MCAT General and Organic Chemistry

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steric hinderance

A steric effect caused by bulky groups at the site of the reaction that make it difficult for the reactants to approach each other. have higher energy levels resulting in higher heats of combustion.

Aldosterone

A steroid hormone produced in the adrenal cortex that increases reabsorption of sodium and water and the excretion of potassium.

condensed formula

A structural formula that uses groupings of atoms, in which central atoms and the atoms connected to them are written as a group to convey molecular structural formula. Ex: CH4=Methane, CH3-CH3=Ethane, CH3-CH2-CH3=Propane

Substrate

A substrate is a molecules upon which an enzyme acts.

Lymph Node

A swelling along a lymphatic vessel that contains phagocytic cells. Their role is to filter the lymph and remove/destroy foreign particles.

Inducible System

A system in which a repressor bound to an operator prevents transcription. Addition of inducers can activate an inactive inducible system by preventing the repressor from binding to the operator.

Transverse Tubules

A system of tubules that provides channels for ion flow throughout the muscle fibers to facilitate the propagation of electrical signals from the nervous system.

Lymphatic System

A system of vessels and lymph nodes that collect interstitial fluids and return them to the circulatory system, thereby maintaining a plasma protein and fluid balance. The lymphatic system is also involved in lipid absorption and lymphocyte production.

Repressible System

A system that is normally "turned on" but can be inactivated by the addition of a repressor or a corepressor.

Retina

A thin layer of cells containing photoreceptors at the back of the eye that converts light signals into neural impulses.

Prosthetic Group

A tightly bound cofactor is also known as a prosthetic group (i.e., Heme).

Transport Protein

A transport protein helps move polar molecules and certain ions across the cell membrane.

Meiosis

A two-phase cell division in germ cells that results in the formation of four haploid cells from one diploid cell.

Primase

A type of RNA polymerase that adds short segments of RNA during replication to which DNA polymerase can add nucleotides. Without primase, DNA replication cannot be initiated.

Molecular formula

A type of molecular notation representing the quantity of constituent atoms, but not the nature of the bonds that join them.

Hydrogen bond

A type of weak chemical bond formed when the slightly positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to the slightly negative atom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule.

Cardiac Sphincter

A valve between the esophagus and the stomach that prevents the content of the stomach from traveling back up through the esophagus.

Pyloric Sphincter

A valve between the stomach and the small intestine that regulates the flow of chyme into the small intestine.

Mitral Valve

A valve located between the left atrium and the left ventricle. The valve consists of two cusps and prevents backflow of blood from the ventricles to the atria.

Tricuspid Valve

A valve located between the right atria and the right ventricle. The valve consists of three cusps and prevents backflow of blood from the ventricle to the atria.

Vestigial Structure

A vestigial structure is a remnant structure that has lost its ancestral function (e.g., tail bone in man).

How is a zymogen activated?

A zymogen is activated when a part of it is cleaved off or otherwise modified.

Cr, Mo, W, Cu, Ag, Au

"Instead of s2d4, it's s1d5 and s1d10 because they want to achieve a half-full or full d subshell." This describes the situation for these 6 elements: "_________________"

absorption spectrum

"_________________"

emission spectra

"_________________"

excited states

"_________________"

ground state

"_________________"

orbits the nucleus

"_________________" decribes the behavior of the hydrogen electron in the Bohr model.

spherical probability cloud

"_________________" decribes the location of the hydrogen electron in quantum mechanics.

effective nuclear charge

"_________________" is the nuclear charge experienced by the outermost electrons of an atom (actual pull due to charge of nucleus minus the shielding caused by inner shell electrons: Abbreviated as Z(eff)

Rayleigh scattering

"_________________" is the reason the sky is blue

The Aufbau principle

"_________________" states that an electron occupies the lowest-energy orbital that can receive it

Pauli exclusion principle

"_________________" states that no electron can have the same quantum state as another electron in an atom

Hund's rule

"_________________" states that orbitals of equal energy are each occupied by one electron before any orbital is occupied by a second electron, and all electrons in singly occupied orbitals must have the same spin

Chargaff's rule

# purines = # pyrimidines

Percent yield

(Actual Yield/Theoretical Yield) x 100%

HOMO

(Lewis Acids/Bases) Between HOMO and LUMO which is "filled" prior to the formation of the lewis complex?

covalent bond

(chemistry) This bond results when there is a sharing of electrons between two atoms, resulting in the overlap of their electron orbitals.

Catalyst

(chemistry) a substance that initiates or accelerates a chemical reaction without itself being affected

Stoichiometry

(chemistry) the relation between the quantities of substances that take part in a reaction or form a compound (typically a ratio of whole integers)

nonbonding electrons

(consider the bonds in the atom above) Name for the valence electrons not involved in forming covalent bonds. Also called unshared pairs or lone pairs

bonding electrons

(consider the bonds in the atom above) Name for the valence electrons that participate in bonding

dashes

(consider the bonds in the atom above) The bonding electrons are represented by dashes or dots?

dots

(consider the bonds in the atom above) The nonbonding electrons are represented by dashes or dots?

Mole

(physics and chemistry) the simplest structural unit of an element or compound

Anode

+ end

Kinesin moves toward

+ end

First base to be transcribed is deemed

Cathode

- end

Dynein moves toward

- end

pH=-log {H+} pOH=

--log [OH-]

log 1/2

-0.3

log 1/3

-0.47

spin quantum

-1/2 to 1/2

Lineweaver-Burke plot x-intercept

-1/Km

pH>pI

->anode (+ electrode)

pH<pI

->cathode (- electrode)

Axon Hillock

-Part of neuron that connects the cell body (soma) to the axon. The impulses the neuron receives from all the dendrites are summed up at the axon hillock to determine whether an action potential will be initiated.

work done in a gas

-Pchange in V

deltaGo=

-RTlnK RTln Q/K

Chromatin

-chromosomes in their uncoiled active state -chromatin is not visible under a light microscope

Oxytocin

-increases the strength of contractions during childbirth

Fspring=

-kx

log 1/2=

-log 2

mCdeltaT heating=

-mCdeltaT cooling

Isotonic

-medium and a cell are isotonic when the solute concentrations of the medium and the cell are equal.

Upendulum

-mgL (1-costheta)

Fpendulum=

-mgsintheta

delta Grxn (electrochemical cell)

-nFEcell

Glycogen

-primary form in which carbohydrates are stored in the liver -easily converted to glucose-6-phosphate when the body needs it

qE=mg E= mg/q

Gas constant

.08206 l •atm/ mol •k

Membrane potential is never

90 degrees cos= sin= tan= R/h=

0 1 - -

What percentage of sons will inherit their father's sex-linked gene?

0% of the sons

log 1.33

0.13

log 1.6

0.2

log 1.8

0.25

log 2

0.3

log 3

0.47

60 degrees cos= sin= tan= R/h=

0.5 0.86 1.73 2.4

kb water=

0.51 C kg/mole

log 4

0.6

log 5

0.7

45 degrees cos= sin= tan= R/h=

0.71 0.71 1 4

log 6

0.77

log 7

0.85

30 degrees cos= sin= tan= R/h=

0.86 0.5 0.58 6.7

log 8

0.9

log 9

0.95

beta decay 120/50X

0/-1 e- 120/51 Z

beta+ decay 120/50X

0/1 e- 120/49 Q

Give the correct number of electrons: in the third shell of sodium

Pyrimidines have __ rings

o degrees cos= sin= tan=

1 0 0

water's heat capacity

1 cal/g K

difference btwn equivalence points

1 equivalent of titrant

IUPAC Nomenclature

1) * the longest carbon chain with the most substituents determines the base name 2)* the end carbon closet to a carbon with a substituent is always the first carbon. in the case of a tie, look to the next substituent 3)* any substituent is given the same number as its carbon 4)* if the same substituent is used more than once, use the prefixes di-, tri-, tetra, and so on 5)* order the substituents alphabetically (ignore prefix)

resonance structure rules

1)atoms must be moved 2)number of unpaired electrons must remain the same 3)resonance atoms must lie in the same plane 4)only proper lewis structures allowed

Bisphosphoglycerate mutase

1,3-BPG → 2,3-BPG; 2,3-BPG binds to beta chain of HbA decreasing affinity for oxygen

What are the two major tissue components of the skeleton?

1. Cartilage 2. Bone

What are the two major subsystems of the nervous system?

1. Central nervous system 2. Peripheral nervous system

Key rxns in TCA

1. Citrate formation 2. Isomerization to isocitrate 3. α-ketoglutarate + CO2 formation 4. Succinyl-CoA + CO2 formation 5. Succinate formation 6. Fumarate formation 7. Malate formation 8. OAA formation

Name two types of reversible inhibitors

1. Competitive 2. Noncompetitive

Complex I steps

1. NADH to FMN → FMNH2 2. FMNH2 to Fe-S → Fe-S (reduced) 3. Fe-S (reduced) to Q → QH2

FA degredation steps

1. Oxidation 2. Hydration 3. Oxidation 4. Splitting

Galactose metabolism

1. Phosphorylated by galactokinase to Gal-1P 2. Gal-1P uridyl transferase w/ UDP-Gluc; Gal-1P → G-6P + UDP-Gal 3. UDP-Gal epimerase; UDP-Gal → UDP-Gluc

Fructose metabolism

1. Phosphorylation by fructokinase to F-1P 2. Aldolase B; F-1P → DHAP + Glyceraldehyde → GAP

Posttranscriptional processing

1. Splicing introns/exons 2. 5' cap 3. 3' Poly-A-tail

Complex II steps

1. Succinate reduced to FAD → FADH2 2. FADH2 to Fe-S oxi → Fe-S red 3. Fe-S red to Q → QH2

Name the following parts of a sarcomere:

1. Z line. 2. H zone. 3. I band. 4. M line. 5. A band.

limiting reagent

1. balance chemical equation 2.fine number of moles of all reactants 3. whichever one has the least amount of moles is your limiting reagent 4.subtract the number of moles of non limiting from limiting reagent and this is your left over reactant 5. convert it to proper units

stoich problems

1. balance the equation 2. take the number grams needed and convert it to moles 3.use mole to mole ratio est. by the equation balancing 4.now convert moles to grams of the reactant needed and you have your answer

percent yeild

1. find limiting reagent 2.stoich analysis of that and product 3. number you get is the theoretical yeild 4.actual yeild/theoretical yeild

nominclature

1. metals that can form more than one positive ion are named with a roman numeral ex. Fe(^3+) is iron(III) 2. ous and ic, the metal with the lesser charge gets ous while the metal with the higher charge gets ic ex. Fe(^2+) ferrous Fe(^3+) ferric 3.monoatomic ions from ending and add ide ex. H- hydride 4. polyatomic more oxygen -ate (ate them) less oxygen -ite (lITEer) ex. no2- nitrite no3-nitrate 5. for extened seriss of oxyanions yours hypo for less and per or hyper for more ex. clo-hopychorite clo2-cholorite clo3-chlorate clo4-percholrate 6.when adding hydrogen add hydrogen infront 7.will list other polyatomic to know in other cards

translational motion lack vo d=

1.2at^2+vot+do

kf water=

1.86 C kg/mole

souability rules

1.all salts containing ammonium and alkali metal cations are souable 2. all salts containing nitrate no3- and acetate ch3coo- are souable 3. halides excluding fluorine, are souable unless with hg pb ag 4. all salts of sulfate ions so42-are water souable unless with ca sr ba pb 5. all metal oxides are insoluble unless formed with alkali metals, ammonium CaO Sro and Bao 6.all hydroxides are insouble with the acceptation of those formed with alkali metals ammonium and ca sr and ba 7.all carbonates co32- phosphates po42- suflides and sulfites are insoulble unless formed with ammonium or alkli metals

when pH=pKa this means ___ of an equivalent has been added

1/2

UAM no a x=

1/2 (vox+vfx)deltat

free fall y=

1/2 at^2 5t^2

Uspring=

1/2 kx^2

nodes=

1/2 lambda apart destructive interference

pH=1/2 pka-1/2log [HA] pOH=

1/2 pKb-1/2 log[A-]

pendulum frequency

1/2pi * sqrt g/L

spring frequency

1/2pi * sqrt k/m

antinodes=

1/4 lambda apart max displacement

Lineweaver-Burke plot y-intercept

1/Vmax

intesity correlates to

1/r^2

decibels=

10 log (Isound/Io)

Normal blood sugar

100 mg/dL or 5.6mM

What percentage of daughters will inherit their father's sex linked gene?

100% of daughters will inherit their father's sex-linked gene.

Enzyme activity tends to double every

10C to a point

deci-

10^-1

pico-

10^-12

weak acid

10^-14< Ka < 1 0< pKa < 14 weak CB 10^-14< Kb < 1 0< pKb < 14

femto-

10^-15

atto-

10^-18

centi-

10^-2

milli-

10^-3

inverse of 10^4

10^-5

micro-

10^-6

nano-

10^-9

[H+]=

10^-pH

[OH-]=

10^-pOH

deka

10^1

tera-

10^12

penta-

10^15

exa-

10^18

hecto-

10^2

kilo-

10^3

mega-

10^6

giga-

10^9

beta capture 120/50X + 0/-1 e-

120/49 Q

beta + capture 120/50X + 0/1 e-

120/51 Z

alpha capture 120/50X + 4/2 alpha

124/52 A

Halogens

17 7A

Half life

1=50% 2=25% 3=12.5%

cm^3 =

1ml

What is the Electronic Structure for Sodium?

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

What is the Electronic Structure for Magnesium?

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

What is the Electronic Structure for Phosporus?

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3

What is the Electronic Structure for Sulfur?

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4

What is the Electronic Structure for Chlorine?

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

What is the Electronic Structure for Argon?

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

GLycolysis produces __ ATP per glucose

Give the correct number of electrons: in the first energy level of Chlorine

Purines have __ rings

Complex IV steps

2 Cyt c w/ Fe2+ +2H + 1/2 O2 → 2 Cyt c w/ Fe3+ +2H2O

Single terpene

2 isoprenes

Integrins

2 membrane spanning elements that bind/communicate with ECM

standing waves lambda third harmonic=

2/3L

Prostaglandins

20 C - carboxy acids derived from arachidonic acid/regulate cAMP synth

one gram of an ideal gas occupies what at standard temperature

22.4L

TCA produces __ ATP per glucose

standing waves lambda second harmonic=

2L/2

max number of electrons within a shell

2N^2

period pendulum

2pi sqrt L/g

period spring

2pi sqrt m/k

Sesquiterpenes

3 isoprenes

DNA Poly reads in this direction

3' → 5'

RNA poly reads in this direction

3' → 5'

gas motion KE=

3/2 RT

Physiological temp.

310K (37C)

sp2 p and s character

33.3 s 66.7p

What is the optimal temperature and pH for most enzymes in the body?

37°C and 7.4 respectively

h2o is densest at

4 C

alpha decay 120/50 X

4/2 alpha 116/48 Y

max range at ___ degrees

Huckel's rule

4n + 2 = # of pi electrons

Give the correct number of electrons: in the outer shell of Nitrogen

DNA poly synthesizes in this direction

5' → 3'

RNA poly synthesizes mRNA in this direction

5' → 3'

mRNA is synthesized in this direction

5' → 3'

Ribosomes translate in this direction on mRNA and synthesize new polypeptide in this direction

5' → 3', N → C

What percentage of sons will inherit their mother's sex-linked gene (assuming a heterozygous mother)?

50% of sons will inherit their mother's sex-linked gene.

sp b and s charachter

50/50

Prokaryotic ribosomal subunit size

50S + 30S = 70S

Eukaryotic ribosomal subunit size

60S + 40S = 80S

Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz voltage equation

61.5 log ((PNa x [Na]out) + (PK x [K]out) + (PCl x [Cl]in)/(PNa x [Na]in) + (PK x [K]in) + (PCl x [Cl]out)

Give the correct number of electrons: in the highest occupied energy level of Chlorine

5' cap is composed of

7-methylguanylate triphosphate cap

Physiological pH

7.4

Given: P = dominant (purple) p = recessive (white) What would be the genotypic ratio of a Pp × Pp cross?

75% purple : 25% white

Give the correct number of electrons: in the second energy level of Magnesium

HClO2 ___ HCO2 in terms of acidity

Hsub___Hvap___Hfusion

Ssub___Svap___Sfus

Ribosomal binding sites

A (aminoacyl), P (peptidyl), E (exit)

Gametocyte

A cell from which gametes form by meiotic division, especially a spermatocyte or an oocyte.

Cell Wall

A cell wall protects the cell from external stimuli and desiccation.

Electron Transport Chain

A chain of cytochromes and other proteins in the inner membrane of the mitochondria that transfers electrons from NADH and FADH2 to oxygen. The energy released from the series of oxidations is used to create a proton gradient, which ATP synthase then uses to synthesize ATP.

Chromatid

A chromatid is one half of a replicated chromosome. Sister chromatids are attached by the centromere.

Indeterminate Cleavage

A cleavage that results in cells maintaining their totipotency, or ability to develop into a complete organism.

Determinate Cleavage

A cleavage whose future differentiation pathways are determined.

Coenzyme

A coenzyme is an organic cofactor for an enzymatic reaction (e.g., vitamin).

Cofactor

A cofactor is a nonprotein molecule that is incorporated into an enzyme and is required for proper functioning.

Nucleosides

A compound consisting of a purine or pyrimidine base and a pentose sugar

carbanion

A compound containing a negatively charged carbon atom. A carbon-based anion.

Michaelis Constant

A constant, Km, that is a measure of the kinetics of an enzyme reaction and that is equivalent to the concentration of substrate at which the reaction takes place at one half its maximum rate.

Test Cross

A cross between an organism of an undetermined genotype and another that is homozygous recessive for the trait of interest.

Monohybrid Cross

A cross between two organisms where only one trait is being studied.

Dihybrid Cross

A cross between two organisms where two distinct traits are being studied.

Cytochrome

A cytochrome is a molecular electron carrier involved in oxidative phosphorylation.

Zygote

A fertilized egg.

Cartilage

A firm, elastic, translucent connective tissue consisting of collagenous fibers embedded in chondrin. Produced by cells called chondrocytes. Cartilage is the principal component of embryonic skeletons and can harden and calcify into bone.

Epiglottis

A flap of cartilage that covers the glottis when swallowing food in order to prevent food particles from entering the larynx.

Inversion

A form of chromosomal rearrangement in which a portion of a chromosome breaks off and rejoins the same chromosome in the reverse position.

Translocation

A form of chromosomal rearrangement in which a portion of one chromosome adds on to a nonhomologous chromosome.

Cortisol

A glucocorticoid that increases the blood's glucose level.

polyatomic ion

A group of covalently bonded atoms that has an overall electrical charge is called a(n)

Ganglion

A group of neural cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system (plural: ganglia).

Heterotroph

A heterotroph is an organism that breaks down organic nutrients for energy.

Histone

A histone is a structural protein complexed with eukaryotic DNA to form a chromosome.

Prolactin

A hormone synthesized and released by the anterior pituitary that stimulates milk production and secretion in female mammary glands.

Contrast the number of chromosomes in a human diploid and a human haploid cell.

A human diploid cell has 46 chromosomes. A human haploid cell has 23 chromosomes.

What would happen to a cell if it were put in a hypertonic solution?

A hypertonic solution would cause water to flow out of a cell and cause the cell to shrink.

How does a large charged molecule cross the cell membrane?

A large charged particle usually crosses the cell membrane with the help of a carrier protein.

Superior Vena Cava

A large vein that returns deoxygenated blood from the head and neck regions to the right atrium of the heart.

Inferior Vena Cava

A large vein that returns deoxygenated blood from the lower body and the extremities to the right atrium of the heart.

Surfactant

A liquid substance produced by the lung that reduces surface tension in the alveoli. Surfactant prevents lung collapse and decreases the effort needed to expand the lungs (inhale).

Synovial Fluid

A lubricant found in movable joints.

Saltatory Conduction

A means by which action potentials jump from node to node along an axon.

Electronegativity

A measure of the ability of an atom in a chemical compound to attract electrons

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

A modified form of endoplasmic reticulum, which stores calcium that is used to trigger contraction when the muscle is stimulated.

achiral

A molecule that has a plane of symmetry in any of its possible conformations must be identical to its mirror image. Optically inactive.

Regulator

A molecule, other than the substrate, that can bind to the allosteric site of an enzyme and either increase its activity (allosteric activator) or decrease its activity (allosteric inhibitor).

Monocytes

A monocyte phagocytizes foreign matter.

What is the difference between a polysynaptic and monosynaptic reflex?

A monosynaptic reflex involves only one sensory neuron and one motor neuron. A polysynaptic reflex involves one or more interneurons, in addition to a sensory neuron and a motor neuron.

Follicle

A multilayered sac of cells in the ovary that protects and nourishes the developing ovum until ovulation.

Salt

A neutral compound composed of a positive and negative ion together

Beta decay

A nuclear reaction in which a neutron changes into a proton and into an electron, and the atoms emits a beta particle, which is the electron. It increases the atomic number of the atom without changing the mass.

Plasmid

A plasmid is a smaller extrachromosomal ring of DNA sometimes found in bacteria. It replicates independently of the bacterial chromosome.

Chemical reaction

A process during which chemical bonds between atoms are broken and new ones are formed. Producing one or more different substances.

Gluconeogenesis

A process in the liver by which glucose is produced using by-products of glycolysis, lipids, or fats.

Exocytosis

A process in which a vesicle within the cell fuses with the cell membrane and releases its contents to the extracellular medium.

Repolarization

A process that occurs when the voltage-gated Na+ channels close and voltage-gated K+ channels open, allowing K+ to rush out of the cell and repolarize it.

Depolarization

A process that occurs when the voltage-gated Na+ channels open, allowing Na+ to rush into the cell and depolarize it.

Prophage (Provirus)

A prophage is a virus that has integrated its DNA into the host cell's DNA.

Membrane Receptor

A protein (or glycoprotein) that binds to molecules in the extracellular environment.

What are the components of a virus?

A protein coat and nucleic acid.

Hemoglobin

A protein found in erythrocytes made up of four polypeptide chains, each containing a heme group. Hemoglobin is responsible for transporting oxygen from the alveoli to the cells.

Na+/K+ Pump

A protein that hydrolyzes one ATP to transport three Na+ out of the cell for every two K+ transports into the cell.

Limiting reactant

A reactant that is totally consumed during a chemical reaction, limits the extent of the reaction, and determines the amount of product.

Catabolic Process

A reaction that breaks down complex molecules and releases energy. An autotroph is an organism that can harness sunlight to create energy via photosynthesis (e.g., plants)

Semiconservative Replication

A replicated molecule of DNA contains one strand from the original DNA molecule (used as the template) and a newly synthesized DNA strand.

Ribosome

A ribosome is the site of protein translation (assembly) during protein synthesis.

Action Potential

A sharp change in the membrane potential of neurons or muscle cells caused by a change in the selective permeability to K+ and Na+ using ion-gated channels. Action potentials are all-or-none events.

Refractory Period

A short period of time immediately following an action potential in which neurons or muscle cells are unresponsive to a stimulus. In some cases, called relative refractory periods, a stimulus that is much larger than the threshold can cause an action potential even in a cell that would normally be unresponsive.

Interkinesis

A short rest period between meiosis I and meiosis II during which DNA is not replicated.

Passive Immunity

A short-lived immunity resulting from the transfer of antibodies into an individual who does not produce those antibodies.

Ductus Arteriosus

A shunt that connects the pulmonary artery to the aorta in order to bypass the fetal lung.

Foramen Ovale

A shunt that connects the right atrium to the left atrium in order to bypass the fetal lung.

Ductus Venosus

A shunt that connects the umbilical vein to the inferior vena cava in order to bypass a fetal liver.

Polar Body

A small, short-lived haploid cell created during oogenesis that receives very little cytoplasm, organelles and nutrients.

Excited state

A state in which an atom has a higher potential energy than it has in its ground state.

Fat soluble vitamins

A, D, E, K

continuity equation

A1V1=A2V2

Where and how does ADH affect the nephron?

ADH makes the collecting duct more permeable to H2O by inserting water channels called aquaporins.

DNA Gyrase

AKA Topoisomerase II - introduces neg supercoiling

Glucogenic amino acid

ALl but Leucine and lysine

Which compound is needed to release myosin from its binding site on actin?

ATP is needed to release myosin from its binding site on actin.

Primary active transport

ATP is used directly

How do ATP, NAD+, NADP+, and FAD store energy?

ATP stores energy in its high-energy phosphate bonds. NAD+, NADP+, and FAD store energy in high-potential electrons.

Adenylate cyclase

ATP → cAMP

Electrophile

Accepts a pair of electrons to make a covalent bonds so it's like a Lewis acid

Acid

According to the Arrhenius concept, if HNO3 were dissolved in water, it would act as an __________.

covalent

According to the IUPAC nomenclature system, the types of compound that use prefixes in their names are

What is the primary product of pyruvate decarboxylation?

Acetyl CoA

Pyruvate DH complex is inhibited by

Acetyl-CoA

Pyruvate carboxylase is activated by

Acetyl-CoA

Citrate formation

Acetyl-CoA + OAA → Citryl-CoA → Citrate + CoA (via citrate synthetase)

Acetyl-CoA carboxylase

Acetyl-CoA activates in cytoplasm for incorporation into FA's via acetyl-CoA carboxylase

Isomerization to isocitrate

Aconitase, citrate → cis-aconitate → isocitrate

PEP carboxykinase

Activated by glucagon and cortisol, OAA → PEP w/ GTP

Glucose-6-phosphate DH

Activated by insulin and NADP+, inhibited by NADPH, G-6P → Ribose -5P

apoA-I

Activates LCAT = catalyzes cholesterol esterification

apoC-II

Activates lipoprotein lipase

Calcitriol

Active form of vitamin D, increases calcium/phosphate uptake in the intestines

Competitive inhibition

Active site inhibition, overcome by increasing substrate; does not affect Vmax, increases Km (does not move y-intercept)

Adaptive Radiation

Adaptive radiation is the emergence of a number of distinct lineages from a single ancestral species. The different lineages usually result when a group begins to exploit a different niche.

DNA methylation

Add methyl groups to cytosine/adenine nucleotides (methylation = silencing genes)

Ligase

Addition/Synthesis

DNA poly δ

Adds DNA where RNA primer was in eukaryotes

What is the base-pairing in DNA? How many bonds hold these bases together?

Adenine - Thymine (2 H bonds) Cytosine - Guanine (3 H bonds)

Purines

Adenine and guanine are called purines. They have characteristic bicyclic nitrogenous bases and pair with pyrimidines in double-stranded DNA in order to keep the width of the strand constant.

GLUT4

Adipose, muscle cell glucose transporter (low Km)

What is the source of sex hormones in post-menopausal women?

Adrenal Cortex

Sister Chromatids

After replication, each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids held together at a central region called the centromere. After the mitotic spindle pulls the sister chromatids apart, each chromatid is referred to as a chromosome.

Passage of Air During Inhalation

Air travels through the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and finally, alveoli (site of gas exchange).

Free fatty acids travel bound to

Albumin

Alditol

Aldose is reduced to alcohol

What important mineralocorticoid is released by the adrenal cortex?

Aldosterone is an important mineralocorticoid released by the adrenal cortex and involved in salt and water regulation.

Name the two distinct groups into which all cells can be categorized.

All cells can be categorized as either prokaryotes or eukaryotes.

Peripheral Nervous System

All neurons that are not part of the central nervous system, including sensory and motor neurons that connect to the central nervous system. Can be divided further into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

Somatic Cells

All the cells in an organism that not germ (reproductive) cells.

Leydig Cells

Also referred to as "interstitial cells of Leydig," Leydig cells are located in the testes and secrete testosterone and other androgens.

Where are amino acids, glucose, and vitamins reabsorbed in the nephron?

Amino acids, glucose, and vitamins are reabsorbed into the proximal convoluted tubule.

NH4 +

Ammonium

Retrovirus

An RNA virus that codes for the enzyme reverse transcriptase, which uses the RNA as a template for DNA synthesis.

Acrosome

An acrosome is the enzyme-containing cap-like structure on the head of a sperm.

Holoenzyme

An active enzyme containing all necessary cofactors.

Bile

An alkaline fluid synthesized in the liver, stored in the gall bladder, and released into the duodenum. Bile aids in the emulsification, digestion, and absorption of fats.

What happens to an enzyme in the presence of an allosteric inhibitor?

An allosteric inhibitor prevents an enzyme from binding to its substrate by stabilizing the inactive configuration.

Anabolic Process

An anabolic process is a reaction that builds complex molecules and requires energy.

Describe the difference between anabolic and catabolic processes.

An anabolic process is a reaction that builds complex molecules and requires energy. A catabolic process is a reaction that breaks down complex molecules and releases energy.

Anticodon

An anticodon is a 3-base sequence on tRNA that is complementary to the mRNA codon.

What is the difference between an apoenzyme and a holoenzyme?

An apoenzyme is an enzyme without its corresponding cofactor. Aholoenzyme contains its cofactor.

Autotroph

An autotroph is an organism that can harness sunlight to create energy via photosynthesis (e.g., plants).

Reverse Transcriptase

An enzyme in retroviruses that uses RNA strands as templates for synthesizing cDNA (complementary DNA) molecules.

DNA Polymerase

An enzyme that polymerizes a complementary DNA strand in the 5' to 3' direction using a template DNA strand. A primer is necessary for DNA polymerase to initiate polymerization.

Apoenzyme

An enzyme that requires cofactors in order to become catalytically active.

Helicase

An enzyme that unwinds the double helix of a DNA molecule and separates the two strands, allowing replication to take place.

Allosteric Enzyme

An enzyme with one or more additional bonding sites, called allosteric sites, that change the conformation of the enzyme when occupied, usually promoting or inhibiting enzymatic activity.

Dendrite

An extension of the neuron that transmits impulses toward the cell body and the axon.

Hyperventilation

An increase in the rate of inhalation. Lack of oxygen or a decrease in blood pH (an increase in blood acidity) promotes hyperventilation.

Contrast inducible and repressible systems

An inducible system requires the presence of an inducer for transcription to occur. A repressible system is in a constant state of transcription unless a corepressor is present to inhibit transcription.

Newton's first law

An object in motion (or at rest) will tend to stay in motion (or at rest) until it is acted upon by an outside force.

Newton's first law (law of inertia)

An object in motion (or at rest) will tend to stay in motion (or at rest) until it is acted upon by an outside force.

Operon

An operon is a group of genes or segment of DNA that regulates (bacterial) transcription.

Placenta

An organ formed by the uterus and the extraembryonic membranes of the fetus. The placenta contains a network of capillaries through which exchange between the fetal circulation and maternal circulation takes place.

Facultative Anaerobe

An organism that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present, but that can switch to fermentation when oxygen is not available.

What is the function of immunoglobins (antibodies)?

Antibodies attract other cells that can phagocytize an antigen or cause the antigens to clump together.

ADH

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also known as vasopressin, acts on the collecting duct to increase water reabsorption. ADH is produced by the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary.

sigma

Are hybridized bonds sigma bonds? or pi bonds?

Intermolecular attractions

Are weaker than either ionic or covalent bonds

intesity=P/

Area

Positively charged amino acids

Arg, Lys, His

shield

As you fill up a shell, the effective nuclear charge increases because the atomic number (protons) is increasing while the same-shell electrons you add do not "_________________" one another.

Binary Fission

Asexual reproduction by which prokaryotes divide. The circular DNA molecule replicates and then moves to opposites sides of the cell. The cell then divides into daughter cells of equal size.

Negatively charged amino acids

Asp, Glu

DNA poly δ + ε

Assisted by PCNA; sliding clamp that strengthens interaction between DNA polys and template strand

The smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics of the element is a(n)

Atom

Hemidesmosomes

Attach to basement membrane

Van der Waals' forces

Attractive forces between separate molecules (not the bonds between atoms) caused by positively and negatively charged regions within a molecule.

pI is found by

Average pKa's between which total charge is -1 and 1

archimede's principle

B=rhofluid*Vdis*g rho obj>rho fluid gapparent< g

floating object

B=rhomed*Vdisplaced*g W=mg=rhoobj*Vobj*g W=B rhoobj*Vobj*g=rhomed*Vdis*g Vdis/Vobj=rhoobj/rhomed <1

sunk object

B=rhomedium*Vobj*g W=mg=rhoobj*Vobj*g W/B=rhoobj/rhomed=specific gravity

nonmetal hydroxides

BL acids

metal hydroxides

BL bases

Describe bacterial DNA.

Bacterial DNA consists of a single circular chromosome.

Nucleotides

Basic units of DNA molecule, composed of a sugar, a *phosphate*, and one of 4 DNA bases

HCO3 -

Bicarbonate

Liposomes

Bilayer

Desmosomes

Bind adjacent cells w/ attachment to cytoskeleton (found at interface of two layers of epithelial tissue)

Selectins

Bind to carbs on other cells

tRNA is activated by this mechanism

Binding of amino acid acyl to hydroxyl of tRNA (activated with ATP) via aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase

Uncompetitive inhibition

Binds to E-S complex (allosterically), increasing affinity (Km down), lowering Vmax (Lineweaver-Burke plot lines parallel)

Noncompetitive inhibition

Binds to allosteric site, [S] will not change it, decreases Vmax, does not change Km (does not move x-intercept)

Vitamin B7

Biotin

Blood

Blood is made up of plasma (the liquid component) and cellular components. The cellular components are erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), and platelets.

Capillaries

Blood vessels composed of a single layer of endothelial cells, facilitating exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid.

Coronary Arteries

Blood vessels that supply the heart with oxygenated blood.

Coronary Veins

Blood vessels that transport deoxygenated blood from the heart toward the right atrium.

Ionic bonds

Bond formed by a transfer of one or more electrons from an atom to another ex: NaCl

Glycosphingolipids

Bound to sugar

bromate

BrO₃ ⁻

Denaturing DNA =

Break H-bonds

Mechanical Digestion

Breakdown of food particles into smaller particles through such activities as biting, chewing, and churning.

Acid

Bronsetd= proton donating species Lewis= electoron acceptor

base

Bronsted= a proton acceptor lewis= electron donor

Terpenes

Built from isoprenes

Cholecystokinin

CCK is a hormone that is secreted by the duodenum in response to the presence of chyme. CCK stimulates the release of bile and pancreatic enzymes into the small intestine. Cholecystokinin is also widely distributed in the brain plays a role in satiation.

cyanide

CN ⁻

carbonate

CO₃ ⁻²

What is the role of calcium in the initiation of sarcomere contraction?

Calcium binds with troponin, which causes a conformational shift in tropomyosin, expressing the myosin binding site.

Calculate the effective nuclear charge of this Al atom.

Luminous intensity

Candela (cd)

CO3 -2

Carbonate

Which types of muscle are striated?

Cardiac and skeletal muscle are striated.

Which types of muscle display myogenic activity?

Cardiac and smooth muscle display myogenic activity.

Inner membrane of mitochondria does not have cholesterol, instead it has

Cardiolipin

Vitamin A

Carotene: Vision, immune func., growth/dev., (present in retinal/ol, retinoic acid)

Carnitine

Carries fatty acids across mitochondrial membrane; FA-CoA → FA-carnitine → FA-CoA

Hepatic Portal Vein

Carries nutrients (monosaccharides, amino acids, and small fatty acids) absorbed in the small intestine to the liver, where they are modified to enter circulation.

Enzymes

Catalysts (usually proteins) that accelerate reactions by reducing the activation energy without being consumed or altered by the reaction. Note that enzymes affect only the rate of reaction; they do not effect thermochemistry of the reaction or the number of products that can eventually be formed.

Oxidoreductases

Catalyze redox rxns (transfer of e-)

Helicase

Causes + supercoiling

CAM

Cell adhesion molecules

Mitosis

Cell division and/or nuclear division in somatic cells that results in the daughter nucleus receiving a full complement of the organism's genome.

Cell Theory

Cell theory states that all living things are composed of cells; cells are the basic functional unit of life; cells arise only from pre-existing cells; and cells carry their genetic information in the form of DNA.

Name the components of a typical bacterial cell.

Cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and DNA.

Neural Crest Cells

Cells at the tip of the neural fold; this group of cells gives rise to many components of the peripheral nervous system.

Osteoclasts

Cells in the bone matrix that are involved in bone degradation.

Osteoblasts

Cells in the bone tissue that secrete the organic constituents of the bone matrix. Osteoblasts develop into osteocytes.

Oligodendrocytes

Cells that produce myelin in the central nervous system.

Schwann Cells

Cells that produce myelin in the peripheral nervous system.

Types of sphingolipids

Ceramides, sphingomyelins, glycosphinngolipids

Nuerotransmitters

Chemical messengers released from synaptic clefts of a neuron that can bind and stimulate a postsynaptic cell.

ClO3 -

Chlorate

ClO2 -

Chlorite

Vitamin D

Cholecalciferol, converted to calcitriol

CrO4 -2

Chromate

Portal Systems

Circulatory routes in which blood travels through two capillary beds before returning to the heart. Some examples include the hepatic portal system, the renal portal system, and the hypophyseal portal system.

Control points of TCA

Citrate synthase, isocitrate DH, α-ketoglutarate DH complex

hypochlorite

ClO ⁻

chlorite

ClO₂ ⁻

chlorate

ClO₃ ⁻

perchlorate

ClO₄ ⁻

tRNA (Transfer RNA)

Class of RNA bearing an anticodon (complementary to a codon) and the amino acid for the corresponding codon. tRNA is vital in translation, as it brings the amino acids to the ribosome and ensures that each codon matches up with the proper amino acid.

rRNA (Ribosomal RNA)

Class of RNA that is a structural component of ribososmes. rRNA is synthesized in the nucleolus.

mRNA (Messenger RNA)

Class of RNA that is created from the transcription of DNA (and post-transcriptional processing in eukaryotes). mRNA serves as the template for protein synthesis during translation.

nonmetal

Classify the following element as Metal or Non-Metal: Chlorine

metal

Classify the following element as Metal or Non-Metal: Nickel

nonmetal

Classify the following element as Metal or Non-Metal: Phosporus

nonmetal

Classify the following element as Metal or Non-Metal: Sulfur

nobel gas

Classify the following element: Argon

halogen

Classify the following element: Bromine

transition metal

Classify the following element: Copper

alkaline earth metal

Classify the following element: Magnesium

alkali metal

Classify the following element: Sodium

Lyase

Cleavage of a single molecule into multiple

β-amylase

Cleaves at nonreducing end of glycogen to form maltose

Phospholipase C

Cleaves phospholipids from membrane → PIP2

Chyme

Combination of partially digested food and acid that forms in the stomach.

Nucleosomes

Complex of DNA wrapped around histone

Centromeres

Composed of heterochromatin w/ high G-C content

imine

Compound with a carbon double-bonded to nitrogen (C=N).

Molarity

Concentration Moles of solute / liters of solution

Which type of photoreceptor cell is specialized for color vision? Which type is specialized for low light conditions?

Cones are for color and rods are for night vision.

Umbilical Cord

Connects the vasculature of the fetus to the placenta.

Consider a neutral atom with 30 protons and 34 neutrons. The atomic number of the element is ________.

Consider a neutral atom with 30 protons and 34 neutrons. The number of electrons in this atom is ________.

Spliceosome

Contains snRNA that couples with mRNA and excises

[He]2s^2 2p^1

Conventional notation for electronic structure: Boron B

[Ar]4s^2 3d^10 4p^5

Conventional notation for electronic structure: Bromine Br

[Ar]4s^1 3d^5

Conventional notation for electronic structure: Chromium Cr

[Ar]4s^1 3d^10

Conventional notation for electronic structure: Copper Cu

[Ne]3s^2

Conventional notation for electronic structure: Magnesium Mg

Convergent Evolution

Convergent evolution refers to the independent development of similar characteristics by non-related groups.

F=kq1q2/r2

Coulomb's Law

F=kq1q2/r^2

Coulomb's Law

Secondary transport

Coupled

chromate

CrO₄ ⁻²

dichromate

Cr₂O₇ ⁻²

CN -

Cyanide

Vitamin B12

Cyanocobalamin

Complex IV

Cytochrome c oxidase; transfers e- from cytochrome c to oxygen

Pyrimidines

Cytosine and thymine are called pyrimidines. They have characteristic monocyclic nitrogenous bases and pair with purines in double-stranded DNA in order to keep the width of the strand constant.

Cytosol

Cytosol is the fluid component of the cell's cytoplasm.

Malate-aspartate shuttle

Cytosolic OAA → Malate (via malate DH); oxidizes NADH → NAD+, malate can pass through mitochondrial membrane to be reoxidized

acetate

C₂H₃O₂ ⁻

oxalate

C₂O₄ ⁻²

charged aa

D E R H K

PIP2 is cleaved into

DAG + IP3

Why are telomeres present

DNA polys cannot complete synthesis of the 5' end (gets shorter every time)

DNA poly β + ε

DNA repair

Heterochromatin

Dark and silent

Histone acetylation

Decreases positive charge = lowers interaction of histones w/ DNA

DNA sequencing uses

Deoxyribonucleic acid (polymerization stops there)

Incomplete Dominance

Describes a situation in which an organism heterozygous for a trait will have a phenotype that is intermediate to both alleles. Neither allele, therefore, is dominant or recessive.

Tertiary structure

Determined by hydrophobicity

Large proteins are degraded by

Digestion w/ pepsin/trypsin then Edman degredation

UV light can cause

Dimers between adjacent T's

Diploid

Diploid cells have two copies of each chromosome, usually one from the mother and one from the father. Eukaryotic somatic cells are diploid.

Primary Spermatocytes

Diploid cells that undergo meiosis I to form two haploid secondary spermatocytes.

Gap junction

Direct cell-cell; connexons, water solute passage

How does directional selection affect the phenotype of a population?

Directional selection favors the expression of one phenotypic extreme.

Euchromatin

Dispersed, light, expressed

How does disruptive selection affect the phenotype of a population?

Disruptive selection favors the phenotypic extremes, leading to the expression of two or more phenotypic forms.

Divergent Evolution

Divergent evolution refers to the process whereby related groups independently develop dissimilar characteristics.

Autonomic Nervous System

Division of the peripheral nervous system that is responsible for involuntary movement.

Somatic Nervous System

Division of the peripheral nervous system that is responsible for voluntary movement.

RNA does/does not proofread

Does not

Nucleophile

Donates a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond. It is the same as a Lewis base

Groups that point right in fischer projection will point __ in Haworth projection

Down

Leading Strand

During DNA replication, the strand of DNA that is continuously synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction. The template strand is read in the 3' to 5' direction.

Lagging Strand

During DNA replication, the strand of DNA that is synthesized in small fragments called Okazaki fragments and then ligated together. The Okazaki fragments are synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction, but the overall synthesis is in the 3' to 5' direction. The template strand has a 5' to 3' polarity.

Nernst equation

E = RT/zF ln ([ion out]/[ion in]); 61.5/z log ([ion out]/[ion in]) assuming physiological temp

What energy molecules are released in one turn of the citric acid cycle?

Each turn of the citric acid cycle results in 1 GTP, 3 NADH, and 1 FADH2.

Small proteins are degraded by

Edman degredation

What is the electrical conduction pathway of the heart?

Electrical conduction pathway of the heart is: Sinoatrial node → Atrioventricular node → Bundle of His → Purkinje fibers

Myelin Sheath

Electrically insulating substance that surround axons, secreted by Schwann cells (in the peripheral nervous system) and oligodendrocytes (in the central nervous system). Action potential cannot actively propagate in areas of the axon that are mylinated.

arrhenius acid

Electron pair acceptor & proton donor, that produces H+ ions when dissolved in water

arrhenius acid (most specific definition)

Electron pair acceptor & proton donor, that produces H+ ions when dissolved in water

bronsted lowry acid

Electron pair acceptor that is a proton donor

bronsted lowry acid (intermediate definition)

Electron pair acceptor that is a proton donor

lewis acid (most inclusive definition)

Electron pair acceptor that may or may not donate a proton

arrhenius base

Electron pair donor & proton acceptor that produces OH- ions when dissolved in water

arrhenius base (most specific definition)

Electron pair donor & proton acceptor that produces OH- ions when dissolved in water

bronsted lowry base

Electron pair donor that is a proton acceptor

bronsted lowry base (intermediate definition)

Electron pair donor that is a proton acceptor

lewis base

Electron pair donor that may or may not accept a proton

lewis base (most inclusive definition)

Electron pair donor that may or may not accept a proton

Ionization energy

Electrons are attracted to the nucleus of an atom, so it takes energy to remove an electron. The energy required to remove an electron from an atom is called the first ionization energy. Once an electron has been removed, the atom becomes a positively charged ion. The energy required to remove the next electron from the ion is called the second ionization energy, and so on.

What is the difference between an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland?

Endocrine glands secrete their hormones directly into the bloodstream. Exocrine glands secrete substances that are transported by ducts.

Endocytosis

Endocytosis is a process in which the cell membrane invaginates, forming an intracellular vesicle containing extracellular medium.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transport of materials throughout the cell.

Synaptic Terminals

Ends of axons that form one side of the synaptic cleft; the location where neurotransmitters are stored.

Electron affinity

Energy released when an atom or ion in the gaseous state gains an electron. Increases from left to right and from bottom to top on the Periodic Table.

Binding energy

Energy that holds the protons and neutrons together in the nucleus, defined by the equation E = mc². m = mass defect, c = speed of light in a vacuum.

Enhancers

Enhance gene expression by multiple proteins

How do you deal with unsaturated FA

Enoyl-CoA isomerase

Hypotonic refers to cell/environment having less solute

Environment

Chemical Digestion

Enzymatic breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules.

Carbonic Anhydrase

Enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of carbonic acid to carbon dioxide and water as well as the formation of carbonic acid from carbon dioxide and water.

DNA Ligase

Enzyme that covalently links the Okazaki fragments together.

Zymogen

Enzyme that must undergo processing before it can catalyze reactions.

Ecell=

Eo - (RT/nF) lnQ Eo - (0.059/n) log Q

What are some of the effects of epinephrine?

Epinephrine effects include: -increased heart rate -increased blood glucose level -increased blood supply to brain, muscle, and heart -decreased digestion and excretion

Osmotic pressure

Equilibrium happens when pressure stops move DC of water .

Saponification

Ester hydrolysis w/ strong base (TAG + 3NaOH = Glycerol + 3 Na(Fatty Acids))

Waxes

Esters of long chain fatty acids w/ long chain alcohols

What is the net gain in ATP from cellular respiration?

Eukaryotes = 36 ATP; Prokaryotes = 38 ATP.

What is a key differentiating criterion between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles; however, prokaryotic cells do not.

RNA poly II

Eukaryotic, locates TATA box; hnRNA (pre-processed RNA) synth + snRNA synth in nucleus

Newton's Third Law

Every action has an equal and opposite reaction

What happens to interstitial fluid that doesn't diffuse into a capillary?

Excess interstitial fluid is picked up by the lymphatic system and returned to the circulatory system.

higher

Excited states are "_________________" in energy than ground states.

Extramembrane (phosphorylation)

T/F Enzymes affect Keq

T/F Enzymes affect thermodynamics

T/F Enzymes affect ΔG

T/F Enzymes affect ΔHrxn

T/F all human amino acids are specified by codons

T/F mRNA in eukaryotes is polycistronic

Name all of the hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland.

F (FSH: Follicle-Stimulating Hormone ) L (LH: Luteinizing Hormone) A (ACTH: Adrenocorticotropic Hormone) T (TSH: Thyroid Stimulating Hormone) P (Prolactin) E (Endorphins/Enkephalins) G (GH: Growth Hormone)

solids stress/sigma=

F/A

Law of Gravitation

F=Gm1m2/r^2 (physics) the law that states any two bodies attract each other with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them

k>G

F=Gm1m2/r^2 F=kq1q2/r^2 gravitational force is weaker compared to the much stronger electrostatic force because _ is larger than _

Coulomb's Law

F=kq1q2/r^2 electric force between charged objects depends on the distance between the objects and the magnitude of the charges.

Dihydrolipoyl DH

FAD is used to reoxidize lipoic acid

Hormone sensitive lipases are stimulated by

Fall in insulin, epi and cortisol

(T/F) DNA synthesis proceeds in the 3' to 5' direction.

False, DNA synthesis proceeds in the 5' to 3' direction.

(T/F) LH and FSH are secreted only in females.

False, LH and FSH are produced and secreted in males as well as females.

(T/F) In a resting neuron, Na+ concentration is higher inside the cell than outside the cell.

False, Na+ concentration is higher outside a resting neuron.

(T/F) Blood entering the pulmonary capillaries has a higher partial pressure of O2 than the air in the alveoli.

False, O2 partial pressure is lower in the pulmonary capillary blood than in the alveolar air.

(T/F) Bacteria and viruses are examples of prokaryotic cells.

False, bacteria are prokaryotic while viruses are non-living acellular structures.

(T/F) All enzymes in the body operate most efficiently at a pH of around 7.4.

False, certain enzymes in the digestive tract work best at acidic (e.g. stomach) and basic (e.g. duodenum) pH's.

(T/F) Chief cells secrete HCL into the stomach.

False, chief cells secrete pepsinogen into the stomach; parietal cells secretes HCL into the stomach.

(T/F) Constriction of blood vessels in the skin leads to decreased body temperature.

False, constriction of blood vessels in the skin leads to increased body temperature.

3 (T/F) Enzymes get used up during the course of a reaction.

False, enzymes are catalysts and therefore don't get used up during the course of a reaction.

(T/F) Facilitated diffusion is a passive process that requires energy.

False, facilitated diffusion is a passive process that moves a solute down its concentration gradient and therefore DOES NOT require energy.

(T/F) Adult hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than fetal hemoglobin.

False, fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen.

(T/F) Gray matter is composed of axons and white matter is composed of cell bodies.

False, gray matter is composed of cell bodies and white matter is composed of axons.

(T/F) Homologous chromosomes code for different traits.

False, homologous chromosomes code for the same traits.

(T/F) Dizygotic (fraternal) twins are identical.

False, monozygotic twins are identical.

(T/F) Most coenzymes are synthesized by the body.

False, most coenzymes are obtained from outside sources.

(T/F) In humans, most sex-linked genes are located on the Y chromosome.

False, most sex-linked genes are on the X chromosome.

(T/F) Platelets play a key role in the immune response.

False, platelets are key players in clot formation.

(T/F) All arteries carry oxygenated blood and all veins carry deoxygenated blood throughout the body.

False, pulmonary arteries and umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood while pulmonary veins and umbilical veins carry oxygenated blood.

(T/F) Sensory nerves enter the spinal cord ventrally and motor nerves leave the spinal cord dorsally.

False, sensory nerves enter dorsally and motor nerves leave ventrally.

(T/F) The diaphragm contracts during exhalation.

False, the diaphragm relaxes during exhalation and contracts during inhalation.

(T/F) A neuron can conduct during the absolute refractory period.

False, the neuron is unable to respond to stimulus during the refractory period.

(T/F) The nucleus is surrounded by a single-layered membrane.

False, the nuclear membrane is double-layered.

(T/F) Systole is when the heart relaxes and diastole is when the ventricles contract.

False, the ventricles contract during systole and the heart relaxes during diastole.

(T/F) Proteins synthesized by RER are secreted directly into the cytoplasm.

False, they are secreted into the cisternae of RER and then sent to smooth ER, where they are secreted into vesicles.

(T/F) Mitochondria replicate in a manner similar to a cell's other organelles.

False, they replicate via binary fission.

(T/F) Within a sarcomere, thick filaments are made of actin and thin filaments are made of myosin.

False, thin filaments are made of actin and thick filaments are made of myosin.

(T/F) Cilia and flagella are specialized arrangements of microfilaments and function in cell motility.

False, while cilia and flagella do function in cell motility, they are composed of microtubules.

(T/F) All enzymes in the body are proteins.

False, while most enzymes are proteins, a select few are RNA subunits or ribozymes.

White Fibers

Fast-twitch muscle fibers. They are primarily anaerobic and fatigue more easily than red fibers.

Fatty Acid Activation

Fats must be activated using two ATP molecules before they can be converted into acetyl CoA and enter the citric acid cycle.

iron (III) sulfate

Fe2(SO4)3 is called _______________.

How does feedback inhibition regulate an enzymatic process?

Feedback inhibition uses an end product as an allosteric inhibitor to the enzyme catalyzing the reaction.

Name the three categories of enzymatic regulatory inhibition

Feedback, reversible, and irreversible inhibition.

effective nuclear charge

Filling to the next shell causes a jump in atom size because of decreased "_________________"

Villi

Fingerlike projections that extend out of the small intestine in order to increase surface area for maximum absorption.

Fitness According to Darwin

Fitness is the ability of an organism to mate and produce fertile offspring.

Vitamin B9

Folic acid

huckels rule

For a molecule to be aromatic it must have 4n+2 pi electrons

How to calculate formal charge of an atom

Formal charge is valence electrons - {number of bonds + number of unbonded electrons}

Tetrad

Four chromatids that result when a pair of homologous chromosomes synapse during prophase I of meiosis.

Malate formation

Fumarase = Fumarate → Malate

nonpolar aa

G A V L I P M F

complimentary colors R O Y

G B V *chlorophyll absorbs red, appears green

Glycogenin

G-6P → G-1P + UDP → G-1P-UDP → Glycogen; stimulated by G-6P/insulin/inhibited by epi, glucagon through protein kinase

Glucose 6-phosphatase

G-6P → Glucose to circumvent hexo/glucokinase

DNA base excision repair occurs in phase

G1, G2 glycosylase, AP endonuclease

DNA nucleotide excision repair occurs in phase

G1, G2 via excision endonuclease

Mismatch repair happens in phase

DNA mismatch repair occurs in phase

G2 via MSH2, MLH1

GPCR - Activated phospholipase C

GPCR - inhibits adenylate cyclase = Decrease in cAMP

GPCR - stimulates adenylate cyclase = Increase in cAMP

Peptidyl transferase requires

GTP

Lactose

Galactose-β-1,4-glucose

Nodes of Ranvier

Gaps between segments of myelin sheath where action potentials can propagate, allowing for saltatory conduction.

Alleles

Genes coding for alternative forms of a given trait.

Linked Genes

Genes that are located on the same chromosome.

How does genetic drift differ from gene flow?

Genetic drift refers to changes in the gene pool due to chance. Gene flow refers to the changing of the gene pool due to the migration of individuals.

Log calculations

Getting rid of logs on both sides means doing 10^ on each side

Give the correct VALENCE for ions of the following element: Al

-1

Give the correct VALENCE for ions of the following element: Cl

Give the correct VALENCE for ions of the following element: K

-2

Give the correct VALENCE for ions of the following element: O

Pyloric Glands

Glands located in the walls of the stomach that secrete the hormone gastrin in response to certain substances in food.

Endocrine Glands

Glands that synthesize and secrete hormones into the circulatory system. Examples include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland, thymus, pancreas, testes, ovaries, adrenal glands, thyroid gland, and parathyroid glands.

Exocrine Glands

Glands that synthesize and secrete substances either into the digestive tract or the surface of the body through the use of ducts. The gall bladder, pancreas, and mammary glands are examples of an exocrine glands.

Glycogenolysis is activated by/inactivated by

Glucagon in liver;AMP, epi in muscle/ATP in muscle

Contrast how glucagon and insulin affect blood glucose levels

Glucagon increases blood glucose levels. Insulin decreases blood glucose levels.

Gluconeogenesis is activated in the liver by

Glucagon, epi

Irreversible enzymes of glycolysis

Gluco/Hexokinase, PFK-1, Pyruvate kinase

What is the net reaction for glycolysis?

Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2NAD+ → 2Pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2H+ + 2H2O

G-1P

Glucose 1-phosphate

Sucrose

Glucose-α-1,2-fructose

Maltose

Glucose-α-1,4-glucose

Non polar/non aromatic amino acids

Gly, Ala, Val, Leu, Ile, Met, Pro

Glycogen synth begins with

Glycogenin

Contrast the locations of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle

Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm while the citric acid cycle occurs in the inner mitochondrial matrix.

Cadherins

Glycoproteins, mediate Ca2+ dependent cells, hold similar cells together

Globosides

Glycosphingolipids bound to many sugars

Cerebrosides

Glycosphingolipids bound to one sugar

Base excision repair

Glycosylase removes incorrect base

Which type of leukocyte plays a key role in inflammation and allergic reactions?

Granular leukocytes (basophils, eosinophils, and neutrophils) are active in inflammation and allergic reactions.

Do the following represent elements in a Group, a Period, or neither? O, S, Se

Group

Transition metals

Groups 3-12, 1-2 electrons in the outer energy level, less reactive than alsali-earth metals, shiny, good conductor of thermal energy and electrical current, high density

Secondary structure of polypeptides

H-bonds, intramolecular stabilizations

Ceramides

H-head group

Histones

H2A,H2B, H3, H4, H1

hydrogen carbonate/ bicarbonate

HCO₃ ⁻

haloacid trend

HI>HBr>HCl>HF longer bond correlates with weaker bond correlates with easier removal of proton

highest energy occupied molecular orbital

HOMO stands for

hydrogen sulfite/ bisulfite

HSO₃ ⁻

hydrogen sulfate/ bisulfate

HSO₄ ⁻

pKa means

Half the molecules are protonated/deprotonated

Haploid

Haploid cells have only one copy of each chromosome. Gametes (sperm and egg cells) in humans are haploid.

Sphingomyelins

Have phosphatidylethanolamine or phosphatidylcholine head group (head group has no net charge)

Sphingolipids

Have sphingolipid backbone

Transcription factors

Help RNA poly locate and bind to promoter

GLUT2

Hepatocytes, pancreatic cell glucose transporter (very high Km)

hnRNA

Heterogeneous nuclear RNA; primary transcript formed

Strong Acids

High Ka HCL HBr HI H2SO4 HCLO4 HNO3

Strong Bases

High Kb LiOH - lithium hydroxide NaOH - sodium hydroxide KOH - potassium hydroxide RbOH - rubidium hydroxide CsOH - cesium hydroxide *Ca(OH)2 - calcium hydroxide *Sr(OH)2 - strontium hydroxide *Ba(OH)2 - barium hydroxid

R state

High affinity "relaxed"

HDL

High density; Picks up cholesterol accumulating in blood

How would high levels of ADH affect urine concentration?

High levels of ADH result in concentrated urine.

According to the Bohr effect, what effect would high levels of H+ and HCO3- have on hemoglobin's affinity for O2?

High levels of H+ and HCO3- would decrease hemoglobin's affinity for O2. The O2 saturation curve would be shifted to the right.

Lower Km

Higher affinity

Contrast homologous and analogous structures

Homologous structures are similar in structure and origin but not function (e.g., whale flippers / human arms), whereas analogous structures are similar in function but not in origin (e.g., insect wings / bird wings).

Fischer projections

Horizontal goes up, vertical goes down

Testosterone

Hormone secreted by the interstitial cells of the testes. Testosterone is responsible for embryonic sexual differentiation, male sexual development, and the maintenance of masculine secondary sexual characteristics.

Progesterone

Hormone synthesized and released by the ovaries, corpus luteum, and placenta. During the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, the corpus luteum secretes progesterone, which, along with estrogen, stimulates the development and maintenance of the endometrial walls for implantation of the embryo.

Estrogen

Hormone synthesized and released by the ovaries, the ovarian follicles, the corpus luteum, and the placenta. Estrogen stimulates the development of the female reproductive tract and secondary sexual characteristics and is partly responsible for the LH spike that causes ovulation. Estrogen, along with progesterone produced by the placenta during the second trimester of pregnancy, helps inhibit the onset of a new menstrual cycle by blocking GnRH release.

Calcitonin

Hormone synthesized and released by the thyroid gland that decreases plasma Ca2+ concentration.

Amino Acid Derived Hormones

Hormones that are synthesized from amino acids. Some amino acid derived hormones act via secondary messengers, while others act in a fashion similar to steroid hormones by crossing the plasma membrane into the cell.

How many protons are in an isotope of sodium with a mass number of 25?

How many valence electrons does A have?

sp2

Hybridization of the double bond?

Hybridization of the triple bond?

water

Hydrogen sulfide, H2S, has a shape similar to _____.

Hydrolase

Hydrolysis

Succinate formation

Hydrolysis of thioester = succinate + CoA (uses GTP)

Peptide Hormones

Hydrophilic hormones incapable of permeating the cell membrane that bind to surface receptors and act through secondary messengers.

OH -

Hydroxide

Hyperpolarization

Hyperpolarization refers to a state where the potential across the membrane is more negative than the resting potential.

ClO -

HypoChlorite

dihydrogen phosphate

H₂PO₄ ⁻

iodate

IO₃ ⁻

Acid naming

Ic are derivatives of anions ending in ate ous are derivatives of ones ending in ite

Equilibrium and Gibbs free energy

If K is high then energy will be negative which means the products are favored If K is low then energy will be positions which means the reactants are favored

stronger

If Q or q is big, the ionic bond is weaker or stronger?

weaker

If Q or q is small, the ionic bond is weaker or stronger?

weaker

If r is big, the ionic bond is weaker or stronger?

stronger

If r is small, the ionic bond is weaker or stronger?

ionic

If the electronegativity difference between elements X and Y is 2.1, the bond between the elements X-Y is ______.

ionic

If the electronegativity difference is too great, an "_________________" bond occurs instead of a covalent one.

Active Immunity

Immunity resulting from the production of antibodies during a previous infection or a vaccination.

In a covalently bonded molecule, the number of electrons that an atom shares with others is usually equal to the number of electrons ____________. a) in the atom b) in its nucleus c) in all the atoms d) in its ion e) needed to give it noble gas arrangement

anion negative

In an ionic bond, if Q represents a cation, q represents the charge on the _ _ _ _ _, and it is _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Post-transcriptional RNA Processing

In eukaryotes, once an RNA molecule is transcribed, it is spliced (introns are removed and exons are spliced together) and a 5' cap and 3' poly-adenine tail are added. RNA in prokaryotes does not undergo such processing.

Orbital structure of H

In the Bohr model, the hydrogen electron orbits the nucleus

What is the composition of a myelin sheath?

In the CNS, myelin is composed of the membranes of oligodendrocyes. In the PNS, myelin is composed of the membranes of Schwann cells.

up, right

In the periodic table, the effective nuclear charge increases as we go "_________________"

inner

In this Al atom, when considering the electrons in the second shell, what shell are the shielding electrons located in?

Zymogens

Inactive precursors (-ogen)

The only way to increase vmax

Increase number of enzyme

Bohr Effect

Increasing the concentration of H+ and CO2 reduces hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen, allowing for the transfer of oxygen to cells that require it most.

Inducible operator system

Inducer binds to repressor, binds to regulator blocking RNA poly from finding promoter site = positive control

Tumor supressor genes

Inhibit cell cycle

Isocitrate DH is regulated by

Inhibited by ATP, NADH

Citrate synthase is regulated by

Inhibited by ATP, NADH, citrate, succinyl-CoA

α-ketoglutarate DH complex is regulated by

Inhibited by succinyl-CoA, NADH, ATP (slows cycle), stimulated by ADP and Ca2+

Mixed inhibition

Inhibitor can bind to E or E-S, if E - Km goes up, if E-S - Km goes down, if both Vmax is decreased

Zona Pellucida

Inner layer of cells surrounding the oocyte. These cells are secreted by follicle cells. Penetration of the zona pellucida by a sperm forces the secondary oocyte to complete meiosis II.

Cofactors are often organic/inorganic

Inorganic

Glucokinase is induced by

Insulin

Gluconeogenesis is inhibited in the liver by

Insulin

How is PFK-1 activated by insulin

Insulin activates PFK-2, F-2,6-BP activates PFK-1

Pyruvate DH complex is activated by

Insulin in the liver, not responsive in nervous tissue

IDL

Intermediate density; picks up cholesterol from HDL to become LDL

Intermembrane (proton engine)

Which type of neuron serves as a link between motor and sensory neurons?

Interneurons (associate neurons) link sensory and motor neurons.)

Peristalsis

Involuntary contractions of smooth muscle that push food through the digestive tract.

Apolipoproteins

Involved in signalling and transport of FA

Centrioles

Involved in spindle formation during cell replication. They are found only in animal cells.

Ionic bonding is expected in which of these compounds? a) Cl2 b) KF c) OF2 d) HF e) H2

increasing radii

Ionization energy decreases as you go down because of

decreasing radii

Ionization energy increases as you go right because of

Gamma ray

Ionizing. Form of electromagnetic radiation produced from sub-atomic particle interaction (electron-positron annihilation, radioactive decay). Most are generated from nuclear reactions within interstellar medium of space. Highest frequency, shortest wavelength.

yes, sp3

Is blue a hybridized orbital? If it is, what is the hybridization?

Theoretical yield

Is the maximum amount of product that could be formed from given amounts of reactants.

alkali metals