, CCl4, has the shape of a a) tetrahedron. b) square c) cube d) circle e) sphere

Where does respiration occur in the bacterial cell?

The cell membrane is the site of respiration in bacteria.

What are the cellular components of blood?

The cellular components of blood are erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), and platelets.

Central Nervous System

The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord.

Centrosome

The centrosome is the region of a cell that contains the centrioles.

Cerebellum

The cerebellum is the part of the brain that is responsible for coordination.

What is the largest part of the human brain?

The cerebral cortex is the largest part of the human brain.

Cerebral Cortex

The cerebral cortex processes and integrates sensory input and motor response, and controls memory.

Resting Potential

The charge difference (maintained by the Na+/K+ pump) across the cell membrane of a neuron or a muscle cell while at rest.

One molecule of glucose requires how many turns of the citric acid cycle?

The citric acid cycle (TCA) completes two cycles (turns) per molecule of glucose.

Intermediates

The compounds that form between the initial reactant and the final product

Chirality

The condition in which a molecule is not superimposable on its mirror image, meaning that there is no way to rotate the atoms around their bonds in order to make it identical to its mirror image. Often referred to as "handedness." Molecule is chiral when bonded to four different substituents

Negative Pressure Breathing

The contraction of the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles increases the volume of the thoracic cavity, reducing the pressure in the intrapleural space. This decrease in pressure creates a vacuum that causes the lungs to suck in air.

What are the corona radiata and zona pellucida?

The corona radiata is the outer layer of cells that surrounds the ovum. The zona pellucida is a membrane (secreted by oocyte and follicular cells) that surrounds the ovum.

Corpus Callosum

The corpus callosum connects the brain's left hemisphere with its right hemisphere and correlates their activities.

dinitrogen trioxide

The correct name for the compound N2O3 is

Oxidative Phosphorylation

The coupling of the oxidation of NADH, NADPH, and FADH2 with the phosphorylation of ADP. The electron transport chain utilizes oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP.

Citric Acid Cycle

The cycle begins when the two-carbon acetyl group from acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form citric acid. This product then proceeds through a series of reactions that result in the regeneration of oxaloacetate and the production of three NADH, one FADH2, and one GTP/

Cytoskeleton

The cytoskeleton gives the cell mechanical support, maintains cell shape, and function in cell motility. It is composed of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.

Expressivitiy

The degree to which an organism expresses its genotype.

Parthenogenesis

The development of an unfertilized egg into an adult organism.

Which segment(s) of the small intestine is/are primarily responsible for digestion?

The duodenum is primarily responsible for digestion while the jejunum and ileum are primarily responsible for absorption.

What structures arise from ectoderm?

The ectoderm gives rise to the integument (skin), lens of the eye, inner ear, and nervous system.

Coulomb's Law

The electric force between charged objects is given by ________+_________, and depends on the distance between the objects and the magnitude of the charges.

Path of Electrical Impulse

The electrical impulse originates in the sinoatrial (SA) node, located in the right atrium. It then travels through the atrioventricular (AV) node, then through the bundle of His, and finally through the Purkinje fibers. This path of electrical impulse regulates cardiac muscle contraction.

o

The electrons in the s subshell of this shell are highest in energy. (K, L, M, N, or O?)

negative

The electrostatic potential energy in an ionic bond is positive or negative? (Why?)

negative (sign on q is negative in an ionic bond)

The electrostatic potential energy in an ionic bond is positive or negative? (Why?)

Allantois

The embryonic membrane that contains the growing embryo's waste products.

What structures arise from endoderm?

The endoderm gives rise to the epithelial linings of digestive and respiratory tracts, parts of liver, pancreas, thyroid, and bladder.

first ionization energy

The energy needed to knock off the first valence electron.

second ionization energy

The energy needed to knock off the second valence electron.

2n2

The equation for electrons per shell

n^2

The equation for the number orbitals per shell. (This is true for the 1st four shells only)

Crossing Over

The exchange of genetic material between chromosomes (usually homologous chromosomes) that occurs during prophase I of meiosis. Crossing over aids in evolution and genetic diversity by unlinking otherwise linked genes.

Nondisjunction

The failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during meiosis I and meiosis II, respectively. This usually results in gametes that lack certain genes or have multiple copies of those genes.

Semen

The fluid discharged during ejaculation. Semen consists of sperm cells and seminal fluid (fluid from the prostate and bulbourethral glands).

Fluid Mosaic Model

The fluid mosaic model states that a cell membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer with proteins embedded throughout.

What are the 5 necessary conditions for the Hardy-Weinberg equation to hold true?

The following are necessary conditions for the Hardy-Weinberg equation to hold true: 1. There are no mutations that affect the gene pool. 2. The population must be very large. 3. Genes in the population are equally successful at reproducing. 4. Mating occurs randomly. 5. There is no net migration of individuals into or out of the population.

Name the four basic types of tissue found in the body?

The four basic types of tissue found in the body are: epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscle.

Phases of the menstrual cycle

The four phases of the menstrual cycle are follilcular phase, ovulation, luteal phase, and menstruation.

What are the four regions of the spinal cord?

The four regions of the spinal cord are cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral.

What are the four stages of the cell cycle?

The four stages of the cell cycle are: G1, S, G2, and M.

Fovea

The fovea is the region of the retina with a high density of cones.

What happens to the free energy (G) of a reaction if it is catalyzed by an enzyme?

The free energy of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction is the same as the reaction without the enzyme.

Nephron

The functional unit of the kidney. Can be subdivided into the Bowman's capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, descending limb of the loop of Henle, ascending limb of the loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct.

What are the functions of the skeleton?

The functions of the skeleton are physical support, protection of delicate organs (e.g., brain), source of blood cells (i.e., bone marrow).

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an individual.

stronger

The greater the magnitude of electrostatic potential, the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ the ionic bond.

Inner Cell Mass

The group of cells in a blastocyst (mammalian blastula) that develop into the embryo.

In what trimester does the fetal heart begin to beat?

The heart begins to beat in the first trimester.

What are the components of the hindbrain?

The hindbrain is composed of the cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata.

What would happen if a lysosome released its contents into the cytoplasm?

The hydrolytic enzymes of the lysosome would digest the organelles and kill the cell. This process is known as autolysis.

The anterior pituitary is regulated in part by what other endocrine gland?

The hypothalamus

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is responsible for visceral functions such as hunger, thirst, and sex drive.

d

The image represents this subshell

f

The image represents this subshell

p

The image represents this subshell

s

The image represents this subshell

Induction

The influences of a group of cells (sometimes called the organizer) on the development of other cells. Induction is achieved by chemical substances known as inducers.

Primary Immune Response

The initial response to a specific antigen. During a primary response, T and B lymphocytes are activated and specific antibodies and memory cells to the antigen are produced.

Amnion

The innermost extraembryonic membrane that contains amniotic fluid in which the growing fetus is suspended.

Endoderm

The innermost of the three primary germ layers. Gives rise to the linings of the digestive and respiratory tracts, and to parts of the liver, pancreas, thyroid, and bladder.

How does the pH in the interior of a lysosome compare with the pH in the rest of the cell?

The interior of a lysosome is acidic and therefore has a lower pH than the rest of the cell.

What is the primary function of the large intestine?

The large intestine functions primarily to absorb water and salts.

Dermis

The layer of skin beneath the epidermis that is subdivided into the papillary layer and the reticular layer. It contains the sweat glands, sense organs, blood vessels, and the bulbs of hair follicles, and is derived from the mesoderm.

Ground state

The lowest energy state of an atom

no orbital in a subshell can be doubly occupied before each is singly occupied, and all singly occupied orbitals have the same spin

The main 2 points of Hund's rule

one quantum state per electron

The main point of Pauli Exclusion Principle

Homeostasis

The maintenance of a stable internal environment.

Filtrate

The material that passes from the blood vessels into the Bowman's capsule and travels through the nephron to eventually become urine.

18

The maximum number of electrons that may occupy the 3rd electron shell is

Vital Capacity

The maximum volume of air that can be inhaled or exhaled by the lungs with a single breath.

Total Lung Capacity

The maximum volume of air that the lung can hold, which includes the vital capacity and the residual volume.

Which part of the brain controls breathing?

The medulla oblongata controls breathing.

What structures arise from mesoderm?

The mesoderm gives rise to the musculoskeletal system, circulatory system, connective tissue, excretory system, and gonads.

What are the components of the middle ear and inner ear?

The middle ear is composed of the tympanic membrane, malleus, incus, and stapes. The inner ear is composed of the cochlea (which contains the organ of Corti) and the semicircular canals.

Threshold Value

The minimal value that must be reached in order for the system to respond. Muscle fibers and neurons exhibit an all-or-none response, where the system initiates an action potential or muscle contraction only if the threshold value is met.

Anaphase

The mitotic phase involving the separation of chromosomes.

Prophase

The mitotic phase where chromosome condensation and spindle formation occurs. This is phase of meiosis where crossing over occurs to ensure genetic diversity.

Telophase

The mitotic phase where cytokinesis (or the division of the cytoplasm) occurs.

Metaphase

The mitotic phase where the chromosomes line up at the equatorial plate.

Punctuated Equilibrium

The model of punctuated equilibrium holds that evolution is characterized by long periods of stasis punctuated by rapid evolutionary changes.

electronegative

The more "_________________" element in a covalent bond gets a larger share of the electrons and has a partial negative charge

Partial ionic character

The more electronegative atom receives a partial negative charge. The less electronegative atom receives a partial positive charge.

Polarity and boiling point

The more polar something is the higher it boiling and melting points are

Endometrium

The mucosal lining of the uterus where the embryo implants. Progesterone is necessary for the maintenance of the endometrium during pregnancy.

Ventricles

The muscular lower chambers of the heart. The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery, while the left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood throughout the body.

bromide

The name for an ion of Br- or for a chemical compound containing that ion.

aluminum sulfate

The name of Al2(SO4)3 is ____________.

Hydrogen Sulfate

The name of the HSO4 ion is?

Effective nuclear charge

The nuclear charge experienced by outer shell electrons, which is diminished by their distance from the nucleus and by the shielding effect of inner shell electrons

How is material exchanged between the nucleus and the cytoplasm?

The nuclear membrane contains nuclear pores that selectively allow for the exchange of materials.

Nucleolus

The nucleolus synthesizes ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

3

The number of electron shells (not subshells) in a magnesium atom is

10

The number of electrons held by this subshell when it is full

14

The number of electrons held by this subshell when it is full

2

The number of electrons held by this subshell when it is full

6

The number of electrons held by this subshell when it is full

1

The number of orbitals in this subshell

3

The number of orbitals in this subshell

5

The number of orbitals in this subshell

7

The number of orbitals in this subshell

formal charge

The number of valence electrons in an isolated atom minus the number of electrons assigned to the atom in the Lewis structure

formal charge

The number of valence electrons in an isolated atom minus the number of electrons assigned to the atom in the Lewis structure. bonds count as one, and electrons count as one

london forces, induced dipole interactions

The other 2 names for dispersion forces

Law of Inertia

The other name for Newton's first law

Chorion

The outermost extraembryonic membrane; contributes to the formation of the placenta.

Epidermis

The outermost layer of skin, which is composed of the following sublayers: stratum basalis, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum. Serves as a protective barrier against microbial attack. Derived from the ectoderm.

Ectoderm

The outermost of the three primary germ layers. Gives rise to the skin and the nervous system.

rules for assigning ox numbers

The oxidation number for an atom in its elemental form is always zero. A substance is elemental if both of the following are true: only one kind of atom is present charge = 0 Examples: S8: The oxidation number of S = 0 Fe: The oxidation number of Fe = 0 The oxidation number of a monoatomic ion = charge of the monatomic ion. Examples: Oxidation number of S2- is -2. Oxidation number of Al3+ is +3. The oxidation number of all Group 1A metals = +1 (unless elemental). The oxidation number of all Group 2A metals = +2 (unless elemental). Hydrogen (H) has two possible oxidation numbers: +1 when bonded to a nonmetal -1 when bonded to a metal Oxygen (O) has two possilbe oxidation numbers: -1 in peroxides (O22-)....pretty uncommon -2 in all other compounds...most common The oxidation number of fluorine (F) is always -1. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms (or ions) in a neutral compound = 0. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in a polyatomic ion = charge on the polyatomic ion.

Erhtyhrocytes

The oxygen-carrying component of blood (red blood cells). These anaerobic cells, which lack organelles, are packed with hemoglobin and have a characteristic biconcave, disklike shape that facilitates gas exchange and mobility within the blood vessels.

Erythrocytes

The oxygen-carrying component of blood (red blood cells). These anaerobic cells, which lack organelles, are packed with hemoglobin and have a characteristic biconcave, disklike shape that facilitates gas exchange and mobility within blood vessels.

Which endocrine organ secretes insulin and glucagon?

The pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon.

Medulla Oblongata

The part of the brain that controls many basic, autonomic functions, such as breathing and heart rate.

Emission line spectrum

The pattern of spectral emission lines produced by an element. Each element has its own unique emission spectrum.

What is the difference between penetrance and expressivity?

The penetrance of a genotype is the percentage of individuals in a population who actually express its phenotype. The expressivitiy of a genotype is the degree to which the phenotype is expressed in an individual.

Percent composition by mass

The percent by mass of each element in a compound; it is determined by dividing the mass of each element by the total mass of the compound

Penetrace

The percentage of people in a population with a certain genotype who express the associated phenotype.

Periosteum

The periosteum is the fibrous sheath of a bone.

Label the parts of the phospholipid bilayer:

The phospholipid bilayer:

Pineal Gland

The pineal gland secretes melatonin.

From what structure does the placenta originate?

The placenta originates from the chorion.

Axon Hillock

The portion of the neuron that connects the cell body (soma) to the axon. The impulses the neuron receives from all the dendrites are summed up at the axon hillock to determine whether an action potential will be initiated.

What are the primary components of the cytoskeleton?

The primary components of the cytoskeleton are microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate fibers.

What are the primary homeostatic organs in mammals?

The primary homeostatic organs are the kidneys, liver, large intestine, and skin.

Kidney Function

The primary purpose of the kidneys is to regulate salt and water concentration in the blood.

Blastulation

The process by which a morula develops into a blastula with a fluid-filled cavity called a blstocoel.

Gastrulation

The process by which a single-layer blastula becomes a three-layered gastrula.

Frequency Summation

The process by which many successive neural impulses stimulate a neuron or a muscle until the cell being stimulated experiences an action potential (if a neuron is being stimulated) or a contraction (if a muscle cell is being stimulated).

Recombination Frequency

The proportion of gametes that receive recombinant chromosomes for two different linked genes. If the recombination frequency of two particular traits is high, then it can be inferred that they lie far apart on the same chromosome.

Reaction rate

The rate at which reactants change into products in a chemical reaction

What happens as the concentration of substrate is increased in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction?

The reaction rate increases until most of the active sites are filled and then the reaction rate reaches a plateau.

π bond

The reactive part of a double bond formed above and below the plane of the bonded atoms by sideways overlap of orbitals

What is the function of SR Ca2+ release and reuptake?

The release of Ca2+ by the sarcoplasmic reticulum initiates muscle contraction. Ca2+ reuptake must occur for relaxation.

Endochondral Ossification

The replacement of cartilage with bone.

Disjunction

The separation of homologous chromosomes during anaphase I of meiosis.

pyramidal

The shape of the ammonia molecule is

Mitochondria

The site of aerobic respiration that provides the cell with a majority of its energy in the form of ATP. The mitochondrion is a semiautonomous organelle enclosed by two membranes, with an intermembrane space between the two membranes and a mitochondrial matrix enclosed by the inner membrane.

Chloroplast

The site of photosynthesis in plants. The chloroplast contains chlorophyll, is semiautonomous, and has two cell membranes.

Axial Skeleton

The skull, vertebral column, and bones of the chest.

Small Intestine

The small intestine can be subdivided into three sections: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. Most digestion takes place in the duodenum and most absorption takes place in the jejunum and the ileum.

What are the three segments of the small intestine?

The small intestine is divided into the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.

Synapse

The space between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of another neuron. Synapses are where neurotransmitters are released.

Intrapleural Space

The space between the two membranes (visceral pleura and parietal pleura) that cover the lungs.

Differentiation

The specialization of cells that occurs during development.

Pyruvate Decarboxylation

The stage of aerobic cellular respiration that comes after glycolysis. Pyruvate is oxidized to acetate, which then combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl CoA in the mitochondrial matrix. This process results in the formation of one NADH per pyruvate molecule or two NADH per glucose molecule.

Systole

The stage of the heart cycle in which the heart muscle contracts and pumps blood.

Diastole

The stage of the heart cycle in which the heart muscle relaxes and collects blood into its four chambers.

Osteons

The structural unit of compact bone that consists of a central canal, called the haversian canal, surrounded by a number of concentric rings of bony matrix called lamellae.

Sacromere

The structural unit of striated muscle. It is composed of thin filaments (mostly of actin) and thick filaments (made mostly of myosin)

Which component of the nervous system inhibits digestion?

The sympathetic nervous system inhibits digestion. The parasympathetic nervous system stimulates digestion.

Which part of the nervous system readies the body for "fight or flight"? "rest and digest"?

The sympathetic nervous system readies the body for "fight or flight." The parasympathetic division opposes the sympathetic division by slowing the body down and conserving energy, a state also known as "rest and digest".

Humoral Immunity

The synthesis of specific antibodies by activated B-cells in response to an antigen. These antibodies bind to the antigen and either clump together to become insoluble or attract other cells that engulf them.

What are the three stages of cellular respiration?

The three stages of cellular respiration are: pyruvate decarboxylation, the citric acid (Krebs) cycle, and the electron transport chain.

What are the three stages of polypeptide synthesis?

The three stages of polypeptide synthesis are initiation, elongation, and termination.

Cardiac Output

The total volume of blood the left ventricle pumps into circulation per minute. The cardiac output can be increased by increasing either the heart rate or the stroke volume.

Substrate Level Phosphorylation

The transfer of a phosphate group from an organic compound to ADP. Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle utilize substrate level phosphorylation to produce ATP.

Translation

The transfer of information from an RNA molecule to a polypeptide. The three stages of polypeptide synthesis (initiation, elongation, and termination) require energy and are mediated by various enzymes. During translation, mRNA is read in the 5' to 3' direction.

Intramembranous Ossification

The transformation of mesenchymal tissue into bone.

Which valves separate the atria and ventricles?

The tricuspid valve separates the right atrium from the right ventricle. The mitral (or bicuspid) valve separates the left atrium from the left ventricle. (LAB RAT = Left Atrium Bicuspid, Right Atrium Tricuspid)

Atria

The two thin-walled upper chambers of the heart. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the vena cava, while the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary vein.

Which nerve of the parasympathetic nervous system decreases heart rate?

The vagus nerve. Meanwhile, the sympathetic nervous system stimulation causes an increase in heart rate.

9x10^9

The value of Coulomb's constant, k, is ________

Tidal Volume

The volume of air that is normally inhaled or exhaled with each breath.

Sclera

The white covering of the eye. Made up of connective tissue.

Lock and Key Theory

Theory of enzyme catalysis stating that the active site's structure is complementary (a "perfect fit") to the structure of the substrate.

Induced Fit Hypothesis

Theory of enzyme catalysis which states that the partial binding of a substrate to an enzyme alters the structure of the enzyme so that its active site becomes complementary to the structure of the substrate, enabling binding.

2

There are "_________________" electrons per orbital.

l m n s

These are the 4 letters that represent the 4 quantum numbers

gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet, visible, infrared, microwaves, radio waves

These are the 7 forms of electromagnetic radiation

s p d f

These are the first four electron subshells

metals

These families of elements are all "_________________"

Vitamin B1

Thiamine

Pyruvate DH complex requires these coenzymes

Thiamine pyrophosphate, lipoic acid, CoA, FAD, NAD+

blue

This color light is most scattered by tiny particles (atoms or molecules smaller than a wavelength of light)

1.6x10^-19

This is the magnitude of the charges on a proton and an electron plus the unit

1.6x10^-19 coulombs

This is the magnitude of the charges on a proton and an electron plus the unit

Electrostatic Force

This is the name of the force particles exert on each other because of their electric charge; given by Coulomb's Law

l

This is the symbol for the "angular momentum quantum number"

m

This is the symbol for the "magnetic quantum number"

n

This is the symbol for the "principal quantum number"

s

This is the symbol for the "spin quantum number"

nonpolar

This molecule is polar or nonpolar? Why?

nonpolar (because dipole moment is the vector sum of the individual bond dipole moments; which cancel in a tetrahedral molecule)

This molecule is polar or nonpolar? Why?

m

This quantum number can be any integer between -L and +L

emission

This spectrum has a longer wavelength (absorption or emission)

Have chiral side chains

Threonine and Lysine

Glycolysis

Through a series of enzymatic reactions in the cytoplasm, glucose is converted into two molecules of pyruvate. The energy released in this process is used to produce a net yield of two ATP and two NADH molecules.

How can a non-competitive inhibitor's effect be reversed?

Through the addition of a compound having a greater affinity for the inhibitor than the inhibitor has for the enzyme. affinity of additional compound for the inhibitor > affinity of inhibitor for the enzyme

Corpus Luteum

Tissue that forms from the collapsed ovarian follicle after ovulation. Produces and secretes progesterone and estrogen.

Vitamin E

Tocopherols/Tocotrienols; aromatic rings w/ isoprenoid side chains; antioxidants

Transcription

Transcription is the process whereby mRNA is synthesized from a DNA template.

What are the three mechanisms by which bacteria can increase genetic variability?

Transformation - incorporation of foreign chromosome fragments. Conjugation - transfer of genetic material between two bacteria. Transduction - virus carries DNA between two bacteria.

Cornea

Transparent covering in front of the eye that refracts light and helps keep the eye in focus.

Purpose of hexokinase/glucokinase

Trap G-6P in cell

What is the difference between a tropic hormone and a direct hormone?

Tropic hormones stimulate other endocrine glands, while direct hormones act directly on the target organ.

Aromatic amino acids

Trp, Phe, Tyr

(T/F) Dorsal root ganglia house the cell bodies of sensory root fibers.

True (SAME DAVE = Sensory Afferent Motor Efferent Dorsal Afferent Ventral Efferent)

(T/F) Females can express a sex-linked recessive trait.

True, a female carrier and a male with the recessive trait will have a 25% chance of giving birth to a female child with the recessive trait.

(T/F) At very high concentration of substrate, reaction rate approximate Vmax.

True, at very high substrate concentrations the active site of the enzyme is saturated and reaction rate is highest.

(T/F) A muscle fiber exhibits an "all-or-nothing" response.

True, individual fibers exhibit an "all-or-nothing" response, graded responses are accomplished through temporal summation or recruitment.

(T/F) Mitochondria have their own circular DNA.

True, mitochondria possess their own genes which are essential for their function.

(T/F) Glycolysis results in substrate level phosphorylation of ADP.

True, the conversion of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate, fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, and the formation of ATP in glycolysis all involve substrate level phosphorylation

(T/F) The electron transport chain generates a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane.

True, this portion gradient then powers ATP Synthase.

(T/F) Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites.

True, viruses require the host cell machinery to reproduce via either the lytic or lysogenic cycles.

(T/F) All multicellular organisms are composed of eukaryotic cells.

True, while some prokaryotes can form symbiotic colonies, they do not form true organisms.

(T/F) Mitochondria and chloroplasts are similar structures and both are considered to be semi-autonomous.

True. Both structures contain their own DNA and self-replicate.

(T/F) The three types of leukocytes are granular leukocytes, lymphocytes, and monocytes.

True. Granular leukocytes (basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils) are active in inflammation and allergic reactions. Lymphocytes are key players in immune response and a monocyte phagocytizes foreign matter.

meso compounds

Two or more chiral centers that contain a plane of symmetry. Optically inactive. However, not all molecules with a plane of symmetry are mess. two halves that are mirror images.

When are two populations descending from the same ancestral stock considered to be different species?

Two populations are considered to be different species when they can no longer interbreed and produce viable offspring.

Which blood type is considered to be a universal donor? Which type is a universal recipient?

Type O blood is considered to be a universal donor. Type AB blood is considered to be a universal recipient.

Disruptive Selection

Type of natural selection where both phenotypic extremes are favored over the normal phenotype.

Directional Selection

Type of natural selection where one extreme phenotype is favored over the normal phenotype and other extreme phenotypes.

Stabilizing Selection

Type of natural selection where the normal phenotype is favored while those outside the norm are eliminated

Exteroceptor

Type of sensory receptor that monitors external signals such as light, sound, and temperature.

Interoceptors

Type of sensory receptor that monitors signals inside the body, such as blood pressure, the partial pressure of CO2 in the blood, and the pH of blood.

Propriocepter

Type of sensory receptor that monitors the body's position in space.

What are the three types of base pair mutations that can occur during protein synthesis?

Types of base-pair mutations are substitutions, insertions, and deletions.

electric potential energy

U is the symbol for _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _+_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _+_ _ _ _ _ _ , which is the stored energy a charge has based on it's location in an electric field; work is done whenever an object moves with/against the field

Stop codons

UAA, UGA, UAG

How is activated glucose formed

UTP + G-1P → UDP-Glucose + PPi

Incorrect base pairing leads to

Unstable H-bonds = lack stability = incorrect base excised

Describe the path of urine form the kidney out of the body.

Urine leaves the kidney via the ureter and leaves the bladder via the urethra.

Benedicts reagent

Used to test for aldehyde to aldose oxidation; Cu2O precipitation

Tolken's reagent

Used to test for reducing sugars; Ag(NH3)+2 (w/ Ag+ reducing to metallic silver)

power=

V^2/R I^2*R IV

Atrioventricular Valves

Valves located between the atria and the ventricles (these include the tricuspid valve and mitral valve).

Semilunar Valves

Valves that prevent backflow of blood from the arteries back into the ventricles of the heart (aortic valve and pulmonic valve).

V ideal=

Vcontainer - nb

VLDL

Very low density lipoprotein; transports TAG from liver → tissues

Arteries

Vessels that carry blood away from the heart. These vessels are muscular and do not have valves.

Veins

Vessels that carry blood toward the heart. These vessels are thin-walled and valves to prevent backflow.

Bacteriophages

Viruses that can infect bacteria.

diaphragm relaxes, thoracic cavity contracts, V lung decreases

Vlung decreases, Plung increases so Pint>Pext

diaphragm contracts, thoracic cavity expands, increasing volume of lung

Vlung increases Plung decreases so Pinternal<Pexternal

Vox=

Vo*costheta

Voy=

Vo*sintheta

time to top=

Voy/g

S=

W(1+ a/g)

bernoulli's equation

W=deltaKE + deltaPE (gravitational PE) F= PA kappa= Pagainst walls + .5 rho v^2 + rho gh

Where in the loop of Henle does water passively diffuse out?

Water passively diffuses out of the descending limb.

B

What TYPE of BONDING would you expect between these elements? F and F a) None b) Covalent c) Polar Covalent

C

What TYPE of BONDING would you expect between these elements? H and F a) None b) Covalent c) Polar Covalent

A

What TYPE of BONDING would you expect between these elements? He and F a) None b) Covalent c) Polar Covalent

A

What TYPE of BONDING would you expect between these elements? N and F a) Polar Covalent b) Ionic

B

What TYPE of BONDING would you expect between these elements? Na and F a) Polar Covalent b) Ionic

green

What color(s) are pi bonds?

red blue green

What color(s) are sp hybridized orbitals?

red, blue, green

What color(s) are sp hybridized orbitals?

net dipole moment

What does the "up arrow" stand for?

net dipole moment (the vector sum of the individual bond dipole moments do not cancel so water is a polar molecule)

What does the "up arrow" stand for?

Nitrogen

What element is A?

Oxygen

What element is D?

it quadruples

What happens to electrostatic force if r is cut in half?

quadruples

What happens to electrostatic force if r is cut in half?

doubles

What happens to electrostatic force if you double q1?

it doubles

What happens to electrostatic force if you double q1?

Dispersion Forces (London Forces)

What intermolecular forces exist between noble gas atoms?

London Dispersion Forces

What intermolecular forces exist between noble gas atoms?

Iron

What is element 26?

Bromine

What is element 35?

1s2 2s1

What is the correct electron configuration for the Lithium atom?

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1

What is the electron arrangement for Aluminum?

cl

What is the element with the electron arrangement 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

Al(NO2)3

What is the formula for aluminum nitrate?

39

What is the mass number of an atom of Potassium that has 20 neutrons?

Hund's Rule The Aufbau Principle

What specific rule/principle does B violate? What more general rule does it also violate?

Pauli Exclusion Principle

What specific rule/principle is not violated by B?

ion-dipole interactions are not, dipole-dipole interactions and dispersion forces (london forces) are

What types of intermolecular forces are not van der Waals forces, what types are?

there is less air (tiny particles)

When the sun is at its zenith in the sky, it appears white or yellow. As it sets, it reddens. It is red on the horizon and yellow overhead because "_________________" between an observer and the sun when the sun is at its zenith.

Paramagnetic elements

Which are more strongly affected by magnetic fields, paramagnetic or diamagnetic elements?

Newton's Third Law

Which law applies to propulsion and explains why rockets work even in the vacuum of space.

b

Which of the following compounds contains a polar covalent bond? a) NaF b) HCl c) Br2 d) MgO e) O2

c

Which of the following compounds contains an ionic bond? a) NH3 b) H2O c) CaO d) H2 e) CH4

a

Which of the following elements has the lowest electronegativity? a) Li b) C c) N d) O e) F

e

Which of the following substances contains a non-polar bond? a) H2O b) NaCl c) NH3 d) MgF2 e) N2

B Lymphocytes

White blood cells that are involved in humoral immunity.

Leukocytes

White blood cells; the component of blood involved in cell defense and immunity. Neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes are types of leukocytes.

alkaline earth metals noble gases

With electron affinity, we see endothermic (negative energy and a cooling of the reaction container) in which 2 columns?

When is aspartic acid/aspartate

With proton attached = aspartic acid

number of electrons in a shell=

Z(n)^2

High GC content/High salt conc. in DNA

Z-DNA

Order the following embryonic stages: blastula, neurula, morula, gastrula, zygote.

Zygote, morula, blastula, gastrula, neurula.

MX (s) ----- M+ + X- Ksp expression=

[M+][X-] Ksp=x^2

M2X ----- 2M+ + X2-

[M+]^2[X2-] Ksp=4x^3

M3X------- 3M+ + X3-

[M+]^3 [X3-] Ksp= 27x^4

MX2 ------- M2+ + 2X-

[M2+][X-]^2 Ksp=4x^3

MX3 ------- M3+ + 3X-

[M3+][X-]^3 Ksp=27x^4

0-3 (shape)

_ - _ are the values of l (angular momentum quantum number)

1-7

_ - _ are the values of n (principal quantum number)

Pi bonds

a bond with two parallel electron clouds formed between tow p orbitals that limits the free rotation

electrochemical cell

a cell within which an oxidation-reduction reaction takes place, containing two electrodes between which there is an electrical potential difference

sublimation

a change of phase from solid to gas without passing through liquid

ion

a charged atom or molecule that results from the loss or gain of electrons

covalent bond

a chemical bond formed by the sharing of an electron pair between two atoms; can e in the form of single bonds, double bonds, or triple bonds

ionic bond

a chemical bond formed through electrostatis interactions between positive and negative species metal and nonmetal

Empirical formula

a chemical formula showing the ratio of elements in a compound rather than the total number of atoms

methane

a colorless odorless gas used as a fuel

salt bridge

a component of an electrochemical cell composed of an inert electrolyte that allows the charge gradient that builds up in the half cells to be dissipated as a reaction occurs; contains ions that will not react with electrodes or ions in solution and that can move to balance charge

covalent hydride

a compound consisting of hydrogen and one other more electronegative element that is not a metal. (H2O) is an example, so is (HCl)

borohydride

a compound containing the ion BH4−. Such compounds are mainly used as reducing agents in organic synthesis.

nonelectrolyte

a compound that does not ionize in water

electrolyte

a compound that ionizes in water and increases the conductance of the solution

external pressure and vapor pressure

a compound will only boil when the vapor pressure and the external pressure equal thus still a solid while ambient pressure is greater than vapor pressure even at boiling points

molality

a concentration unit equal to the number moles of solute per kg solvent

diamagnetism

a condition that arises when a substance has no unpaired electrons and is slightly repelled by a magnetic field

paramagnetism

a condition that arises when a substance has unpaired electrons and is slightly attracted to a magnetic field

polar covelant bond

a covalent bond between atoms with different electronegatibities in which electron density is unevenly distributed giving the pond positive and negative properties

coordinate covelant bond

a covalent bond in which both electrons of the bonding pair are donated by one of the bonded atoms

coordinate covalent bond

a covalent bond in which one atom contributes both bonding electrons

borane

a covalent hydride of boron

nonpolar covalent bond

a covelant bond between elements similar electronegativity contains no charge separation

molecular formula

a formula showing the actual number and identity of all atoms in each molecule of a compound; always as whole number multiple of empirical formula

state function

a function that depends on the state of a systme but not on the path used to arrive at the state

ozone

a gas molecule that is made up of three oxygen atoms

ideal gas

a hypothetical gas with behavior that is described by the ideal gas law under all conditions; assumes that its particles have zero volume and do not exhibit interactive forces

Raoults law

a law stating that the partial pressure of a component in a solution is proportional to the mole fraction of that component in the solution; provides an explanation for burp pressure depression seen in solution s

electronegativity

a measure of the ability of an atom to attract the elections in a bond

ball stick model

a molecular model in which atoms are represented by balls and bonds by sticks. The advantage of this type of model is that one can see the orientation of the atoms and bond types

antibonding orbital

a molecular orbital formed by the oberlap of two or more atomic orbitals; energy is greater than the ener\gy of the co\mbining atomic orbitals

ligand

a molecule bonded to a metal ion in a coordination compound they are lewis bases that form coordinate covalent bonds with the central metal ion

polar molecule

a molecule possessing one or more polar covalent bonds and an geometry that allows th bond dipole moments to sum to a net dipole moment

nonpolar molecule

a molecule that exhibits non net separation of charge and therefore no net dipole moment

malleability

a physical property of metals that defines how well and element can reshaped using a hammer

physical properity

a property of a substance unrelated to its chemical behavior such a melting point, boiling point, density and odor

entropy (delta S)

a property related to dispersion of energy through system or the degree of disorder in that system; the change in entropy in the course of a reaction is the diff b/w prods and reacts

ammonia

a pungent gas compounded of nitrogen and hydrogen (NH3)

compound

a pure substance that can be decomposed to produce elements, other compounds or both

net ionic equation

a reaction equation showing only the species actually participating in the reaction

first order reaction

a reaction in which the rate is directly proportional to the concentration of only one reactant

mixed order reaction

a reaction in which the reaction order changes over time in the rate law

hydrolysis

a reaction in which water is consumed during the breakdown of another molecule

oxidation

a reaction involving the net loss of elections increasing the oxidation number

Endothermic reaction

a reaction that absorbs heat from the surroundings as the reaction proceeds positive deltaH

exothermic reaction

a reaction that gives off heat to the surroundings negative delta h

second order reaction

a reaction that is directly proportional to two reactants or the square of one

common ion effect

a shift in the eq. of a solution due to the addition of ions of a species already present in the reaciton mixture

buffer

a solution containing a weak acid and its salt

titrand

a solution of unknown concentration to which a solution of known concentration is added

arrhenius base

a species that donates hydroxide ions OH to a aq solution

arrhenius acid

a species that donates protons in an aqueous solution

lewis structure

a structure that uses electron-dots and dashes to show how electrons are arranged in molecules. Central atom is the least electronegative.

element

a substance that cannot be further broken down by chemical means defined by its number of protons; atomic number

catalyst

a substance that increases the rest of the forward and reverse directions of a reaction by lowering the activation energy

open system

a system that can exchange both energy and matter with its surroundings

isolated system

a system that can exchange neither matter nor energy with its surroundings

closed system

a system that con exchange energy but not matter with its surroundings

collision theory of chemical kinetics

a theory that states that the rate of a reaction is proportional to the number of collisions per se one between reacting molecules that have sufficient energy to overcome the activation energy barrier; implies that only a fraction of collisions are sufficent

Covalent bonds

a type of strong chemical bond in which two atoms share one pair of valence electrons

calorie

a unit of thermal energy

electromagnetic radiation

a wave composed of electric and magnetic fields oscillating perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation

Newman projection

a way to view a molecule by looking along a carbon-carbon single bond to help evaluate the relative orientation of attached groups. the closer the bulky atoms are close to each other the more energy in atom(less stable). staggered conformation is most stable.

Which of the following descriptions of a subatomic particle is correct? a) A proton has a positive charge and a mass of approximately 1 amu. b) An electron has a negative charge and a mass of approximately 1 amu. c) A neutron has No Charge and its mass is negligible. d) A proton has a positive charge and a negligible mass. e) A neutron has a positive charge and a mass of approximately 1 amu.

a) A proton has a positive charge and a mass of approximately 1 amu.

nonreducing sugars

acetal ketal

basic salts are most soluble in

acidic solution

more conjugate base dissociation in warer higher pKb lower pH

acidid properties

vapor pressure and a solute

adding it always lowers the vapor pressure

triple point

all phases exsist at the same time

linear

all possible shapes of sp hybridized?

trigonal planar, bent

all possible shapes of sp2 hybridized?

tetrahedral, trigonal pyramidal, bent

all possible shapes of sp3 hybridized?

addition of a solute and boiling point

always increases it

combustion reaction

always yeilds water and an oxide like carbon dioxide

Freezing point depression

amount by which a given quantity of solute lowers the freezing point of a liquid; a colligative property

electric current

ampere (A)

electrode

an electrical conductor through which an electrical current enters or leaves the medium

daniell cell

an electrochemical cell in which the anode is the site of Zn metal oxidation and the cathode is the site of Cu ion reduction

rechargeable battery

an electrochemical cell that can undergo a reversible ox red process when discharging, it function s as a galvanic cel and when charging it functions as an electrolytes cell

Galvanic cell

an electrochemical cell that uses a spontaneous oxidation-reduction reaction to generate an electromotive force; also called voltaic cell

electrolytis cell

an electrochemical cell that uses an external voltage source to drive a non spontaneous oxidation reduction reaction

Representative elements

an element in an "A" group in the periodic table; as a group these elements display a wide range of physical and chemical properties. In their atoms, the s and p sublevels in the highest occupied energy level are partially filled. Group 1 and 2, and Groups 13-18 are called representative elements; they include metals, metalloids, and nonmetals.

Nernst equation

an equation that relates the voltage of an electrochemical cell tot he concentration of the reactants and products within that cell

cation

an iconic species with a positive charge

precipitate

an insouble solid that separates from a solution;

anion

an ionic species with a negative charge

salt

an ionic substance consisting of cations and anions

electrochemical cells oxidation occurs @ ______ reduction occurs @ _______

anode (e- flows away) cathode (e- flow towards)

hydride

any binary compound formed by the union of hydrogen and other (generally less electronegative) elements

E cell and delta G

are inverse always note a negative cell or positive delta G is a electrolytic a poistive e cell or a negative delta G is a galvanic

isotopes

atoms containing the same number of protons but different numbers of neutorns

kinetic molecular theory

attempts to explain the behavior of gas particles gas particles have negligible volume gas particles do not have intermolecular attractions or repulsions gas particles undergo random collisions with each other and the walls of the container collisions between gas particles are elastic the average kinetic energy of gas particles is directly proportional to temperature

acidic salts are most soluble in

basic solutions

why complex ion increase suability

because compels ion formation consumes ions and cause the equilibrium to shift away from the solid

n1sin1=n2sins2 n2>n1= n1>n2=

bend towards normal bend away from normal

L-A-L 2 lone pairs

bent <109.5

L-A-L 1 lone pair

bent <120

physiological buffers -loss of HCO3-

blood pH decreases metabolic acidosis diarrhea

physiological buffers -loss of H3O+

blood pH increases metabolic alkalosis vomiting

heat engines and second law of thermodynamics

cannot be 100% efficient also an air conditioner is in reverse thus it must liberate heat to cool so an ac in a room will not allow for cool room

lamban=4L/n

closed pipes

DNA libraries

collections of restriction fragments cloned within suitable host cells

strong acid or base

completely dissociate

gas to liquid

condenstion -deltaH/exo -deltaS

relative configuration

configuration in relation to another chiral molecule. use it to determine if a molecule is an enantiomer, diastereomer, etc

isobaric

constant Pressure

isothermal

constant Temp

isochoric

constant Volume

adiabatic

constant q

d orbital and bonding

d orbital may or may not bond

Which of the following elements is a Noble Gas? a) Oxygen b) Chlorine c) Bromine d) Argon e) Nitrogen

d) Argon

Which of the following properties is NOT a characteristic of the Group 1A elements (Alkali Metals)? a) They are shiny. b) They are good conductors of heat. c) They react vigorously with water. d) Most of them are liquids at room temperature. e) They are good conductors of electricity.

d) Most of them are liquids at room temperature...... is an inaccurate statement about Group 1A Alkali Metals

Which of the following elements is a Metal? a) Nitrogen b) Fluorine c) Argon d) Strontium e) Phosporus

d) Strontium is a Metal

impurities ___ FP ___ BP increase solute= _____ vp excaping

decrease FP increase BP decrease vp escaping

physiological buffers -retention of CO2 -blood ph ___ -________ _________

decrease blood pH respiratory acidosis

mass spec increase momentum

decrease deflection increase radius of curvature

Hvap increases, Volatility ___, BP ___, VP_____

decreases decreases increases decreases

VP and BP

decreases as BP increases (hydrogen bonding increases BP)

gibb's free enegry

deltaG= deltaT- T deltaS

VP decreases as _____ increases

deltaHvap

solids strain/epsilon=

deltaL/Lo

gas to solid

deposition -deltaH/exo -deltaS

how to make a buffer

desired pH=pKa +/- 1 [HA]=[A-] (equiv moles weak acid to conjugate base) OR weak acid + .5 equiv strong base

lewis dot structure

diagram of a molecule using dots to represent valence electrons. 1) find total number of valence electrons around each atom 2)use one pair of electrons to form a pair between each atom 3)arrange remaining atoms around atoms to fulfill the octet rule

epimers

diastereomers that differ at only one chiral carbon

van der waals forces

diople-dipole dipole-induced dipole induced dipole-induced dipole

highest solubility refers to the compound that produces the greatest amount of

dissociated salt

translational motion lack a d=

do + (vo + vf/2) t

Inert gases (nobel gases)

duhhhhhhh!

Oxidant

e- acceptor

Hund's rule

e- completely fill lower level energy levels before starting to fill higher levels

Reductant

e- donor

lewis acid

e- pair acceptor BF3 aprotic

lewis base

e- pair donor NH3 aprotic

low ionization energy means

easily oxidized

half reaction

either the reduction half or oxidation half of a redox reaction

cathode

electrode at which the reduction takes place

covalent

electronegativity is how much something hordes electrons in a "_________________" bond

alkaline earth metals

elements found in group 2A of the periodic table; chemistry is similar to that of alkali metals, except that they have two valence electrons and thus form +2 cations

alkali metals

elements found in the group 1A of the periodic table; highly reactive, readily losing one valence electron to form ionic compounds with nonmetals

Chalcogens

elements found in the group 6A of the periods table with divers chemistry; the group contains metals, nonmetals and metalloids

Second ionization energy

energy required to remove the second outermost electron from the ion; higher than the first

when producing products that are more stable your entropy and enthalpy changes respectively are

enthalpy= negative change entropy= negative as well

buffer composition

equal molar mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base range is pKa +/- 1 the range of the desired pH

dipole moment

equation for?

Newton's second law

f=ma, A net force acting on an object will cause that object to accelerate in the direction of the net force.

lower density of object in water accelerates _____

faster

deltaS + deltaH -

favorable at all T

deltaS + deltaH +

favorable at high T

deltaS - deltaH -

favorable at low T

compound with the smallest molar solubility precipitates

first

how to solve percent composition when the formula is given

first find the mass of the whole compound then divide the mass of the element of interest by the total weight calculated in step 1

doppler effect listener is stationary source of sound is moving

flistener- (v/ v-vsource)fsource vs<0 if source moves towards you vs>0 if source moves away from listener

doppler effect listener moves towards source

flistener=(v + vlistener/v) fsource higher pitch is heard vl>0 if listener moves towards source vl<0 if listener moves away from source

fundamental frequency=

fo*f(n-1)

U=kq1q2/r

formula for electric potential energy

4L+2

formula for number of electrons in any subshell

liquid to solid

freezing -deltaH/exo -deltaS

v=lambda*

frequency

K>Q

fwd

deposistion

gaseous state to the solid state

instantaneous dipoles

generated when electrons in a non-polar molecule become unevenly distributed or when a non-polar molecule comes into close contact with a polar molecule

shorter lamba/smaller velocity=____ bending

greater

densest vapor pressure forms from a liquid with the

greatest molecular mass

Oxygen group

group 16; contains three nonmetals; one metalloid; one metal; there are 6 electrons in its outer energy level ; reactive; all but oxygen are solid at room temperature

total flight time for projectiles depends only on

h & g h= 1/2 gt^2

electron affinity

half filled shells, negative energy, nitrogen, and 3d10 group metals is associated with electron affinity or electronegativity?

Diamagnetic elements

have all of their electrons spin paired (elements with all of their subshells completed); not affected by magnetic fields

Enantiomers

have the same molecular formular, bond to bond connectivity and are mirror images of each other, but are not the same molecule. They have opp absolute configuration at each chiral carbon

sigma bond

head to head bond between two orbitals ofo different atoms that allows free rotation

heavier elements and decay

heavier they are the more likely they are to decay

theta increases as

height increases

aldehyde+alcohol

hemiacetal

non ideal gas behavior

high pressure low temperature and pressure think about it if the molecules are closer together they are not going to behave well

Heterogeneous Nuclear RNA (hnRNA)

hnRNA is the unprocessed precursor of mRNA.

how to determine rate law

hold concentration of one species constant compare the concentration change of other species as well as the change in the rate with numbers derived set up this equation and solve #for concentraiont change ^(?) = # for rate change

Connexons

hold tissues/membranes together; hollow cylinders composed of proteins that span the entire width of the abutting membranes

5

how many of the bonds are sigma bonds?

gamma emission 120/50X

hv 120/50 X

sp

hybridization?

sp2

hybridization?

sp3

hybridization?

Keq special rule

if a compound is in solid form it doesn't factor in

vapor pressure and boiling

if you have a higher vapor pressure you need less heat transfer or temperature to boil that bitch

Heisenberg uncertainty principle

imposible to determine both the momentum and posisitnon of an electron simultaneously with perfect accuracy

reaction order

in a calculation of the rate law for a reaction , the sum of the exponents to which the concentrations of reactants must be raised

E,Z designation

in alkenes if the higher priority substituents exist on the opposite side it is given the E designation. if they are on the same side they are given the Z designation

FP decreases as impurities

increase

physiological buffers -loss of CO2 -blood pH ___ -_______ ________

increase respiratory alkalosis

oxyacids trend

increase O:H ratio, increase acidity increases electronegativity, increase acidity

bond strength and melting/boiling point

increase bond strength increase both

collision frequency increases with

increased T increased [gas particles] decreased mean free path

BP increases as atm or when impurities

increases

as density fluid increases, buoyant force

increases

speed at which a balls falls ________ as it falls due to acceleration from gravity

increases

ionization trend

increases up column increases across period

Atomic number

indicates the number of protons. provides the identity of the element because each element has a unique number of protons

factors affecting vapor pressure above a liquid

intermolecular forces decrease a VP polarity decreases VP mass decreases VP

a salt bridge in a galvanic cell contains

ionic compounds

Zeff

is a net positive charge experienced by an electron in a valance shell be logical if you are moving further away from the nucleus you will have a lower charge thus period from left to right increases as well as down a row

Charles law

isobaric, closed system V1/T1=V2/T2

boyle's law

isothermal P1V1=P2V2

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

it is impossible to know exactly both the velocity and the position of a particle at the same time

covelant molecules and i

it is one because they do not dissociate into ions readily

high heat capacity means

it takes more time to reach a target temperature

coulomb's constant

k, is the symbol for the electrostatic constant, also known as _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _+_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

deltaTb=

kb*i*m

temperature

kelvin (K)

deltaTf=

kf*i*m

Mass

kilogram (kg)

electrical potential energy PE=

kq1q2/r qV

Fcharge

kq1q2/r^2

angular momentum quantum number

l is the symbol for a quantum number called the "_________________"

f subshell

l=3

Henry's law

law stating that the massif a gas that dissolves in solution is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the solution

Half-life

length of time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay

sequestering agents donate e- is a

lewis base

metal oxides

lewis bases

nonmetal oxides

lewis bases

L-A-L no lone pairs

linear 180

vaporization

liquid to gas

gas expands most at

low pressures

Exo and endothermic reactions and temperature changes

lower temperature for an exothermic reaction to take place and it speeds up raise temperature for endothermic and it speeds up

magnetic quantum number

m is the symbol for a quantum number called the "_________________"

q=

mCdeltaT

range and flight time are independent of

mass

principle (n)

max 2N^2 n=and positive whole intager

magnitic (ml)

max; 2l+1 range; -l----> l

2ⁿ

maximum number of isomers a molecule can have is related to the number of chiral carbons. n= number of chiral carbons

amphiprotic species

may either gain or lose a proton

Q<Keq

means delta G is <0 thus reaction proceeds in forward

Q>Keq

means delta G is >0 and reaction is in reverse

elementary particles and charge

means they cannot lose their change

solid to liquid

melting +deltaH/endo +deltaS

length

meter (m)

Amount of substance

mole (mol)

Stereoisomers

molecules that have the same structural formulas and bonding patterns but different arrangements of atoms in space. Can be enatiomers, diastereomers, and meso-compunds

molarity

moles per liter

to get an equivalence you need

multply the number or species it can dissociate into by the molarity

radius correlates to

mv/qB

Fcentripetal=

mv^2/r

principal quantum number

n is the symbol for a quantum number called the "_________________"

air flows out from lung through trachea

nair decreases, Plung decreases until Pint=Pext

air flows into the lung through the trachea

nair increases, Plung increases until Pint=Pext

log Q<K is

negative

does elevation/atmospheric pressure affect VP?

no

is sucrose a reducing sugar?

no compose of glucose and fructose

Pauli Exclusion

no 2 e- can have the same set of quantum numbers

Le Chatlier -adding pure solids/liquids

no effect

Le Chatlier -increase in pressure equal number of gas molecules on each side of the rxn

no effect

Pauli exclusion principle

no two electrons or protons or neutrons in a given system can be in states characterized by the same set of quantum numbers

do gases become more soluble with heat?

no! solids and liquids do though

diastereomers

non mirror image of configurational isomers. cis and trans alkenes are them. possible when a molecule has two or more stereogenic centers that differ at some but not alll of the centers. they require multiple chiral centers. have different physical properties

heterogenous

nonuniform in composition

Zeffective

nucleus core + core electrons increases across periodic table

normality

number of equivilants per liter of solution

atomic mass

number of protons and neutrons

atomic number

number of protons in a given element

AL6 no lone pairs

octahedral 90

reducing agent

one that is oxidized

lamban=2L/n

open pipes fixed strings

hybrid orbitals

orbitals that have the properties to explain the geometry of chemical bonds between atoms. sp = 180°(linear) sp² = 120°(trigonal planar) sp³ = 109.5°(tetrahedral, pyramidal, bent) dsp³ = 90°(trigonal-bypyramidal, seesaw, t-shaped) d²sp³ = 90°(octahedral, square pyramidal, Square planar)

benedict's reagent

oxidizing agent Cu2+ precipitates sugar gets oxidized

electric dipole torque tau=

pEsin(theta) min when pE is parallel max when pE is perpendicular

weak base + strong acid titration

pH<7

henderson hasselbalch

pH=pka + log [A-/HA]

weak acid + strong base titration

pH>7

pH=

pKa + log [A-]/[HA]

pI=

pKa1 + pKa2/2

diamagnetic

paired e- not magnetizable

work is a __________ function

path

for weak acids pH at equivalent point=

pka indicator +/- 1

carbocation

positive charge resides on C; highly reactive; occurs in SN1 and E1 reactions; electrophilic

reduction potential and signs

positive means it is easily reduced negative means oxidized easily

BL base

proton transfer rxns proton acceptor KOH in protic solvent

BL acid

proton transfer rxns proton donor HX in protic solvent

Hardy-Weinberg Equation

p² + 2pq + q² = 1 p² = frequency of homozygous dominants. 2pq = frequency of heterozygotes. q² = frequency of homozygous recessives.

delta E

q + w q - P delta V

Felec

qE

Welec

qEdeltad qdeltaV

electric dipole p=

qL

Fmagnetic

qvB IlB

RNA poly I

rRNA synth in nucleolus

zero order

rate= k t1/2= [Ao]/2k constant rate/Vmax HL decreases as time increases

first order

rate= k[R] t1/2= 0.0693/k rate decreases as time increases HL constant

second order

rate= k[R][R] t1/2= 1/k[Ao] rate decreases as time increases HL decreases as time decreases

Q=Keq

reaction is at equilibrium

common ion effect

reduction of an ionic solid in solution bc of its ions in the salt are present in the solution

during a phase change the temperature

remains constant

cleavage of vicinal diols with periodic acid

remember what a vic idol is and know it splits them

K<Q

reverse rxn

density hydrostatic=

rho g deltah

spin quantum number

s is the symbol for a quantum number called the "_________________"

velocity of sound in solids, liquids, gases

s>l>g 340 m/s

range for 30 and 60 degrees

same

time

second (s)

linear

shape of sp hybridized? (no unbonded electron pairs)

trigonal planar

shape of sp2 hybridized? (no unbonded electron pairs)

tetrahedral

shape of sp3 hybridized? (no unbonded electron pairs)

young's modulus=

sigma/epsilon

atom

smallest unit of an element that retains the properties of the element; it cannot be further broken down by chemical means

Electron delocalization.

spreading of two bonding electrons over three or more atoms. they are represented by two are more structures showing electron delocalization. these structures are called resonance structures

gas motion mu RMS=

sq root 3RT/m R=8.134

gas motion v2/v1=

sq root m1/m2 sq root T2/T1

velocity of gases correlates to

square root T

Conformational isomer

stereoisomers that differ by rotation about one or more single bonds, usually represented using newmman projections. Not true isomers. they are just different representation of the same molecule.

hydrogen bonding

strong attrition between a hydrogen atom bonded to a highly electronegative atom, in one molecule and a highly electronegative atom in another molecule Nitorgne oxygen flourine

lower pKa, higher Ka means

stronger acid

solid to gas

sublimation +deltaH/endo +deltaS

d subshell

subshell coresponding to l=2

Bohr atom

suggested that electrons in an atom move in set paths around the nucleus much like the planets orbit the sun in our solar system

RNA poly III

tRNA synth/rRNA in nucleus

AL4 no lone pairs

tetrahedral 109.5

oxidation potential

the ability of a substance to be spontanelusly oxidized; a more positive oxidation potential is indicative of a substance that is easier to oxidize and will therefore morelikley act as an anode in a electrochemical cel

Halogens

the active nonmetals in group 7 of the table which have high electrogegativities and high electron affinities

boiling point elevation

the amount by which a given quantity of solute raises the boiling point of a liquid; a colligative properity

electron affinity

the amount of energy released when something gains an electron (how easily it can gain an electron).

\specific heat

the amount of heat required to raise the temp of one gram of a substance by 1 degree celsius

intermolecular forces

the attractive and repulsive forces between molecules

intramolecular foreces

the attractive forces between atoms within a single molecule

dipole dipole interaction

the attractive forces between elements of different electronegativities, resulting in an unequal distribution of charge

bondlength

the aver distance between two nuclei in a bond

atomic radius

the average distance between a nucleus and its outermost electron

effective nuclear charge

the charge perceived by an electron from the nucleus; applies most often to valance electrons and influences periodic trends such as atomic radius and ionization energy

solute

the component of a solution that is present in a lesser concentration than the solvent

Aufbau principle

the concept that electrons fill energy levels in order of increasing energy, completely filling onsublevel before beginning to fill the next

Observed rotation

the direction and the degree in which a molecule bend plane polarized light. can be found using a polarimeter.

Faraday constant

the doodad charge on1 mole of electrons F=96,485

equals

the effective nuclear charge "_________________" the number of valence electrons

Bond energy

the energy required to break a chemical bond

bond energy

the energy required to break a particular bond under given conditions

Bond dissociation energy

the energy required to break the bond between two covalently bonded atoms

ionization energy

the energy required to remove an electron form the valence shell of a gaseous atom

Lattice Energy

the energy required to separate 1 mol of the ions of an ionic compound; it is equal in magnitude to the negative energy in the ionic bonds

heat of sublimation

the enthalpy change for the conversion of 1 gram of solid to gas

heat of fusion

the enthalpy change for the conversion of 1 gram or 1 mole of a solid to liquid at constant temp and pressure

heat of vaporizaiotn

the enthalpy change for the conversion of 1 gram or mole of liquid to gat

Acid dissociation constant

the equilibrium constant that measures the degree of dissociation of an acid under specific conditions

principal quantum number

the first quantum number which defines the energy leveler shell occupied by an electron

Electrostatic force

the force between electrically charged objects (like charges repel and opposite charges attract each other)

intermolecular forces

the forces of attraction between molecules (general term)

spin quantum number

the fourth quantum number which indicates the orientation of the intrinsic spin of an electron in an atom

heat of formation (delta H sub f)

the heat absorbed or released during the formation of a pure substance from its elements at a constant pressure

enthalpy (delta H)

the heat content of a system at constant pressure (the change in enthalpy in the course of a reaciton is the difference between the products enthpalys and the reactants enthpahys

critical temperature

the highest temperature at which a liquid and gas phases of a substance can coexist; above this temperature, the liquid and gas phases are indistinguishable

Raoults law concept

the ideal solution behavior is observed when solute solute, solvent solvent, and solute solvent, interaction are all very similar

London dispersion forces

the intermolecular attraction resulting from the uneven distribution of electrons and the creation of temporary dipoles. weakest dipole attraction.

ammonium

the ion NH4 derived from ammonia

Boyle's law

the law stating that at constant temperature, the volume of a gaseous sample is inversely proportional to its pressure

Hess's law

the law stating that the energy change in an overall reaction is equal to the sum of the energy changer in the individual reaction s that comprise it

Gay-Lussac's law

the law stating that the pressure of a gaseous sample at constant volume is directly proportional to its absolute temp.

grahams law

the law stating that the rate of effusion or diffusion for a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the gas's molar mass

daltons law of partial pressures

the law stating that the sum of the partial pressures of the components of a gaseous mixture must equal the total pressure of the sample

First law of thermodynamics

the law stating that the total energy of a system and its surroundings remains constant

charles law

the law stating that the volume of a gas at constant pressure is directly proportional to its absolute temperature

Oxidation reductions with metals and oxygen

the metal will always be oxidized while oxygen will always be reduced

effusion

the movement of gas from one compartment to another under pressure through a small opening follows grahans law

osmosis

the movement of water through semipermeable membrane down its concentration gradient, from low solute concentration to high solute concentration

oxidation number

the number assigned to an atom in an ion or molecule that denotes its real or hypothetical charge, assuming that most electronegative elements in a bond is awaded all of the electrons in that bond

The Mass number of an Atom can be calculated from

the number of Protons plus Neutrons (Protons + Neutrons)

index of hydrogen deficiency

the number of pairs of hydrogens a compound requires in order to become a saturated alkane. Count halogens as hydrogens, ignore oxygen, count nitrogen as one-half as hydrogen

le chatterers principle

the observation that when a system at eq is disturbed or stressed, the system will react in such a way as to relieve the stress

Gibbs Free Energy

the of a system available to do work

oxidizing adjent

the one being reduced

endpoint

the point in a titration at which the indication changes to its final color

equivalance point

the point in a titration at which the moles of acid present equal the moles of base

electromotive force emf

the potential difference developed between the cathode and thinned of an electrochemical cell; also called voltage

Strong nuclear force

the powerful attractive force that binds protons and neutrons together in the nucleus

osmotic pressure

the pressure that must e applied to a solution to prevent the passage of water through a semipermeable membrane down its concentration gradient; best thought of as sucking pressure drawingg water into solution

partial pressure

the pressure that one component of a gaseous mixture would exert if ti were alone int he container

pauli exclusion principle

the principle stating that no two electrons within anatomy may have an identical set of quantum numbers

Freezing

the process in which a liquid transitions to the solid state

electrolysis

the process in which an electrical current is used to power an otherwise non spontaneous decomposition reaction

ductility

the property of metals that allows a material to be drawn into thinly stretched wires

rate constant

the proportionality constant in the rate law of a reaction, specific to a particular reaction at a given temperature

Quantum number l

the quantum number denoting the sub level or subtle in which an electron can be found; reveals the shape of the orbital

diffusion

the random motion of gas or solute particles across a concentration gradient. leading to uniform distribution of the gas or solute throughout the container

Hunds rule

the rule that electrons will fail into separate orbitals with parallel spins before paring within an orbital

Half-cell

the separated compartments housing electrodes and solutions in an electrochemical reaction

empirical formula

the simplest whole number station of the different elements in a compound

rate determining step

the slowest step of a reaction mechanism; this step serves as a bottleneck on the progress of the reaction

discharging

the state of a rechargeable electrochemical cell that is providing an electromotive force by allowing electrons to flow spontaneously from anode to cathode

p subshell

the subtle corresponding the the angular momentum quantum number contain three dumbell orbitals

magnetic quantum number

the third quantum number defining the particular orbital of a subshell in which an electron resides

evaporation

the transition form a liquid to gaseous state

van der Waals forces

the two weakest intermolecular attractions- LDF interactions and dipole forces

cirtical pressure

the vapor pressure at the critical temperature of a given substance

fischer projection

the vertical lines are oriented into the page, horizantal lines are oriented out of the page.

thermodynamic vs kinetic product favoring

thermodynamically favored means the products have less energy than the reactants kinetic means that it will have a low energy of activation

K=2, L=8, M=18, N=32

these are the number of electrons held by the first 4 SHELLS (1=?, 2=?, 3=?, 4=? ...but put the letter of the shell in place of the numbers)

metling point depression

they depress because solute particles interfere with lattice formation

colligative properities

those properties of a solution that depend only on the number of solute particles present but not on the nature of those particles

chemical properties

those properties of a substance relation to the chemical changes that it undergoes, such as ionization energy and electronegativity

AL3 no lone pairs

trigonal planar 120

AL3 2 lone pairs

trigonal planar 90, 120, 180

AL3 1 lone pair

trigonal pyramidal <109.5

paired electrons

two electrons in the ska orbital with assigned sons of +1/2 and -1/2

Isotopes

two or more atoms of the same element that contain different number of neutrons. Nucleus of a specific isotope is called a nuclide. Have similar chemical properties.

σ bond

type of bond where electron density is in the same plane as the bond. Constitutes a single bond

deltaS - deltaH +

unfavorable at all T

homogeneous

uniform in comoposition

titrant

unknow concentration solution added to known solution

paramagnetic

unpaired e- induced magnetism

how to solve diffusion of gas problems

use kinetic molecular theory

Michaelis-Menten equation

v = (vmax [S])/(Km + [S])

Migration velocity

v = Ez/f (v = migration velocity; E = electric field strength; z = net charge on molecule; f = frictional coefficient)

±L

values of m (magnetic quantum number)

+-1/2

values of s (spin quantum number)

liquid to gas

vaporization +deltaH/endo +deltaSvap

flow rate Q=

velocity/2 * area deltaP*pi*r^4/8nL

group periodic table

vertical

translational motion lack d vf=

vo+adeltat

range=

vo^2 sin theta/g

translational motion lack t vf^2=

vo^2+2adeltad

avogadro's law n correlates to

volume increase n, increase V V1/n1=V2/n2

projectile x=

vox*t

UAM no dx vx=

vox+adeltat

UAM no vo x=

voxdeltat+ 1/2a (deltat)^2

height/apex=

voy ^2/g

projectile y=

voy*t - 1/2gt^2

closed pipe

wave reflects back f=nv/4L

open pipe

waves travels along pipe, some reflects back f=n(v/2L)

HCO2H w/ HCO2Na

weak acid + salt of conjugate base

NH3 w/ NH4Cl

weak base + salt of conjugate acid

H3CNH2 w/ .5 equiv HCl

weak base w/ half equivalent of strong acid

higher pKb, lower Kb means

weaker conjugate base

Orientation m

what attribute of the electron orbital changes in the picture? what is the symbol for the quantum number associated with this attribute?

Shape l

what attribute of the electron orbital changes in the picture? what is the symbol for the quantum number associated with this attribute?

Size n

what attribute of the electron orbital changes in the picture? what is the symbol for the quantum number associated with this attribute?

orange purple

what color(s) are pi bonds?

orange, purple

what color(s) are pi bonds?

red blue green

what color(s) are sigma bonds?

red, blue, green

what color(s) are sigma bonds?

Hydrogen bonds

when a hydrogen is attached to a nitrogen, or fluorine, it has a large dipole moment which is positive. This makes it attracted to the nitrogen. fluorine and oxygen of another atom.

optically inactive

when a molecule , no single molecular orientation is favored and the net result is no rotation of the plane of the electric field. this occurs when a molecule has no chiral center are it contains a racemic mixtures.

optically active

when a molecule rotates polarized light. designated with + or d(dextrotarary) to the right. - or levorotary to the left

anomers

when a ring closure occurs in sugars, the ring closure occurs at the epimeric carbon. the two diasteromers or anomers and the carbon where chirality occurr is called the anomeric carbon.

joule

work and energy have the same unit; the _ _ _ _ _

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

xp >/= h/2

arrhenius acid

yields H3O+ when added to H2O aq [H3O+]>[OH-]

arrhenius base

yields OH- when added to H2O aq [OH-] > [H3O+]

how to do electron congif

you do the period trends ACCEPTION; with ions you always remove from highest energy shell, or add to highest energy shell

s1d5 s1d10

{Cr, Mo, W, Cu, Ag, Au} instead of s2d4 and s2d9 we get "_________________"

how to find empirical and molecular formulas when given perecnts

~always assume out of 100 %~ convert percents to decimals multiply these decimals by the total weight of the compound given divide this number by weight of the element these numbers given are your values for molecular forumla now take the molecular formula and divide it by a common integer and you have the empirical formlua

Osmotic pressure equation

Π = iMRT; Π = Osmotic pressure; i = # of molecules obtained from solvation; M = Molarity; R = Ideal gas constant; T = temprature

Amylopectin

α-1,4 w/ α-1,6 branches

Succinyl-CoA + CO2 formation

α-ketoglutarate DH complex = α-ketoglutarate + CoA → CO2 + Succinyl CoA

GABA has amino group on __ carbon

γ


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